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Indicators of ADHD: Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Hyperactivity_ Fidgets with hands or feet or squirms in seat
_ Leaves seat in classroom or in other situations in which
remaining seated is expected
_ Runs about or climbs excessively in situations in which it is
inappropriate (in adolescents may be limited to subjective
feelings of restlessness)
_ Has difficulty playing or engaging in leisure activities quietly
_ Talks excessively
_ Acts as if"driven by a motor" and cannot remain still
Do any of your students show these signs? They could be indications of ADHD.
Problems with Inattention Problems with Impulse Control
_ Fails to give close attention to details or makes careless - Blurts out answers before questions have been completed
mistakes _ Has difficulty awaiting his/her turn
- Has difficulty sustainingattention in tasks or play activities _ Interrupts or intrudes on others in conversations or games
_ Does not seem to listen when spoken to directly
_ Does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish
schoolwork (not due to oppositional behavior or failure to
understand instructions)
_ Has difficulty organizing tasks or activities
_ Avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to engage in tasks that require
sustained mental effort (such as schoolwork or homework)
_ Loses things necessary for tasks or activities
_ Is easily distracted by extraneous stimuli
_ Is forgetful in daily activities
SOURCE: From Diagnostic and StatisticalManual ofMental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) (pp. 83-84),1994,Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Adapted with permission from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual ofMental Disorders, Fourth Edition. Copyright © 1994 American Psychiatric Association.
than girls are identified as hyperactive. Just a few years ago, most psychologists thought
that ADHD diminished as children entered adolescence, but now there are some re-
searchers who believe that the problems can persist into adulthood (Hallowell&Ratey,
1994). Adolescence-with the increased stresses of puberty, transition to middle or
high school, more demanding academic work, and more engrossing social relation-
ships-can be an especially difficult time for students withAD HD (Taylor, 1998).
Treating and Teaching Students with ADHD
Today there is an increasing reliance on drug therapy for ADHD. In fact, from 1990to 1998, there was a 7000/0 increase in the production of Ritalin in the United States
(Diller, 1998). Ritalin and other prescribed drugs such as Dexedrine and Cylert are
stimulants, but in particular dosages they tend to have paradoxical effects on many
children with ADHD: Short-term effects in-
clude possible improvements in social be-
haviors such as cooperation, attention, and
compliance. Research suggests that about
800/0 of children with ADHD are more man-
ageable when on medication. But for many
there are negative side effects such as in-
creased heart rate and blood pressure, inter-
ference with growth rate, insomnia, weight
loss, and nausea (Friend & Bursuck, 2002;
Panksepp, 1998; Weiss & Hechtman, 1993).
In addition, little is known about the long-
term effects of drug therapy. There also is no
evidence that the drugs lead to improvement
in academic learning or peer relationships,
two areas where children with ADHD have
great problems. Because students appear to
improve dramatically in their behavior, par-
ents and teachers, relieved to see change,may
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Improving Concentration
Te,acher
Date
TO PRAXIS™
I ADHD (I, 82), Anew student's parent calls you to tell
you that a neurologist has diagnosedher child with ADHD. What typical
behaviors can you expect from the
student?What can yo u do to support
that student's development?
Chris
%is certificate is awarded
to Chris in recognition ofhis
recent conquering ofboretfom!
:J{e now is takjng contro[of
the boretfom andis tfiscipBni11tJ
his mind to pay attention
in cfass!
Source: From Treating Huckleberry Finn: A New
Narrative Approach to Workingwith
Kids DiagnosedADD/ADHD, by D. Nylund. Copyright © 2000 by Jossey-
Bass. This material is adapted by permission of John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 4.2 Conquering Boredom: Putting
Students in Charge
assume the problem has been cured. It hasn' t. The students still need
special help in learning.
One approach to helping students with attention deficits is based
on the behavioral principles described in Chapter 6. Long assignments
may overwhelm students with attention deficits, so give them a few
problems or paragraphs at a time with clear consequences for comple-
tion.Another promisingapproach combines instruction in learning and
memory strategies with motivational training. The goal is to help
students develop the «skill and will" to improve their achievement
(Paris, 1988).Theyare also encouraged to be persistent and to see them-
selves as «in control" (Reid & Borkowski, 1987).
The notion of being in control is part of a new therapy strategy for
dealing with ADHD, one that stresses personal agency. David Nylund
(2000) describes this type of therapy that has important implications
for teachers. Rather than treating the problem child, Nylunds' idea is to
enlist the child's strengths to conquer the child's problems-put the
child in control. Newmetaphors for the situation are developed. Rather
than seeing the problems as inside the child,Nylund helps everyone see
ADHD, Trouble, Boredom, and other enemies of learning as outside
the child-demons to be conquered or unruly spirits to be enlisted in
the service ofwhat the childwants to accomplish. The focus is on solu-
tions. The steps of the SMART approach are:
Separating the problem of ADHD from the child
Mapping the influence ofADHD on the child and family
Attending to the exceptions to the ADHD story
Reclaiming special abilities of children diagnosed with ADHD
Telling and celebrating the new story. (Nylund, 2000, p. xix)
As a teacher, you can look for t imes when the student is engaged-even short
times.What is different about these times? Discover the student's strengths and allow
yourself to be amazed by them. Make changes in your teaching that support the
changes the student is trying to make. Nylund gives the following example: Chris (age
9) and his teacher, Ms. Baker, became partners in putting Chris in control of his con-centration in school. Ms. Baker moved Chris's seat to the front of the room. The two
designed a subtle signal to get Chris back on track and Chris organized his messy
desk. These sound like some of the Section 504 accommodations in Table 4.9.When
Chris's concentration improved, Chris received the award shown in Figure 4.2 at a
party in his honor. Chris described how he was learning to listen in class: "You just
have to have a strongmind and tell ADHD and Boredom no t to bother you" (Nylund,
2000, p. 166). Here are suggestions that came from students working with Nylund,
telling how their teachers can help them gain control:
Offer us choices.
Don't just lecture-it's boring!
Realize that I am intelligent.
Let me walk around the classroom.
Don't give tons of homework.
More recess!
Use lots of pictures (visual clues)
to help me learn.
Recognize cultural and racial identity.
Know when to bend the rules.
Notice when I am doing well.
Don't tell the other kids that I am
taking Ritalin.Be patient.
The above methods should be thoroughly tested with the student before drugs are
used. Even if students in your class are on medication, it is critical that they also learn
the academic and social skills theywill need to survive. Again, this will no t happen by
itself, even ifbehavior improves with medication (Friend & Bursuck, 2002).
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USING PRAISE ApPROPRIATELYm ' i ;........---.
Be clear and systematic in giving praise.
Examples
1. Make sure praise is tied directly to appropriate behavior.
2. Make sure the student understands the specific action or
accomplishment that is being praised. Say, "You returned
this poster on time and in good condition:' not, "You werevery responsible."
Recognize genuine accomplishments.
Examples
1. Reward the attainment of specified goals, not just
participation.
2. Do not reward uninvolved students just for being quiet
and not disrupting the class.
3. Tie praise to students' improving competence or to the
value of their accomplishment. Say, "I noticed that you
double-checked all your problems. Your score reflects
your careful work:'
Set standards for praise based on individual abilities
and limitations.
Examples
1. Praise progress or accomplishment in relation to the
individual student's past efforts.
2. Focus the student's attention on his or her own progress, not
on comparisons with others.
Attribute the student's success to effort and ability so
the student will gain confidence that success is possible
again.
Examples
1. Don't imply that the success may be based on luck, extra
help, or easy material.
2. Ask students to describe the problems they encountered
and how they solved them.
Make praise really reinforcing.
Examples
1. Don't attempt to influence the rest of the class by singling
out some students for praise. This tactic frequently backfires,
because students know what's really going on. In addition,
you risk embarrassing the student you have chosen to
praise.2. Don't give undeserved praise to students simply to balance
failures. It is seldom consoling and calls attention to the
student's inability to earn genuine recognition.
will not improve behavior. To be effective, praise must (1) be contingent on the be-
havior to be reinforced, (2) specify clearly the behavior being reinforced, and (3) be
believable (O'Leary & O'Leary, 1977). In other words, the praise should be sincererecognition of a well-defined behavior so students understand what they did to war-
rant the recognition. Teachers who have not received special training often violate
these conditions (Brophy, 1981). Ideas for using praise effectively, based on Brophy's
extensive review of the subject, are presented in the Guidelines above.
Some psychologists have suggested that teachers' use of praise tends to focus stu-
dents on learning to win approval rather than on learning for its own sake. Perhaps
the best advice is to be aware of the potential dangers of the overuse or misuse of
praise and to navigate accordingly.
Selecting Reinforcers: The Premack Principle. In most classrooms, there are
many readily available reinforcers other than teacher attention, such as the chance to
talk to other students or feed the class animals. However, teachers tend to offer these
opportunities in a rather haphazard way. Just as with praise, bymaking privileges and
rewards directly contingent on learning and positive behavior, the teacher may greatly
increase both learning and desired behavior.
A helpful guide for choosing the most effective reinforcers is the Premack prin-
ciple) named for David Premack (1965).According to the Premack principle, a high-
frequency behavior (a preferred activity) can be an effective reinforcer for a
low-frequency behavior (a less-preferred activity). This is sometimes referred to as
"Grandma's rule": First do what I want you to do, then you may do what you want to
do. Elizabeth used this principle in her class when she told them they could work
together on their Civil War news program after they quietly completed the first sec-
tion of the worksheet on their own.
Premack principle Principle stating
that a more-preferred activity can
serve as a reinforcer for a less-preferred
activity.
. . ._--,,-_._-_ _ __ •._---_.•. --_._._.__ ..__ .."_._._._-,_ .._-_ .._-_."_."._._--_ ._--" _._"._-_ _-,,--_.__ _- .. .._----- _. "
Chapter 6 Behaviora l Views of Learning
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Susan lived in what seemed to be a normal upper middle-class home, but her abusive father
caused problems for the entire family. It was difficult for her to devote attention to school
work. Susan thought she was just dumb, but she enjoyed art and dance and had the strong
support of many family members. When her mother divorced and moved the family to
another state, Susan encountered some wonderful teachers who captured her imaginationand capitalized on her talents. Susan went on to earn a Ph.D in early childhood education
and counseling-using her experiences as a resilient child to help others. She describes her
her senior English teacher.
The most exciting thing about my move was starting over academically. Iwas placed in
a superiorEnglish class that year and Iwas also in pretty good classes across the board.
I'll never forget the first time I heard my English teacher,Mr. Borders, teach. I
was sitting in class, and, for the first time in my life, I was able to really listen, pay
attention, and focus on what the teacher was saying. It was an overwhelming experi-
ence and awonderful feeling. I felt like the top ofmy head was off and everything that
had previously clouded my brain and life was being lifted. I could use my brain like it
was supposed to be used. There was a sense of quiet where Iwas free to think and
process information without worrying about what was happening at home or how mymom was doing.
I began getting excited about learning. In fact, I liked learning because Mr. Bor-
ders, my "Superior English" teacher, made it exciting. He also introduced me to project
work. I was able to make aShakespearean character for one of my projects. I loved
doing this project. I remember the great detail I took to make this character look au-
thentic. I also saw myself excelling academically even though I thought Iwasn't sup-
posed to be smart. I was also drawing my cousin's lab pictures for her college biology
class. Of course, artwas one of my gifts and it didn't take brains to do this, I thought,
but, nevertheless, I felt proud. So, I began to surprise my mom as well as myself.
SOURCE: From "Hidden Lives: Examining the Lives of Resilient European American Children:'by S. G.Hendley. In Gloria
Swindler Boutte (Ed.), Resounding Voices: School Experiences ofPeople from Diverse Ethnic Backgrounds. Published by
Allyn&
Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright©
2002 by Pearson Education. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Acronym Technique for remembering
names, phrases, or steps by using the
first letter of each word to form a new,
memorable word.
Chain mnemonics Memory strate-
gies that associate one element in a series
with the next element.
Keyword method System of associ-
ating new words or concepts with simi-
1ar-sounding cue words and images.
Rote memorization Remembering
information by repetition without neces-
sarily understanding the meaning of the
information.
Serial-position effect The tendencyto remember the beginning and the endbut not the middle of a list.
Part learning Breaking a list of rote
learning items into shorter lists.
Distributed practice Practice in
briefperiods with rest intervals.
Massed practice Practice for a single
extended period.
Ifyou need to remember information for long periods of time, an acronym may be
the answer. An acronym is a form of abbreviation-aword formed from the first letter
of each word in a phrase, for example, HOMES to remember the Great Lakes (Huron,
Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior). Another method forms phrases or sentences out of
the first letter of each word or item in a list, for example, Every Good Boy Does Fine to
remember the lines on the G clef-E, G, B, D, F. Because the words must make sense as
a sentence, this approach also has some characteristics of chain mnemonics, methods
that connect the first item to be memorized with the second, the second item with the
third, and so on. In one type of chain method, each item on a list is linked to the next
through some visual association or story. Another chain-method approach is to incor-porate all the items to be memorized into a jingle such as "i before e except after c: '
The mnemonic system that has been most extensively researched in teaching is
the keyword method. Joel Levin and his colleagues use a mnemonic (the 3 Rs) to
teach the keyword mnemonic method:
• recode the to-be-Iearned vocabulary item as a more familiar, concrete keyword-
this is the keyword;
• relate the keyword clue to the vocabulary item's definition through a sentenc.e;
• retrieve the desired definition.
Chapter 7 Cognitive Views of Learning
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This illustration tells a story that providesa frame fo r remembedng: hanging the concept namesirf the
biological subdivision of angiosperms.
To remember that the subdivision angiospermsincludes the class dicotyledons, which in turn
includes the three orders rubales, sapindales,and rosales, study the picture of the angel with
the pet dinosaur that is walking up the Rubik'scubes so that he can lick the sweet sap that
drips down from the rose tree.
Source: From /I Pictorial Illustrations Still Improve Students'
Learning From Text, /I by R. N. Carney and J. R. Levin,
Educational Psychology Review, 74. Copyright © 2002 by
Kluwer Academic Publishers. Reprinted with permission
of the publisher and authors.
• Figure 7.8 Using Mnemonics to Promote
learning Complex Concepts
For example, t o remember that the English word carlin means old
woman, you might recode carlin as the more familiar keyword car. Then
make up a sentence such as The old woman was driving a car. When you are
asked for the meaning of t he word carlin, you think of the keyword car,
which triggers the sentence about the car and the old woman, the meaning.
(Jones, Levin, Levin, & Beitzel, 2000).
The keyword method has been used extensively in foreign language
learning. For example, the Spanishword carta (meaning "letter") sounds like
the Englishword "cart." Cart becomes the keyword:You imagine a shopping
cart filled with letters on its way t o the pos t office, or youmake up a sentence
such as "The cart full of letters tipped over" (Pressley, Levin, & Delaney,
1982). A similar approach has been used to help students connect artists
with particular aspects of their paintings. For example, students are told to
imagine that the heavy dark lines of paintings by Rouault are made with a
ruler (Rouault) dipped in black paint (Carney & Levin, 2000). Figure 7.8 is
an example of using mnemonic pictures as aids in learning complicated sci-
ence concepts (Carney & Levin, 2002). .
One problem, however, is that the keyword method does no t work well
if it is difficult to identify a keyword for a particular item.Many words and ideas that
s tudents need to remember are quite a challenge to associate with keywords (Hall ,
1991; Pressley, 1991). Also, vocabulary learned with keywords may be easily forgot-
ten if students are given keywords and images instead of being asked to supply thewords and images.When the teacher provides the memory links, these associations
may no t fit the students' existing knowledge and may be forgotten or confused later,
so remembering suffers (Wang & Thomas, 1995; Wang, Thomas, & Ouelette, 1992).
Younger students have some difficulty forming their own images. For them, memory
aids that rely on auditory cues-rhymes such as "Thirty days hath September . . ."seem to work better (Willoughby, Porter, Belsito, & Yearsley, 1999).
Many teachers use a mnemonic system to quickly learn their stu-
dents' names. Until we have some knowledge to guide learning, it may
help to use somemnemonic approaches to build vocabulary and facts.
Not all educatorsagree, as is noted inthe PointlCounterpointonpage 264.
Rote Memorization. Very few things need to be learned by rate. The
greatest challenge teachers face is to help students think and under-
stand, no t just memorize. Unfortunately, many students, including
those in the scenario opening this chapter, see rote memorizing and
learning as the same thing (Iran-Nejad, 1990).
However, on rare occasions we have to memorize something word-
for-word, such as lines in a song, poem, or play. Howwouldyou do it? If
you have tried to memorize a list of items that are all similar to one an-
other,you may have found that you tended to remember items at the be-
ginning and at the end of the list bu t forgot those in the middle. This is
called the serial-position effect. Part learning, breaking the list into
smaller segments, can help preventthis effect, becausebreakinga list into
several shorter lists means there will be fewer middle items to forget.
Another strategy formemorizing a long selection or list is the useof distributedpractice.A studentwho studies Hamlet's soliloquy in-
termittently throughout the weekend will probably do much better
than a student who tries to memorize the entire speech on Sunday
night. Studying for an extended period is called massed practice.
Massed practice leads to fatigue and lagging motivation. Distributed
practice gives time for deeper processing and the chance to move in-
formation into long-termmemory (Mumford, Costanza, Baughman,
Threlfall, & Fleishman, 1994).What is forgotten after one session can
be relearned in the next with distributed practice.
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TO THE RESEARCH
Howard Gardner (1993b) definesunderstanding as:
the capacity to take knowledge,
skills, and concepts and apply them
appropriately in new situations. If
someone only parrots back what
he or she has been taught, we do not
know whether the individual under-
stands. If that person applies the
knowledge promiscuously, regardless
of whether it is appropriate, then I
would not say he or she understands
either. . . . But if that person knows
where to apply and where not to
apply, and can do it to new situations,
he or she understands. (p. 2)
TO YOUR TEACHING/PORTFOLIO
According to Piaget, a person cannot
think in abstract terms until the stage
of formal operations is reached. How
then can a child learn abstract conceptssuch as «yesterday" and «happy"?
Can abstract concepts be taught
through the use of prototypes?
Concept Ageneral category of ideas,
objects, people, or experiences whose
members share certain properties.
Defining attributes Distinctive fea-
tures shared by members of a category.
Prototype Best representative of acategory.
Exemplar Aspecific example of agiven
category that is used to classify an item.
Learning and Teaching about Concepts
I I What makes a cup a cup? List the characteristics of cupness. What is a fruit? Is a
banana a fruit? Is a tomato a fruit? How about a squash? Awatermelon? A sweet
• potato? An olive? How did you learn what makes a fruit a fruit?
Most ofwhat we know about cups and fruits and the world involves concepts and re-
lations among concepts (Ashcraft, 2002). But what exactly is a concept? A concept is
a category used to group similar events, ideas, objects, or people.When we talk about
a particular concept such as student, we refer to a category of people who are similarto one another-they all study a subject. The people may be old or young, in school
or not; they may be studying baseball or Bach, bu t they can all be categorized as stu-
dents. Concepts are abstractions. They do not exist in the real world. Only individual
examples of concepts exist. Concepts help us organize vast amounts of information
into manageable units. For instance, there are about 7.5 million distinguishable dif-
ferences in colors. By categorizing these colors into some dozen or so groups, we man-
age to deal with this diversity quite well (Bruner, 1973).
Views of Concept Learning
In earlyresearch, psychologists assumed that concepts share a set of definingattributes,
or distinctive features. For example, books all contain pages that are bound together in
some way (but what about electronic "books"?). The defining attributes theory of con-
cepts suggests that we recognize specific examples by noting key required features.
Since about 1970, however, these views about the nature of concepts have been
challenged (Ashcraft, 2002). Although some concepts, such as equilateral triangle,
have clear-cut defining attributes, most concepts do not. Take the concept of party.
What are the defining attributes?You might have difficulty listing these attributes, but
you probably recognize a party when you see or hear one (unless, of course we are
talking about political parties, or the other party in a lawsuit, where the sound might
not help you recognize the "party"). What about the concept of bird? Your first
thought might be that birds are animals that fly. But is an ostrich a bird?What about
a penguin? A bat?
Prototypes and Exemplars. Current conceptions of concept learning suggest that
we have in ou r minds a prototype of a party and a bird-an image that captures the
essence of each concept. A prototype is the best representative of its category. For
instance, the best representative of the "birds" category for many North Americans
might be a robin (Rosch, 1973). Other members of the category may be very similar
to the prototype (sparrow) or similar in some ways but different in others (chicken,
ostrich). At the boundaries of a category, it may be difficult to determine if a partic-
ular instance really belongs. For example, is a telephone "furniture"? Is an elevator a
"vehicle"? Is an olive a "fruit"?Whether something fits into a category is a matter of
degree. Thus, categories have fuzzy boundaries. Some events, objects, or ideas are
simply better examples of a concept than others (Ashcraft, 2002).
Another explanation of concept learning suggests that we identify members of a
category by referring to exemplars. Exemplars are our actual memories of specific
birds, parties, furniture, and so on that we use t o compare with an item in question
to see if that i tem belongs in the same category as our exemplar. For example, if you
see a strange steel-and-stone bench in a public park, you may compare it to the sofa
in your living room to decide if the uncomfortable-looking creation is still for sitting
or if i t has crossed a fuzzy boundary into "sculpture."
Prototypes probably are built from experiences with many exemplars. This hap-
pens naturally because episodic memories of particular events tend to blm ex
over time, creating an average or typical sofa prototype from all the sofa exemplars
you have experienced (Schwartz & Reisberg, 1991).
Chapter 8 Complex Cognitive Processes
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Concepts and Schemas. In addition to prototypes and exemplars, there is a third
element involved when we recognize a concept-our schematic knowledge related to
the concept. How dowe know that counterfeit money is not «real"money, even though
it perfectly fits our «money"prototype and exemplars?We know because of its history.
It was printed by the «wrong" people. So our understanding of the concept of money
is connected with concepts of crime, forgery, the federal treasury, and many others.
Strategies for Teaching Concepts
Sfl}f! You are interviewing for a job in a school that serves many
immigrant families. The principal asks, .. How would you teach abstract concepts to
a student who just arrived from Somalia and can't even read in her native language,
much less English?"
Both prototypes and defining attributes are important in learning. Children first
learn many concepts in the real world from the best examples or prototypes, pointed
out by adults (Tennyson, 1981). But when examples are ambiguous (is an olive a
fruit?), we may consult the defining attributes to make a decision. Olives are foods
with seeds in the edible parts, which matches the defining attributes for fruits, so they
must be fruits, even though are no t typical or prototypic fruits (Schunk, 2000).
Like the learning of the teaching of concepts can combine both defin-
ing attributes and prototypes.One approach to teaching about concepts is called con-cept attainment-a way of helping students construct an understanding of specific
concepts and practice thinking skills such as hypothesis testing (Joyce, Weil, & Cal-
houn, 2000; Klausmeier, 1992).
An Example Concept-Attainment Lesson. Here is how a 5th-grade
teacher helped his students learn about a familiar concept and practice
thinking skills at the same time (Eggen &Kauchak, 2001, pp. 148-151). The
teacher began a lessonby saying thathe had an idea inmind andwanted stu-
dents to «figure out what it is." He placed two signs on a table-"Examples"
and"Nonexamples:'Then he placed an apple in front of the "Examples" sign
and a rock in front of the "Nonexamples" sign. He asked his students, «What
doyou think the ideamight be?""Thingswe eat"was the first suggestion. The
teacher wrote "HYPOTHESES" on the board and, after a brief discussion of
the meaning of "hypotheses;' listed "things we eat" under this heading. Next
he asked for other hypotheses-"living things" and "things that grow on
plants" came next. After some discussion about plants and living things, the
teacher brought out a tomato for the «Examples" side and a carrot for the
«Nonexamples." Animated reconsideration of all the hypotheses followed
these additions and a new hypothesis-«red things"-was suggested.
Through discussion of more examples (peach, squash, orange) and nonex-
amples (lettuce, artichoke, potato), the students narrowed their hypothesis
to «things with seeds in the parts you eat." The students had «constructed"
the concept of «fruit"-foods with seeds in the edible parts (or, a more ad-
vanced definition, any engorged ovary, such as a pea pod, nut, tomato,
pineapple, or the edible part of the plant developed from a flower).
Lesson Components. Whatever strategy you use for teaching concepts, you will
need four components in any lesson: examples and nonexamples, relevant and irrel-
evant attributes, the name of the concept, and a definition (Joyce, Weil, & Calhoun,
2000). In addition, visual aids such as pictures, diagrams, or maps can improve learn-
ing of many concepts (Anderson & Smith, 1987;Mayer, 2001).
Examples: More examples are needed in teaching complicated concepts and inwork-
ingwith younger or less knowledgeable students. Both examples and nonexamples
(sometimes calledpositive and negative instances) are necessary to make the boundaries
,/
TO PRAXIS™
TEACHING CONCEPTS (II, A2)
Teachers devote much effDrt to the
development of concepts that are vital
in learning subjectmatter and skills.
Understand the major approaches to
teaching concepts and be able to de-
scribe their strengths and limitations.
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ITO YOUR TEACHING/PORTFOLIO
i Visit elementary school classes and
I note the rules posted by different
I.
. teachers at the same grade level.
Identify rules that are common to
I all or most classes, as well as those
I that are unusual.I
Rules Statements specifying expected
and forbidden behaviors; dos and don'ts.
Rules. Rules specify expected and forbidden actions in the class. Theyare the dos and
don'ts of classroom life. Unlike procedures, rules are often written down and posted. In
establishing rules, you should consider what kind of atmosphere you want to create.
What student behaviors will help you teach effectively? What limits do the students
need to guide their behavior? The rules you set should be consistent with school rules,
and also in keeping with principles of learning. For example, we know from the re-
search on small group learning that students benefit when they explain work to peers.
They learn as they teach. A rule that forbids students to help each other may be incon-sistent with good learning principles. Or a rule that says, "No erasures when writing"
maymake students focus more on preventing mistakes than on communicating clearly
in their writing (Burden, 1995; Emmer & Stough, 2001;Weinstein & Mignano, 2003).
Having a few general rules that cover many specifics is better than listing all the
dos and don'ts. But, if specific actions are forbidden, such as leaving the campus or
smoking in the bathrooms, then a rule should make this clear.
Rules for Elementary School. Evertson and her colleagues (2003) give five exam-
ples of general rules for elementary school classes:
1. Be polite and helpful. This applies to behavior toward adults (including substitute
teachers) and children. Examples of polite behavior include waiting your turn,
saying "please" and "thank you," and not fighting or calling names.2. Respect other people's property. This might include picking up litter; returning
library books; not marking on walls, desks, or buses; and getting permission
before using other people's things.
3. Listen quietly while others are speaking. This applies to the teacher and other stu-
dents, in large-class lessons or small-group discussions.
4. Respect and be polite to all people. Give clear explanations of what you mean by
"polite;' including not hitting, fighting, or teasing. All people includes the teacher.
5. Obey all school rules. This reminds students that all school rules apply in your
classroom. Then students cannot claim, for example, that they thought it was
okayto chewgum or listen to a radio in your class, even though these are against
school rules, "because you never made a rule against it for us."Whatever the rule, students need to be taught thebehaviors that the rule includes and
excludes. Examples, practice, and discussion will be neededbefore learning is complete.
As you've seen, different activities often require different rules. This can be con-
fusing for elementary students until they have thoroughly learned all the rules. To
prevent confusion, you might consider making signs that list the rules for each activ-
ity. Then, before the activity, you can post the appropriate sign as a reminder. This
provides clear and consistent cues about participation structures so all students, not
just the "well-behaved," know what is expected. Of course, these rules must be ex-
plained and discussed before the signs can have their full effect.
[4iiiJ Chapter Learning Environments
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Rules for Secondary School. Emmer and colleagues (2003) suggest six examples
of rules for secondary students:
1. Bring all needed materials to class. The teacher must specify the type of pen, pen-
cil, paper, notebook, texts, and so on.
2. Be in your seatand ready to work when the bell rings. Many teachers combine this
rule with a standard beginning procedure for the class, such as a warm-up exer-
cise on the board or a requirement that students have paper with a proper head-
ing ready when the bell rings.
3. Respect and be polite to all people. This covers fighting, verbal abuse, and generaltroublemaking. All people includes the teacher.
4. Respect otherpeople's property. This means property belonging to the school, the
teacher, or other students.
5. Listen and stay seated while someone else is speaking. This applieswhen the teacher
or other students are talking.
6. Obey all school rules.As with the elementary class rules, this coversmany behaviors
and situations, so you do not have to repeat every school rule for your class. It also
reminds the students that you will be monitoring them inside and outside your
class. Make sure you know all the school rules. Some secondary students are very
adept at convincing teachers that their misbehavior «really isn't against the rules."
Consequences. As soon as you decide on your rules and procedures, you mustconsider what you will do when a student breaks a rule or does not follow a proce-
dure. It is too late to make this decis ion after the rule has been broken. Formany in-
fractions, the logical consequence is having to go back and «do it right." Studentswho
run in the hall may have to return to where they started and walk properly. Incom-
plete papers can be redone. Materials left ou t should be put back (Charles, 2002b).
Sometimes consequences are more complicated. In their case studies of four expert
elementary school teachers, Weinstein and Mignano (2003) found that the teachers'
negative consequences fell into seven categories, as shown in Table 11.1. The main
Seven Categories of Penalties for Students
1. Expressions ofdisappointment. If students like and respect their
teacher, then a serious, sorrowful expression ofdisappointment
may cause students to stop and think about their behavior.
2. Loss ofprivileges. Students can lose free time. If they have not
completed homework, for example, they can be required to do
it during a free period or recess.
3. Exclusion from the group. Students who distract their peers or
fail to cooperate can be separated from the group until they are
ready to cooperate. Some teachers give a student a pass for 10
to 15 minutes. The student must go to another class or study
hall, where the other students and teachers ignore the offending
student for that time.
4. Written reflections on the problem. Students can write in
journals,write essays aboutwhat they did and how it affected
others, or write letters of apology-if this is appropriate.
Another possibility is to ask students to describe objectively
what they did; then the teacher and the student can sign and
date this statement.These records are available ifparents or
administrators need evidence of the students' behavior.
5. Detentions. Detentions can be very briefmeetings after school,
during a free period, or at lunch. The main purpose is to talk
about what has happened. (In high school, detentions are often
used as punishments; suspensions and expulsions are available
as more extrememeasures.)
6. Visits to the principal's office. Expert teachers tend to use this
penalty rarely, but they do use it when the situationwarrants.
Some schools require students to be sent to the office for certain
offenses, such as fighting. Ifyou tell a student to go to the office
and the student refuses, you might call the office saying the
student has been sent. Then the student has the choice ofeither
going to the office or facing the principal's penalty for "disap-
pearing" on the way.
7. Contact with parents. If problems become a repeated pattern,most teachers contact the student's family. This is done to seek
support for helping the student, not to blame the parents orpunish the student.
SOURCE: From Elementary Classroom Management (3rd ed.), by C. S.Weinstein andA. J. Mignano, Jr., New York: McGraw-Hill. Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill
Companies. Adapted with permission.
www.ablongman.com/woolfolk Creating a Positive Learning Environment