Historical Context of the Border

POL 168: Latin@ Politics

Brad JonesDept. of Political ScienceUC-Davishttp://psfaculty.ucdavis.edu/bsjjones

Useful to Look Back at the Border Historically The border is a fluid concept Connotes both geographical and

psychological distinctions. America has a long history with its

southern border. …and by extension, California.

The Evolution of “The Border”: Treaty of Paris, 1783

Treaty of Paris, 1783 Southern Border 31st Parallel Western Boundary roughly follows Mississippi river.

Louisiana Purchase

Napoleon “urged” Charles IV of Spain to cede Louisiana Territory to France in 1800.

In 1803, he sold it the US for $15 million Became known as the Louisiana Purchase

Substantially increases US territory

Manifest Destiny

Note how much of modern-day US was Spanish Territory

Concept of Manifest Destiny emerged:Belief that the US would extend from the

Atlantic to the PacificArticulated more than just geography however

Sense of superiority of Anglos

Manifest Destiny(Image from Wikipedia Commons)

Mexican Independence

War with Spain: 1810-1821 Sept. 16, 1821: Independence Day (not Cinco de Mayo!) Immediate tension with US, especially over Texas (many

claimed Texas was part of the Louisiana Purchase) Shortly after independence, Mexico splits apart. “Regroups” in 1823 (states of Mexico united) Shortly after, Monroe Doctrine stated Makes the Americas a “sphere of influence” for the US

Texas

Mexico has few resources to control Texas Mexico forbade slavery Southerners occupy Texas lands for purposes of

slaveholding As such, the first “illegal immigration” problem occurred

in Mexico, not the US. Separatists movements emerged in Northern realm of

Mexico US did not attempt annexation during 1820s-1830s,

however.

Republic of Texas

Anglo-Texans and Tejanos rebel against Mexican authorities in 1835-1836 in what is called the Texas War

Republic of Texas formed and asks US to annex it. President Jackson declines but recognizes

independence. Sectionalism issues prevailed and so no annexation… Until John Tyler (pro-slavery President) decides to annex

Texas (1845)

Republic of Texas

Path to War

Mexicans Enraged US claims Texas border extends to Rio Grande Mexico claims northern border 150 miles further

north. Further inflamed when Polk sends US troops to

Rio Grande in 1846 Skirmishes turn to all-out war between the US

and Mexico

US Mexico War: 1846-1848

“Halls of Montezuma” Mexico City occupied Treaty of Guadlupe

Hidalgo signed Feb. 2, 1848

A New Border

Implications of Mexican War? Mexico cedes half territory to US 1 million sq. miles annexed Equivalent to size of Western Europe 100,000 Mexican Citizens absorbed into US 200,000 Native Americans Texas, Arizona, NM, Oklahoma, Wyoming, Colorado,

Kansas, Utah, Nevada, California all or part thereof created.

Mexican Cessian

A New Border

American filibusters Not legislative! Attempts to unseat Mexican control in Northern Mexico Article 11 of Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo required US to patrol

southern border and protect Mexico from “savages.” Border largely unenforced, leading the way for American

filibusters. Boundary dispute emerged due to inaccurate maps Involved Sonora and Chihuahua US wanted border as far south as possible (WHY?)

Gadsden Purchase

US Minister to Mexico: James Gadsden Gadsden sent to Mexico City in 1853

Abrogate Art. 11 Normalize Trade Obtain transit rights Adjust the border

US got everything it was after $10 million in compensation to Mexico This is the Gadsden Purchase

Gadsden Purchase

Stepping Back

Historical backdrop to what we observe now. Culturally, much of the US has been Mexican or

Spanish Gives some context to those who fear

“reconquista” (even if we generally think these fears our unfounded!)

Moving forward…

Enforcement and Immigration in the US After Mexican War, US now has a huge land

border w/Mexico How does one enforce entry? Apparently, not much was done; it was not the same

kind of issue Throughout 19c and early 20c, very little border

control existed. Customs Agents were posted sporadically on the

border… But most of the efforts on immigration control focused

on European entry, not entry through Mexico

Chinese Exclusion Act, 1882 Not well marked Very little enforcement and Mexican

migration was of little concern. Much more concerned about… Chinese migration. Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882

Passed in response to large numbers of Chinese Immigrants (mostly in California)

Arrived during the Gold Rush and for work on the Trans-Continental Railroad

At first, were welcomed First major piece of legislation aimed at

denial-of-entry for would-be migrants. “Illegal Immigration” was largely a

Chinese issue in wake of passage.

Enforcement of Migration

Few resources devoted to border1907: 8 immigrant inspectors for Calif. Border

Immigration Act of 1907Requires entry through official ports-of-entry Increases enforcement burdenOvertime, we start to see more layers of

legislative efforts to control entry

Significant Legislation

Immigration Act of 1917 “Desirables/Undesirables”

Literacy Act of 1917 Quota Act of 1921

First attempt to quantify entry

Immigration Act of 1924 Quotas made permanent Oriental Exclusion Act

Significant Legislation

Immigration Act of 1925 Expands Border Patrol Functionality

Arrest without warrant “any alien who, in his presence of view, is entering or attempting to enter the US in violation of any law or regulation made in pursuance of law regulating the admission of aliens.” (Significance?)

McCarren-Walter Act of 1952 Restatement of race-based quotas “Subversives” an issue

Immigration Act of 1965 A rollback…note the context of the time.

Immigration and Control Act of 1986 But let’s go back in time again…

Us vs. Them

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo significantly increased US territory

Border policy creates division and cross-purposes Labor was desired …but preferences for labor ebbs and flows with the

economy Mexicans become commodified Anti-Mexican nativism emerges in southwest

and then evolves in California

California

Mexican migration was largely centered on Texas

Chinese Exclusion Act and similar legislation increased incentive and demand for Mexican labor

By 1900, Mexicans constituted about 1-2% Numbers triple in next 20 years

California and Mexican-Americans

Racial Hierarchy Mid-19c. California was fairly homogenous

Did not have population characteristics of the East Mexicans were “tolerable”

Status hierarchy roughly was: Whites Mexicans (who were “half-civilized” because of ancestral connection to

Europe) Blacks (largely were Christian) Asians Native Americans (by far, on the lowest rung here)

California Constitutional Convention in 1849 Mexicans are considered “white” (Indians were “nonwhite”)

California

Changes with massive influx of Easterners w/gold rush

Population changes had substantial impact on minority populationsNative Americans: 100K in 1850; 30K in 1870;

16K in 1880WRT Mexicans, first attempts were at

assimilation…but

Us vs. Them

Belief in inferiority of Mexicans began to foment in the early 20c. Fear of “hyper-fertility” Lack of assimilability New York Times (1930): “It is folly to pretend that the

more recently arrived Mexicans, who are largely of Indian blood, can be absorbed and incorporated into the American race.” quoted in P. Nevins, Operation Gatekeeper, p. 105.

These arguments were put forward for strict quotas on Mexicans

Us vs. Them

Counter Arguments, equally racist, against quotas were made: White race could not be overrun Mexicans didn’t “intermarry” Unlike “negroes”, Mexicans could be deported if they became

“unruly.” Great Depression heightened anti-Mexican sentiment

Mexicans are treated as the scapegoat for economic problems. 1930s saw mass deportations (even among US citizens)

Forcible deportation of about 415,000 Mexicans Reinforces stereotypes that Mexicans are the “other” (aliens)

Immigration, legal and otherwise

Forced deportation creates labor shortfall. …let’s bring ‘em back! Bracero Program

Policies toward Mexican Immigration: Bracero Program Bracero Program (1942-1964)

Program is a response to labor shortage during war. Encouraged migration of farm laborers, initially in Central Valley (sugar

beets) Spread across the US “Successful” in terms of supply of cheap labor

Perceived as a failed program because of the rise of the “illegal alien.” Contradictory Enforcement

INS helps to regulate Bracero Program But institutes OPERATION WETBACK (1954)

Operation Wetback Forcible round-ups Show of force

Evolution of the Border: 1960s

Transboundary Cooperation in Mid 20c Emergence of Border Cities

Tijuana Mexicali Nogales

Fosters transboundary connections Particularly in San Diego

Programa Nacional Fronterizo (PRONAF) 1960s Intent: increase levels of tourism to Mexico

Border Industrialization Program (1965) Export Processing Industries or maquiladoras

More Recent History

Anti-immigrant sentiment becomes more widespread Chicano civil rights movement propels issue to a national scale. Fears of an “American Quebec” 1976: “The main problem is how to get rid of those 6 to 8 million

aliens who are interfering with our economic prosperity.” President Gerald Ford (quoted in Operation Gatekeeper, Nevins, p. 63)

Expansion of Border Patrol/INS during Carter Administration Reagan Administration: Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986

Illegal to hire undocumented migrants The I-9 Form Introduced Granted Amnesty to about 3 million migrants

Reagan Policies in Latin America “War on Drugs”

Language from I-9

Anti-Discrimination Notice. It is illegal to discriminate against any individual (other than an alien not authorized to work in the U.S.) in hiring, discharging, or recruiting or referring for a fee because of that individual's national origin or citizenship status. It is illegal to discriminate against work eligible individuals. Employers CANNOT specify which document(s) they will accept from an employee. The refusal to hire an individual because the documents presented have a future expiration date may also constitute illegal discrimination.

What Is the Purpose of This Form?The purpose of this form is to document that each new employee (both citizen and non-citizen) hired after November 6, 1986 is authorized to work in the United States.

Toward the current context

There is a long history of “getting here from there”…

Know your history!