Hilgard and Bower’s Definition of Learning

• Relatively permanent change in a subject’s behavior to a given situation brought about by his/her repeated experiences in that situation, provided that the behavior change cannot be explained on the basis of native response tendencies, maturation, or temporary states of the subject (fatigue, drugs, etc.)

Learning

Process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

• Adapt• Expect• Repeat• Avoid• Observation• Language

We learn by association – we connect events

Habituation vs. Sensory Adaptation

• Habituation – involves diminished response. • Sensory Adaptation – Sensory systems stops registering the

presence of an unchanging stimulus

• Habituation is a learning process

Associative LearningLinking 2 events that occur close together.This process is called CONDITIONIONG

CONDITIONINGI. Classical conditioning – we learn to associate 2 stimuli and thus to

anticipate eventsII. Operant conditioning- learn to associate a response and its

consequences.Repeat if followed by good resultsAvoid if act followed by bad results

COGNITIVE LEARNINGIII. Observational learning

Classical Conditioning

Ivan PavlovJohn B Watson – Little AlbertBehaviorism

Conditioning Process US = UR

NS + US = UR CS = CR

5 Conditioning Processes

1. Acquisition2. Extinction3. Spontaneous Recovery4. Generalization5. Discrimination

• Conditioning helps animals survive and reproduce by responding to cues that help it gain food, avoid danger, locate mates, produce offspring.

• Higher order conditioning (second order conditioning)

• We are talking about generalization and extinction here (CC) but they show up in other learning too.

#1

1. Carter’s goldfish has been classically conditioned to swim to the top of the fish tank every time the light is turned on. This happened because Carter always turns on the light n the room just before feeding the fish. Identify what each of the following would be in this example. Making sure you explain why you know your identification is correct

2. Conditioned Response (CR)3. Conditioned stimulus (CS)4. Unconditioned stimulus (US

#2• A researcher paired the sound of a whistle with an air puff to

the eye to classically condition Ashley to blink when the whistle alone was sounded. Explain how the research could demonstrate the following:

• Generalization• Extinction• Spontaneous Recovery

Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning came first but operant conditioning has a large impact on our day to day lives

Classical Conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US). It also involves respondent behavior or actions that are automatic responses to stimuli.

In Operant Conditioning – organisms associate their own actions with consequences.Actions followed by Reinforcers increase ( ) behaviorsActions followed by punishers decrease ( ) behaviors

People to know

Behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli is called Operant Behavior

Big Names:Edward Thorndike-Law of EffectRewarded behavior is likely to recur.Puzzle box

BF Skinner-Operant Chamber “Skinner Box”

Reinforcement and Behavior

Reinforcement – any event that strengthens a preceding responseReinforcer depends on organism and environment.Animals: food/water ( but they have to be thirstyHumans: May be praise, attention, paycheck.

Shaping Behavior – reinforces gradually guide behavior toward closer and closer approximation of the desired behavior.Animal Training

Types of Reinforcers

Positive (+) Reinforcers (+R) – Strengthens a response by adding a desirable stimulus.

Negative (-) Reinforcers (-R) – Strengthens an response by removing an aversive stimulus

Operant Conditioning Term

Description Example

Positive Reinforcement (+R)

Add a desirable stimulus

Pet a dog that comes when you callPay the person who paints your house

Negative Reinforcement (-R)

Remove an aversive stimulus

Take painkillers to end painFasten seat belt to end loud beeping

Practice

1. Pet a dog that comes when you callBehavior (B) Consequence (C)Come when call Pet

2. Pay the person who paints your houseB CPaint Pay

3. Take painkillers to end painB CTake Painkiller End Pain

4. Fasten seat belt to end loud beepingB CFasten seatbelt End beeping

Important Note!

Negative Reinforcement is NOT punishment

Negative Reinforcement removes a punishing or aversive effect

It provides “relief”

Reinforcers

Primary Reinforcer – One that satisfies a biological need.Food, Water, Sex, Pleasure Etc.

Secondary Reinforcer – One associated with primary reinforcerMoney, good grades, pleasant tone

Delayed GratificationAnimals: if delay of reinforcer lasts longer than 30 seconds after behavior, will not work as reinforcer.Humans: Can respond to delayed gratification

Delayed Gratification is the key!Delayed Gratification = Social competent and high achieving adults

Reinforcement Schedules

I. Continuous ReinforcementLearning is rapid and extinction occurs rapidly

II. Partial Reinforcement (intermittent)Learning is slower and resistance to extinction is greater.

A. Fixed ratio: Reinforce behavior after a set # of responsesFree drink every 10 drinks

B. Variable ratio: Reinforce behavior after an unknown # of response. Slot machines C. Fixed Interval: First response is rewarded after fixed time period. Paid every 2 weeks D. Variable Interval : First response is rewarded after unknown time period. Pop Quiz

Reinforcement Schedules

Punishment

A punisher is any consequence that decreases the frequency of the preceding behavior.

The key to punishment is swift and sure. Research has shown the the severity of the punishment has less impact than the consistency and the immediacy of the punishment in decreasing behaviors

Type Description Examples

Positive Punishment

Administer an aversive stimulus

Spray water on a barking dog. Give a traffic ticket for speeding.

Negative Punishment

Withdraw a rewarding stimulus

Take away a teen’s driving privileges for coming home late. Revoke a library card for non-payment of fines

Drawbacks to Punishment

1. Suppressed not forgotten2. Teaches discrimination among situations3. Can teach fear (generalization)4. Physical punishment increases aggression through modeling

Punishment tells you what not to doReinforcers tell you what to do

Skinner’s Legacy

BF Skinner – Behaviorists• “External (not thoughts or feelings)

shape our behaviors.

Critics• Dehumanize• Neglect personal freedom• Seeking to control people thru

operant actions.

Practice

Mom is frustrated because 3-year old Maya has started to spit frequently. She has decided to temporarily put away one of Maya’s toys every time she spits. Mom is going to continue this until Maya has stopped spitting.

A. Explain whether Mom's plan uses reinforcement or punishment

B. Explain whether Mom’s plan is a positive or negative force of reinforcement or punishment.

Explain means to TELL ME WHY.

Operant ApplicationsSchoolSkinner: “Right or Wrong” immediatelyIf right…need to take the next step and buildElectronic quizzing, apps, etc.

SportsReinforcing small successes and gradually increasing the challengeEx: Golf, BaseballAccidental timing of rewards can produce superstitious behaviors

WorkReward specific achievable behaviors, not vaguely defined “merit”. Rewards should be immediateIBM

HomeNotice people doing something right and affirm them for it.

Self ImprovementMeasurable goal, Monitor behavior, Reinforce desired behavior, Reduce rewards gradually

Bio-feedbackWatching own physiological changes. Works best on tension headaches.

Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

Classical vs. Operant

• Respondent Behavior

• Respond Automatically

• Associate different stimuli we do not control

Associate our own behaviors that act on environment with reinforcing or punishing stimuli. The stimuli is the consequence.

Associative learningAcquisitionExtinctionSpontaneous recoveryGeneralizationDiscrimination

Biology, Conditioning and LearningLimits on classical conditioning• An animals capacity for conditioning is constrained by its

biology. An animal’s predispositions prepare it to learn the associations that enhance its survival (Garcia 1966) 3:03

• Humans too, seem biologically prepared to learn some associations rather than others. Violently ill after seafood:

• We seem to have an aversion to taste, not the sight or smell• Birds, which hunt by sight develop aversion to the sight

• Learning occurs rapidly because our biology prepares us to learn aversions to toxic foods.

Biology and survivalFood Aversion and Animals• Coyotes and sheep farmers (win/win?)

• Evolution (Darwin); Our ancestors who readily learned taste aversions were unlikely to eat the same toxic food again, thus survive, thus leave descendants.

• Organisms learn behavior favored by natural selection• Red and sexuality

• Female primate display red near ovulation• Human females, enhanced blood flow produces the red bulsh of flirtation• Valentine’s hearts?• Red light districts?• Red lipstick?• Red clothing seems to make both men and women more attractive to the

opposite sex

Limits on Operant Conditioning• Biological constraints predispose

organisms to learn association that are naturally adaptive

• Training that attempts to override biological constranits will probably not endure because animals will revert to predisposed patterns.

• Pigions: Flap wings to ovoid being shocked and peck to obtain foods more difficualt to peck to avoid being shocked or flap wings to obtain food.

Cognition’s Influence on Conditioning

• Pavlov and Skinner underestimated the importance of thoughts, perceptions, expectations.

• Cartoon characters next to ice cream or Brussels sprouts?

• Ice cream!

• Antiabuse to stop drinking• Antiabuse is the problem

Learning• Edward Tolman 1930 discovered latent learning• Latent learning: Learning that occurs but is not apparent until

there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

• Cognitive map: A mental representation of the layout of ones environment (2:07)

• Insight Learning: A sudden realization of a problem’s solution (1:10)

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic• Intrinsic motivation: A desire to perform a behavior effectively

for its own sake. External rewards can lead to the decrease of desired behavior. The thought is “ If I have to be bribed into doing this, it must not be worth doing for it’s own sake”.

• The overuse of bribes, leading to external control rather than internal appeal = overjustification

• Extrinsic Motivation: A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised reward or avoid threatened punishment

Learning and Personal ControlCoping: alleviating stress using emotion cognition or behavioral methods

• Problem focused coping: Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with the stressor

• Sense of control over situation

• Emotion focused coping: Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attend to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction

• Can be distracting (good) also maladaptive

• Activity

Learned Helplessness• The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human

learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

Observational Learning• Cognition is certainly a factor in Observational Learning• Observational Learning: Higher animals, esp humans learn

without direct experience, by watching a imitating others• Observing and imitating others is called modeling.

• Albert Bandura• Mirror Neurons

Applications of Observational Learning• Prosocial Effects (positive, Helpful)• Positive constructive helpful behavior.

• Antisocial Effect: ( negative, Destructive)• Aggression and violence

• If a model’s actions and words are inconsistent, children may imitate the hypocrisy they observe.

Practice #1

• Explain how Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment illustrates each of the following•Modeling•Mirror Neurons

Practice #2

• A young boy is left at home with his older brother while their parents drop off the family car for repairs. While the parents are out, the older brother prepares lunch for the young boy. The the older brother takes the younger brother outside where he entertains him by building several fires with small twigs. Explain how the older brother’s conduct is • Prosocial modeling• Antisocial modeling