Henry VII by an unknown artist

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Born: 28 January 1457Pembroke Castle, Wales

Accession: 22 August 1485Battle of Bosworth Field

Coronation: 30 October 1485Westminster Abbey

Died: 21 April 1509Richmond Palace

Buried: 11 May 1509Westminster Abbey

Henry Tudor, son of Edmund, Earl of Richmond, and the 13 year old Margaret Beaufort, was not born to be King of England. The baby boy that was born in Pembroke castle on the 28th January 1457 was born into a dangerous world, especially for a Lancastrian. In fact, Yorkists kidnapped him as a young boy when they took Pembroke castle, and he spent some time in the custody of the Duke Of York, who had claimed the throne just before Henry's birth.

In 1471, at the age of 14, he left Britain to live in exile in Brittany. While there, under the guardianship of his uncle Jasper, his preparation for kingship began. (He was one of the few remaining Lancastrian claimants in the 1470s.) Then in 1485, with the backing of the King of France, and still only 27, he began his bid for the English throne. He landed on the Welsh shore and marched through Wales to the midlands, gathering support as he went. He met Richard III and his forces just outside the small market town of Market Bosworth, where, for the last time in English history, an English king (Richard III) was defeated and killed in battle. Henry claimed the crown for himself (once it had been retrieved from a nearby bush - allegedly).

Henry has had a reputation as a boring monarch. He wasn't touched by scandal once, in contrast with his son of the same name. He only married once! He didn't seek glory in warfare, he didn't try to overhaul the way the major institutions of the country were run, he lived beyond his teenage years, he didn't burn hundreds of his citizens, and he didn't have an Armada. His historical reputation has been dwarfed by the exploits of his son and grandchildren. He's the lesser known and yet perhaps the greatest of all the Tudor family

Historians generally agree about events before the Battle of Bosworth (22nd August 1485). The consternation arises over the ensuing events.

Historians disagree over whether Henry made drastic, moderate, little, even no, changes to the way in which the country was governed. One thing is for sure, and most historians are agreed on this, whatever he did it seemed to bring stability to the realm. England had been tormented by war and political faction in the 30 years prior to Bosworth, in a kind of long and drawn out civil war centred on the fates of two families - York and Lancaster. Henry's reign saw threats dealt with promptly and effectively, and long periods of peaceful relations with other countries. Henry's marriage to Elizabeth of York united the two warring families. The red rose of Lancashire was entwined with the white rose of Yorkshire to produce the Tudor rose. (Still on the rose theme, their first son, Arthur, was nicknamed 'The Rosebush of England'.)

The real historical issues concern Henry's dealings with the nobility, and his domestic policies. Whereas some historians stress change here others maintain that there was nothing new in Henry's policies. He was harsh with the aristocracy, and yet unwisely lenient with some who rebelled; he sought ways to increase the crown's coffers, and yet spent lavishly at court, leaving debts when he died; he sought a policy of peace but had a reputation as a warrior, leading his armies into battle himself; he tried to promote trade abroad but always made it obvious that commerce came second to dynastic priorities; he

What problems did Henry VII face?Imagine. You are 27, you have been brought up in Wales and Brittany, you have spent weeks not years in England; you have no experience of government, and you have only ever had a small household of your own. You have hardly any money. But you have won a decisive victory, the old King is dead, and now it's all up to you. It's worth thinking about what your priorities would be if you had been Henry in August 1485

- The nobility?

- Money?

- Stability?

- Securing London?

- The following were Henry's priorities: Securing the throne, controlling nobility and parliament.

How secure was Henry’s claim to the throne?

Claim by Genealogy

We need to get one thing very clear before we go on, and that is that the names of Lancaster and York for the titles of these two families have little bearing on the counties of the same names. In fact, they didn't live in these areas at all. Many Lancastrians came from the Midlands and Cheshire, and when all is said and done Henry VII was a Welshman. His father was the son of Owen Tudor a member of the local gentry, and his mother was a descendant of the illegitimate son of John of Gaunt.

Henry's claim to the throne was two-fold. He had a claim on his mother's side, down the Beaufort line of the House of Lancaster, and on his father's side, because his

grandfather had married the widow of Henry V. It was the double birthright that made Henry's claim strong in the absence of any other Lancastrian contenders.

As if you are not boggled enough already, the history of this claim is even more complex as the throne had been usurped by a member of the House of Lancaster, Bolingbroke (who became Henry IV) from Richard II, the last of the Plantagenet kings. By rights Edmund of York, and not Bolingbroke should have been King in 1399.

This illustration may make things clearer:

After the Prince of Wales was killed at Tewkesbury in 1471 Henry was the only Lancastrian champion of the red rose cause. It was soon after this that he went to live with his Uncle Jasper in Brittany.

Claim by Battle

Richard III was King of England when Henry invaded in August 1485.Richard III proclaimed himself King when Edward IV died in mysterious circumstances and the young 'princes in the tower', Edward and Richard, had disappeared. Needless, to say, Richard III was heavily implicated in both the death of his brother and the disappearances of his two nephews.

Disillusioned with Richard's rule, Henry had found himself being courted by Yorkist supporters, many making the journey to Brittany to see him personally. With their support guaranteed by a promise to marry the Yorkist heiress, Elizabeth, should he win the battle, and with the blessing of the King of France behind him, Henry set sail for the Welsh coast. Why Wales? He knew that this was where he could most easily muster support.

Henry landed at Milford Haven on the 7th August. With him were a significant number of French mercenaries, English exiles and Scots. The army made its way to Aberystwyth, and then on to Welshpool. By the 22nd August they reached Ambien Hill, in the small town of Market Bosworth. Richard had anticipated an invasion, and was not too far away with his troops in Nottingham.

The battle did not go well for Henry at first. But John de Vere, the Earl of Oxford, led a fierce attack against Richard, which placed the King's forces in an impossible position. Realising that his forces were in deadlock Richard decided to launch a final assault.

Possibly in an effort to save himself, Sir Stanley, at this very point, decided to switch sides. His men turned on the King himself. He was knocked to the ground and killed, his crown toppling from his head and rolling into a bush. Sir Stanley retrieved the crown and placed it upon Henry's head. Richard's body was disposed of in Leicester; there was no grand funeral.

The victory was considered ordained by God - he was the Lord's chosen ruler in the eyes of his allies on the field in Leicestershire. He was King by birthright and King by God's will.

Those that had supported him in the field at Bosworth, or while in exile in France, were rewarded with positions in government or in the localities. His uncle Jasper

became the Duke of Bedford. He did not give gifts - a trait that continued throughout his reign.

Reorganisation of Government and use of Parliament

You may think that one of the first things that this Lancastrian King would do is get rid of all of the Yorkists in government, and replace them with loyal Lancastrian supporters. But Henry did not do this. The Historian, Lotherington maintains that Henry's main concern was to neutralise opponents, in other words, not to alienate them. Consequently, men like the Thoma s Howard stayed in government.

Nevertheless, the new council did see a number of new faces, like John de Vere and Richard Fox. The first council was appointed in September.

Henry used parliament a lot at the beginning of his reign and very seldomly at the end of it. He needed parliament to do two things for him in 1485. He needed them to swear an oath of allegiance to him, and he needed to raise taxes. (Taxes could not be raised without parliament's consent.)

Problem: Legitimacy to Rule and attempts to overthrow

Henry knew that he had to act decisively. He knew this before the battle had even started. He made the extraordinary move of having himself proclaimed King of England the day before the Battle of Bosworth. (So for one day there were two Kings of England!) Why would he do such a thing? Because it gave him the opportunity to treat all those who fought against him to be treated as traitors. This meant that they would either flee the country, be executed, be imprisoned, or be fined a considerable amount of money and placed under a kind of Royal bondage.

Union of the Roses

Keeping true to the promise that he made in Rennes cathedral to the Yorkist supporters in the winter of 1483, Henry set about marrying Elizabeth of York. She was in fact the elder sister of the two princes that had disappeared while under the guardianship of Richard III. It was Elizabeth's mother, Elizabeth Woodville, who had really pressed for the match.

But the marriage had to be delayed. As far as the church was concerned, Henry and Elizabeth were too closely related to marry

without dispensation (special permission) from the Pope. (Elizabeth's grandmother was a Beaufort.) The Pope granted this dispensation on the grounds that the two were marrying in order to put an end to the conflicts between the two houses. They were married on the 16th January 1486.

Image and propaganda

O now let Richmond and Elizabeth, The true succeeders of each royall house, By Gods faire ordinance conioine together, And let their heires (God if thy will be so) Enrich the time to come with smooth-faste peace, Let them not liue to tast this lands increase, That would with treason wound this faire lands peace, Now ciuill wounds are stopt, peace liues againe, That she may long liue heare, God saie Amen.

(William Shakespeare, Richard III, London: Andrew Wise, 1597)

The Yorkist threat: the de la Poles

There was a branch of the Yorkist family tree that survived Bosworth and the events that followed. The sons of Elizabeth of York, that is the new Queen's great aunt, survived.

One, John, supported the pretender Lambert Simnel, but came to a sticky end in the Battle of Stoke, 1487. Another, Edmund, challengingly known as 'The White Rose', fled to the Low countries where he was welcomed by the Burgundy court. He was handed over to Henry in the early 1500s as part of an Anglo-Burgundy peace treaty, and promptly banged up in the Tower of London, later to be executed by

Henry VIII. Richard, the youngest of the sons, stayed abroad, but was killed at Pavia in 1525.

These three brothers must have been a real worry for the King, especially as they had support from the influential Burgundy court. They must have been like loose cannons to Henry's security.

Lambert Simnel

We now move on to the two pretenders. Both of the attempts by Lambert Simnel and the Perkin Warbeck seem like fanciful tales, rather than historical truth. You couldn't make up more bizarre stories about attempts to usurp the King. But we must be careful not to be too flippant about these two uprisings, as they must have alarmed Henry considerably.

Lambert Simnel was a dead ringer for the Earl of Warwick, and so he claimed to be this grandson of Edward IV. He secured the support of Margaret of Burgundy (always a supporter of Yorkist claimants) and John de la Pole. He made his way with 2000 mercenaries to Ireland, where he was crowned King of England, and then to England. He landed on the Lancashire coast, where the families that had supported Richard III and had suffered hardship under Henry met him. To Henry, the threat was very real, he had no way of assessing the amount of support Simnel had mustered on his route south. These forces met the King's army at Stoke on 24th May 1487, where they suffered a complete defeat. But it wasn't until 1497 that Simnel was handed over to Henry. 

There was a rather large flaw in the plans of Lambert Simnel. The real Earl of Warwick had been in Henry's custody since he became King. There was no way that he could have been Edward Warwick. He was in fact the son of a joiner from Oxford! Henry considered him harmless and, instead of being executed, he was allowed to live out his life in the royal kitchens.

Perkin Warbeck

Like Lambert Simnel, Perkin Warbeck claimed to be an heir to the throne of England. He was a Flemish man, and like Simnel had the backing of a foreign country. This time it was France. The French King, Charles VIII was eager to distract Henry away from his designs on Brittany. In addition, Warbeck also secured Scottish aid. James IV welcomed Warbeck in 1495, marrying him to a rich Scottish aristocrat.

However, in 1497, Henry renewed a truce with Scotland and James was forced to abandon his Flemish pretender. Warbeck fled to the south of England, and was arrested while trying to escape from the port of Southampton.

Initially, Henry showed clemency. But he abused this clemency and was executed in November 1499.

This saw the last of the pretenders, and from this point onwards Henry ruled in relative security.

The Cornish Rebellion

John Guy says that this was Henry's major threat, and so it was. This time the threat was not of a dynastic nature, it was a tax riot that turned into full-scale rebellion.

The tax riot began in Cornwall in 1497. The Cornishmen felt that it was unfair that they should be taxed to fund a campaign in Scotland, and that by tradition the northern counties should bear the brunt of this taxation.

The riot quickly grew into a rebellion as 15 000 rebels marched to Exeter, Salisbury, Winchester, and then on to Kent.

The threat to the capital was so severe that London was called to arms. On the 17th June, the rebels faced the King's forces at Blackheath - only a few miles away from London, and dangerously close to the royal arsenal at Greenwich. Thousands were slain and the three ringleaders, Michael Joseph, James Touchet and Lord Audley were captured, taken to the tower, tried and executed. Their heads were raised on poles on London Bridge as a warning to others who considered insurrection as a form of protest.

1.

Analysis

If you are asked a question on the threats to Henry's reign you should consider threats from abroad, and these 4 other threats.

The Cornish rebellion must have been thoroughly alarming for the citizens of London, but we need to remind ourselves of what the motives of these rebels were. They were driven by a sense of unfairness and by economic concerns. They did not intend to usurp the crown, and they did not have the backing of another European monarch. What do you suppose these Cornishmen would have done if they had reached Henry VII, and been able to make demands on him? Henry may have lost face, and been forced to retract the tax, had the rebels had succeeded, but I doubt that it would have led to him losing his crown.

The other threats were direct threats to the throne of England. In the cases of Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck, they were actual challenges to the throne. In hindsight these attempts seem laughable - that a joiner's son should be crowned King by the Irish Lords, and that a Flemish man should be accepted as the rightful heir to England at the Scottish court. The reason why Henry took these attempts so seriously at the time, and by historians, is due to the level of encouragement and actual support these pretenders got from foreign princes. In fact it is widely accepted that these two were pawns for European powers.

But, the largest potential threat to Henry's security came from the de la Poles in exile. They did not only threaten Henry VII's stability, but Henry VIII's also. Even at Henry VII's death in 1509 there was a Yorkist champion alive and able at any time to act as a figurehead for a Yorkist uprising.

Threats Government

Dealing with the nobility

Context

We have seen how Henry dealt with threats from pretenders and from abroad. Another threat that he had to contend with was the power of the English nobility. Prior to 1485, England had been tormented by 30 years of disputes involving the nobility (the Wars of the Roses). These wars were not so much about the dynastic destination of the crown of England so much as about faction between two opposing camps of noble families.

Some recent historians stress the point that the chroniclers of the Wars of the Roses writing in the late fifteenth century and the sixteenth century had a political agenda, and the first few accounts of the Wars of the Roses are little more than Tudor propaganda.

Acts of Attainder, Bonds and Recognizance's

Here's what some historians have to say about the policies that Henry used to contain the nobility:

John Guy says that his policy was "politically necessary" but "morally dubious".

David Loades maintains he introduced nothing new: " He rebuilt the foundations of the royal authority, using, as it were, the same bricks as his predecessors, but in a different order."

J R Lander insists that Henry had to be ruthless, otherwise, "how else could Henry VII have controlled such a mob of aloof, self-interested magnates?"

What Henry did was to put most of the nobility on a kind of probation. To do this he used Acts of Attainder, Bonds and Recognizance's.

Acts of Attainder - These were Acts passed by parliament. They stated that a family's land was taken from them for good because of disobedience towards the crown. It usually involved the execution of a member of the family also. Obviously, this would cripple a family for good. It had the positive financial effect for the crown in that it increased the crown's lands and the crown's yearly revenue.

In all 138 of these were passed, although 46 were eventually wholly or partially repealed.

Bonds - This was a written obligation. The aristocrat agreed to pay a penalty if certain conditions set by the King were not met.

Recognizances - This usually involved a previous debt or misconduct towards the King. Like with the bond, the aristocrat would sign an obligation promising to behave him-self in future. There would be a very considerable fine for breaking the terms of the recognizance.

In all, two thirds of the aristocracy were placed under the supervision of the crown one way or another from 1485 - 1509. Most of these took place when Henry ruled virtually on his own, from 1500.

Many of these cases were probably exaggerated or completely fabricated. Henry's priority was to have the nobility answerable to him and completely under his direct control. Dudley and Epsom, his chief tax collectors, confessed before their execution by Henry VIII, that the King wished "to have many persons in his danger at his pleasure".

Notable nobles who fell under this sort of direct supervision included:

Lord Stanley, who had abused his position in the North of England, Lord Dacre and Lord Clifford (Lord Stanley was eventually executed for treason.) The King would often preside over the hearings in person. On some occasions he would cross-examine the accused himself.

Yorkist Supporters

As you already know, many of those who had served under Richard III continued to have a place in government under Henry. But not all of the Yorkist supporters were so lucky.

Henry tried those who had fought for Richard on grounds of treason. Now this would not have been legally possible (the King could not act arbitrarily, he had to work under the laws of the land) had Henry not taken the bizarre, and yet politically expedient, step of having himself declared King the day before the Battle of Bosworth.

New Blood in Government

We have seen in the third Learn It how Henry sought to keep some Yorkists in government, along with his own supporters. Henry also adopted the policy of promoting men of ability, rather than of noble birth. He needed men who could administrate effectively. After all, sound administration is one of the hallmarks of his reign.

The structure of government

The structure of government in the fifteenth century was very different to what we are used to today. Parliament was used infrequently often for writs, issued by the King to suit himself (usually when he needed money!).

Although it was the King who would call parliaments and establish councils, this did not mean that he had absolute, arbitrary rule. It was accepted that the King was subject to the laws of the land, and for that reason, those who were ruled by Henry VII, and the other Tudors for that matter, considered constitutional law supreme. This idea went right back to the Magna Carta of 1216.

The Royal Household

This was the centre of government. It is sometimes referred to as the King's court - it's the same thing. Henry appreciated the need to make his own household a majestic and glittering court. Where he was frugal with money in other areas of government, he spent enormous amounts of money on his court.

Every noble would have had a household for the administration of their property and the localities over which they presided. This was the highest household in the land, and many nobles would have spent much of their time at court, rather than in their own households, especially if they had a central role in the running of the country. It was mobile, following the King wherever he went, but for most of the time the court was in one of the palaces in London.

As the King owned much of the land in the Kingdom, he had to administer the collection of rents and other dues. The household had another role in that it was

where the informal business of government took place. Many issues would have been discussed along the corridors of the palace, and these informal chats could have a significant impact on legislation and cases brought before the numerous courts. This aspect of the Royal household also made it a melting pot for political intrigue and faction.

The Councils and Great Councils

A council was a group of individuals (councillors) who met on a regular basis to provide advice to the King, to be the centre of national administration, and to be a judicial court. It supervised the economic and religious life of the country also. (To a limited extent Henry already had a council when he became King as he had a number of advisors who had been resident at his court in Brittany, and who helped him win the backing of the French King for his invasion of England.) For most of the time the court was involved with day-to-day mundane tasks, only occasionally was it the centre of high politics.

Historians writing earlier in the Twentieth century held the view that Henry's councils constituted a new way of governing the country, however, nowadays, most historians are agreed that there are not many differences between the councils of Edward IV and Henry VII. Nevertheless, one of the differences was that Henry created offshoots form the main council to deal with specific areas of administration, thereby increasing effectiveness. An example of one of these was the 'Council Learned in Law' established in 1495.

Henry's councils were large (here we see continuity with councils of the past). He had over 240 councillors. Not all of these would meet at one time. Attendance records show that around 24 would meet at any one sitting.

The Great Councils were used later on in Henry's reign. These were more carefully selected men, and they would discuss issues at the heart of policy-making, like how much taxation to levy, foreign affairs and military campaign tactics. The notion of a Great Council, while not Henry's own idea, was a medieval institution that had fallen out of use by fifteenth century monarchs. Towards the end of his reign he ruled with the Council Learned only. John Guy maintains that this was 'personal monarchy at its height'.

The Court of Star Chamber

So called because the room that this group met in had stars on the ceiling. The role of this group was to preside over the hearings of poor men's legal suits, known as 'requests'. The role of the Court of Star

Chamber was increased in Henry's reign to include two tribunals, one of 1487, and the other of 1495. The 1487 court dealt with laws against rioters and the likes. The court of 1495 was set up to deal with offences of perjury. Neither of these tribunals survived Henry's death.

Parliament

Parliament had the crucial role of being a point of contact between the Royal household and the localities.

Local representatives would sit in parliament to petition the king with grievances. Parliament would also levy taxation. The members were in an ideal position to know

how much money their constituency was able to raise. The role of parliament was to pass laws that would go into the Statute Book.

However, it was not a permanent institution. Remember that it met only when the King summoned it. Typically, they were used by all of the Tudor monarchs when the King or Queen was short of money. This gave to parliament what historians call 'the power of the purse'. In all, the parliaments of Henry VII met 7 times, and for a total of 24 weeks out of a reign of 24 years. It was an institutionused far more at the beginning of his reign than later on. This was not crucial to Henry since he was careful with money, and he did not pursue an aggressive foreign policy.

What historians say about Henry's use of parliament:

S.B. Chrimes: "Little or nothing of much significance occurred in the history of parliament in the reign of Henry VII...The precedents already set over the previous century or so were followed."

R.L. Storey: "The history of parliament in Edward IV's reign is very similar to what it was in Henry's."

J. Loach: "The parliaments of Henry VII's reign, and indeed, those of Henry VIII before 1529, were very like those of the Yorkists...Henry VII's parliaments were much more concerned with the needs of the monarch and his greater subjects than they were with the good of the country as a whole."

M.A.R. Graves: "Chrimes might dismiss the legislative record of Henry VII's parliaments because few of the 192 Acts were of major importance to the crown. Yet their intrinsic significance should not be denied. Over twenty Acts restored attainted persons. The lawyers' hands were writ large in legal reforms concerning murder, abduction, bail, fraud and counterfeit"

Finance

There were a number of ways that Henry was able to raise money:

The most significant source of revenue was the crown's lands.

Taxation: Henry did not tax harshly in times of peace. He probably realised that this would have been a bad move in times of such political instability.

Not only was Henry concerned with the raising of funds, he also concentrated on saving it rather than spending it (with the exception of spending lavishly on his household). He made very few gifts to his subjects (in contrast to previous rulers), and he carefully apportioned money to government needs.

Most historians are agreed that it was in this area that Henry made a significant impact in government. You could say that he streamlined the organisation of financial administration.

Henry arranged for all of the revenue to go directly to the chamber. By his death 80% of royal income did go straight to the chamber. Consequently, the treasurer of the chamber was in fact the receiver-general of all crown lands, and most other revenues.

He managed to secure an average annual income of around £100 000. This was nothing in comparison to the monies that the French Kings raised from their subjects, but it was £35 000 more than Edward IV ever had.

Henry oversaw the account logs personally initialling each page. Henry obviously equated good, strong government with solvent government.

Personalities

The information that follows is a list of influential councillors:

John Morton

He was a gifted churchman and politician. He had previous experience of administration at the court of Henry VI and Edward IV. He was Bishop of Ely, a cardinal from 1493, and from 1486 -1500, Archbishop of Canterbury. He was appointed Chancellor in 1486. Records show that he was a present at most council meetings.

Richard Fox

A lawyer. Keeper of the Privy Seal, and often ambassador for the King. He held numerous Episcopal posts including Bishop of Winchester and Durham.

Sir Richard Bray

A financial role in council. He was the chief financial and property administrator after 1485.

Giles Daubeney

Well trusted by Henry. He was given areas of government, which required integrity like Lieutenant of Calais, Master of the Mint and Chamberlain of the Household.

Sir Thomas Lovell

Chancellor of the Exchequer, Treasurer of the Household, Speaker of the Commons.

Edmund Dudley

The main legal advisor to the corporation of London. An MP and Speaker of the House of Commons. A leading figure in the Council Learned, President of the Council in 1506. Evidence indicates that he became corrupt, and may have been involved in royal blackmail.

The economy and commerce

During Henry's reign about 50 laws were passed concerning the economy. Many of these originated from petitions sent to the Commons. Royal assent was given for various measures regulating wages, merchant companies, prices, weights and measures.

The coinage was reformed from early on in the reign. New coins were minted which were of royal worth: the royal quarter, the royal agel, and the royal anglet. Silver coinage was also reformed into the groat, half groat, penny, halfpenny and farthing.

Enclosure of the land continued. That is the practice of surveying and partitioning land in a certain area, which is then fenced off, most often to be used for sheep farming. These were a source of anguish for the poorer members of the agricultural community, and it led to skirmishes and riots. Enclosure protests of one form or another is a constant theme throughout the Tudor period.

Some historians claim that Henry's approach to commerce was like that of the Medieval Kings before him, but the evidence would seem to contradict this view. Henry always gave dynastic concerns priority in foreign affairs over commerce, but this isn't to say that he didn't encourage trade when he could. In fact, Henry did a lot to improve the conditions and encourage commerce when possible.

Henry was aware that increased trades would be beneficial to the crown. It would:

Provide him with more customs revenues. (Financial) Ensure that the merchants would not support any potential claimant. Wealthy

merchants would see their rights and privileges to trade as protected by the monarch, and would be reluctant to put these rights in jeopardy. (Security)

Secure the constant support of London. The support of the capital city was essential in times of trouble. At this time London had a population of 60 000, and was by far the richest city in the country. (Security)

Give him a strong merchant fleet for defence purposes should a navy have to be assembled quickly. (Security)

As you can see, commerce was closely intertwined with national (and personal) security.

One of the major grievances of merchants was that a large proportion of the transportation of goods was in the hands of foreign traders. This was done by the Hanseatic (North German) states, Venice and the Mediterranean merchants. Henry took action to try to remedy this by reducing the privileges of foreign traders, and trying to secure privileges for English merchants abroad. He was successful in achieving substantial trading rights with Spain in 1489, Denmark in 1491, France in 1492, and Scotland in 1502. In 1496 he managed to fix custom rates at their traditional levels for the English merchants in the significant Magnus Intercursus treaty. There were other ways in which he demonstrated a concern for traders and commerce - he made sure that there was always sufficient alum in the country (used for dyeing wool), he commissioned the building of a dry dock at Portsmouth, and he funded the expeditions of John and Sebastien Cabot to the East coast of North America. All of these actions resulted in an increased export in woollen cloth - the most important export of this period - of 61%. This had a direct impact on the centres of the woollen centres of the late 1400s, like York, Norwich, Bristol, Salisbury and Lavenham.

Nevertheless, security was always Henry's main concern, and he was always ready to compromise commercial interests if by doing so he could protect dynastic security. There are two clear examples of this. In 1493 he placed an embargo on trade with the Netherlands because Maximilian was harbouring Perkin Warbeck. In 1504 he made it easier for the Hanseatic countries to trade in England, reducing customs dues as part of a bargain for the person of the Duke Of Suffolk, who was sheltered by German princes.

Ruling the Localities

If Henry was going to curb the power of the nobility, and create a period of stability and peace, then it was crucial that he had effective control of the localities.

Remember that it could take weeks to reach the North of England or North Wales in the 1400s, and a rebellion could be well under way before the King knew about it.

Here again, we see Henry resurrecting an old idea that had not been used for a long time, and contrasting to the ways that his immediate predecessors had administered the regions. Henry chose to have groups of nobles and men of gentle or knightly status in charge of an area, rather than having one noble as magnate for a large area (like Richard III had done). These men would have restricted powers. In addition to this we see JPs having an increased role along with the creation of other offices connected with the localities. In all there was a government official for every 400 heads of the population.

How successful was this policy?

Following 30 years of unrest, Henry experienced only one serious rebellion in his 24-year reign: Cornwall.

Change or Continuity?

When students of Henry VIII's reign are asked if Cromwell implemented a revolution in Tudor government students are often tempted to answer that this revolution was started by Henry VII. Is this an accurate analysis of the way that Henry VII chose to rule? Was there more change than continuity?

Changes

He had a glittering court Use of Great council - although not a new idea, it was one resurrected from earlier in

the Medieval period Court of Star Chamber Tribunals Graves would argue that the Acts passed by parliament were significant to the

realm. He focused on saving money He would not give gifts of land to nobles; he tried to increase the amount of crown

lands. Financial administration was reorganised so that all crown revenue went to the

chamber, and the treasurer became receiver-general of all taxation and other monies.

He increased the crown's revenue significantly He oversaw the account logs personally - he had direct control over financial

administration

He would use men because of their abilities rather than because they of noble birth. Coinage was stabilised and given real worth. He tried to protect the trading rights of merchants. His attitude towards them was

not ambivalent. He used collections of men, not all of noble birth to rule the localities, rather than

relying on the support of one noble. The role of JPs was enhanced. Administrators were specialised.

Continuities

He used a council on a regular basis No real change in the role of parliament He died in debt He still relied on a handful of councillors to act as his main advisors The practice of enclosing land continued The household ran along the same lines

David Loades has to say on the matter: "It was not a revolution, but a change of emphasis with major significance for the future."

The English medieval office of kingship was a religious one. Monarchs and their subjects believed that they received divine power through the religious act of coronation. It was a part of the job of the king of any European power to protect the Christian faith. England had been a papal fief since the time of King John.

He had good relations with the papacy. Despite the genealogical link between Elizabeth of York and himself they were granted dispensation to marry, on the grounds that this union would unite the land.

Henry was a pious man. He did not claim to be a religious scholar like his son, but he lived a pious life being not touched by scandal once, unlike his son.

Henry did a lot to improve the position of many of the religious houses in England. He was the first English king in seventy years to do this. He was especially fond of the Franciscan order of monks. He also endowed a hospital (The Savoy) and founded the building of a very elaborate chapel in Westminster Cathedral.

In attempts to bring unification and a sense of justice he rationalised some ecclesiastical laws. For instance, he repealed the law that gave immunity to clerks from the secular courts. It was an unfair law as it meant that if a man could read and write, or in some cases recite a verse or spell some words, then he would not be

tried in secular courts. This meant that men could be serial killers, and yet never be tried for their life if they could learn to read while in jail. On the other hand, the number of prosecutions for heresy increased.

Anti-clericalism

(Meaning hostility towards certain practises of the Church)

This probably existed in all levels of society. But we must not forget that the church had an important cultural, economic and social role to play in the community as well as a spiritual and moral one.

Lollard prospered in a limited way among the artisans, traders and the gentry classes. They based their beliefs around communal study of the Bible. They could be very anti-papal. A Lollard in 1489 declared "the Pope is an old whore, sitting upon many waters, having a cup of poison in his hand."

Context

During the fifteenth century England's international (which meant European) position had declined. This was due to her internal problems. Edward IV had ambitions for French lands, and even the French crown. But where England had declined in this period, France had grown.

The main powers at this time were:

France Spain

Not a major power but a concern:

Scotland Ireland Burgundy

As you will see in the following sections Henry followed a defensive foreign policy.

France

The French King had offered assistance in 1485, and so Henry must have felt some sort of debt towards him.

The big crisis of the reign with regard to France was Charles VIII's invasion of Brittany. Henry had been in exile in Brittany in his youth, and he was close with the Duke of Brittany. It was also an area of France that still had independence from the vastly growing French state.

Henry felt that he had to take some action, to show the other European powers that he was a force to be reckoned with, as a show of support to Anne, the Duchess of Brittany, and as a show of power to Charles. Yet, he had to do all of this without losing face, losing the battle, or spending huge amounts of money. So Henry played a clever card. He invaded France in the October of 1492 with a limited number of troops (many of which were provided by Anne), and he did so late on in the year, demonstrating that he did not have a long and drawn out campaign in mind.

It paid off. Charles, eager to invade Italy, sought peace, which resulted in the Treaty of Etaples. He agreed to pay Henry a pension of 745 000 gold crowns, and swore not to support any rebels like Warbeck or the de la Poles. Henry did well to show strength out of a very weak position.

Burgundy

Burgundy was England's enemy, and yet at the same time trade with the Low Countries (Flanders, Belgium and the Netherlands) was crucial to England's commercial development. The Burgundy family had ties with the Yorkist family, and was eager to see Yorkists returned to the throne. For this reason they supported the de la Poles and the rising of Perkin Warbeck. Perkin was accepted by Maximilian as Richard IV, and in return Warbeck declared Maximilian as heir to the English throne!

However, there were no invasions as Henry imposed economic sanctions on Maximilian rather than military action. Not long after, in 1496, Maximilian was forced to retract and sign the Magnus Intercurcus.

From this point onwards Burgundy was in a state of decline, and relations between the two countries improved. In 1506 Philip of Burgundy handed over the Duke of Suffolk (Edmund de la Pole).

Spain

een united in 1479 by the marriage of Isabella of Castille to Ferdinand of Aragon. The two countries,

England and Spain shared suspicions about the rising power of the French Kingdom. They tried to use one another to counter-balance France. Their alliance was cemented in 1501 with the marriage of Henry's eldest son, and heir to the throne, Arthur, to Catherine, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella. This was a clear acceptance of Henry as a major figure in European politics.

But then disaster struck. In 1502 Arthur died. This raised issues about the continuation of the Tudor dynasty (another son, Edmund, had died in 1500). There remained Henry, a boy of eleven. Quickly, Henry proposed his only remaining son for the match. However, the diplomatic situation had changed, France and Spain were at peace. Ferdinand demanded better terms for the marriage. By the following year relations between the two countries were in a state of decline. But then the tables turned again, and this time it was Henry who was able to demand more from the union. Henry arranged that Spain, the Netherlands and England should unite in a strong anti-French alliance.

Scotland

Traditionally, this was England's enemy. Since 1328 the two had been at war. Henry, wishing to reduce the spending on military affairs, sought a peace treaty with Scotland, which resulted in a seven-year truce signed with James III. Unfortunately, James was murdered soon afterwards, and Henry was to find relations with James IV more difficult.

James IV welcomed Perkin Warbeck into his court, recognising his claim to the throne, and even marrying him to a rich Scottish heiress. Scotland sought support from England's other enemy, Burgundy. This alliance meant that if the two countries decided to invade Henry would have to send forces to the south and to the north. If it happened, this would be a very expensive war.

In 1497, Henry was in a position to renew the truce with Scotland, and James agreed to give up Perkin Warbeck.By 1502 relations had improved so much that a full treaty was signed. A union that was later confirmed by the marriage of Margaret, Henry's daughter, to James.

Ireland

Both the rebellions of Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck had started in Ireland. Henry felt that the province had been treated too lightly, and sent over the Earl of Kildare to rule the Pale in his name. (The Pale is modern day Dublin.)

What the experts say

R.B. Wernham sums up Henry's foreign policy thus,

Henry became King, in 1485, of a country that had been torn apart by war and instability for thirty years. But it was a country ready for peace under strong leadership. Henry provided this, despite having little money and no real apprenticeship in the art of monarchy.

The country he ruled in 1485 was financially, diplomatically and internally weak. Yet, by his death in 1509, "the crown was vastly stronger than it had been in 1485, but it was no nearer to being absolute". (Loades)

He left his son a country which was not at war, was solvent (if not completely in the black), was not racked by faction, that was more centralised in its administration than ever before, and which was respected by a number of major European powers.

But he was not a saint. He had not achieved all of this by methods that have not been criticised by both contemporaries and by historians. He must have had doubts himself, as in his will he made a provision for an enquiry to see if anyone had suffered any wrongs at his hands. An enquiry which led to 175 recognizance's being revoked in a five year period.

Guy states that, "Henry VII's reign was distinguished by sober statesmanship." What do you think?