Historical Development of Science and Technology Policy in Indonesia: From

Old Order to Reform Order

Dini Oktaviyanti, Karlina SariM. Arifin, Anugerah Yuka A.

Center for Science and Technology Development Studies

Indonesian Institute of Sciences(Pappiptek – LIPI)

INTRODUCTIONScience & Technology (S&T) Policy Definition

Taufik (2005) science and technology policy is a policy (government's statements and actions) that are associated with the development of science and technology as well as the approach and framework acts to strengthen the creation, transfer, utilization and diffusion of science and technology. Therefore, science and technology policies and activities related primarily to the provision of development or the creation and development of science and technology and absorptive capacity of users (industry, public sector and the general public), whether related to education (formal), as well as the process of learning in a broad sense; research and development; transfer, utilization and diffusion of science and technology (including legal protection and standardization).

S&T Policy Definition

Forje (2008)

“Science and technology policies are forms of state

intervention intended to promote the development and

dissemination of knowledge and the practical application

of research results to the production of goods and services.

Science and technology policies contribute to building

national innovation systems by introducing new

technologies as well as improving on existing indigenous

knowledge systems.”

S&T Policy Definition

Lundvall dan Borrás (2005) distinguish science policy, technology policy, and policy innovation. In the view of science policy is considered as a set of rules of each element of the innovation system (universities, research institutes, institutes of technology and research and development laboratories) and about how interaction and relationship with the environment (including government and industry). The concept is different between how technology policy governing the relationship and interaction with industry sectors including technology commercialization.

How Important S&T Policy

Developments of S&T in a country is influenced by the ability of the human resources in the field of technological innovation in order to compete in an era of global competition. Whether we realize itor not that success in growing a country due to the country's scientific and technological capability is able to synergize institutional development and S&T resources by other factors in a systematic and carried out in a sustainable manner. In general, the purpose of S&Tpolicy in Indonesia is to promote the welfare of Indonesian People.

How Important S&T Policy

Development of S&T in a country is influenced by the ability of the human resources in the field of technological innovation in order to compete in an era of global competition. In the era of trade and economic development future, no longer possible to survive only by relying on conventional manufacturing industries (Firman, 2010). That's the reason to pushed all countries that belonging to Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) how to formulate and maximize their economic performance based on S&T.

How Important S&T Policy

In S&T development, the government's role as a driver of growth demanded climate research and innovation, together with the industrial sector as the main perpetrators of the real sector and the education sector as a manufacturer of researchers. Condition of the business / industry in our own country, can be said still have a weak access to S&T and research results, there is a tendency even prefer to use imported technology rather than utilizing the R&D results in our own country. This indicates a mismatch or lack coordination between what is done by lemlitbangyasa / government with what is needed by the industry.

Background Study

Source: UNESCO, 2012

Introduction

Human Resources

Institution Financing

Infrastructure

Knowledge

S&T Policy

Question?How is actually the

historical of Development Science and Technology In Indonesia, from Old Order

to Reform Order?

Penelitian Terdahulu Rao (2008) – S&T Policy in India, Using historical approach with

various variable: leadership, institutional, and research finance.

Result : India’s annual economic growth rate has reached 9%. Certain regions and cities of India have emerged as global centresfor science and technology, Bangalore being the best example. India has also become an important destination of many heads of state and/or governments, industrialists, and other key figures from around the world.

Lemola (2002) - S&T Policy in Finlandia, using social process and institutional approach..

Result: The case of Finland demonstrates that development of S&T policy is not dependent only on rational adjustment and considerations, but very much on social and institutional processes like imitation and fashion. Organizations which are involved in policy-making capture the procedures and routines of other organizations through the transfer of encoded and tacit experience.

Perez, et al (2013) – S&T Policy in Central America, using various variable: institutional, financing, actor-interaction.

Result: there is a strong association between S&T institution and Policy strength and also socio-economic development in Central American Countries.

Framework

Aspects

Policy Focus

Actor

Supporting Resources Orde

Refor

Old Order

New Order

Reform Order

Source: Own Elaboration, 2012

Metode

Historical Approach

•Researchers may conduct research on policy from the perspective of 50 years or more. Thus, researchers can see certain patterns in the form of policies that were previously not recognized because the analysis uses a short time frame. (Winarno, 2012)

Method

Method Historical Approach with Qualitative Analysis

Sumber Data • Interview• Scientific Documentation

(clipping of newspaper, etc)

• S&T’s books

Pengumpulan Data • In-depth Interview• Desk Study• Library

Scope of Study

S&T Policy

Historical of S&T Policy in Indonesia through focus of policy, actor, and financing

S&T Policy in old order, new order, and reform order

Responden

Kusmayanto Kadiman (Menristek 2004 – 2009) A.S. Hikam (Menristek 1999 – 2001) Thee Kian Wie (Almarhum) LSM Academicians Researcher Expert Staff from Policy Maker in new and reform

order Any Stakeholders in S&T Policy BUMNIS (PT. PAL) BUMNIS (PT. Dirgantara Indonesia)

S&T Policy in Old Order1945 - 1966

Policy Focus S&T policies have started to lead to the development of

human resources to be directed toward expertise in the field of shipbuilding and aerospace

Construction of several monumental buildings such as the Bung Karno Stadium, National Monument, Istiqlal Mosque, Statue Aerospace, and others.

Establish various colleges such as:

Technical High School in Yogyakarta on February 17, 1946.

University of Medicine and Dentistry in Malang in February 1946

Universiteit van Indonesie in Jakarta in 1947.

The Government of Indonesian send students to India through a scholarship from the Government of India in 1947

The Government of Indonesia send Indonesia student to Australia to gain knowledge and experience in 1949

Policy Focus Research is aimed at national interest oriented welfare

of the people.

The position of the government at the moment is for engineering, which has just begun the process of formation.

In the late 1960s the government provide basic bow is more decisive for the development of science and the world of research. The passage of the Draft Basic Law on National Development Plan 8 years who compiled the National Planning Council (Planning Council) and set with TAP MPRS No.II / 1960, for example, has provided the basis for efforts to develop the world of science and research in national development.

Policy Focus S&T research development become Menrenas

responsibility that concern in cultural product, which functions can be executed with precise, only when placed in the context of the culture in the broadest sense. It means that S&T Development happened just because supporting from another culture factors, including government policy.

Actor

Department of Education with the first time minister of education Ki Hajar Dewantara.

Soedjono Djoened Poesponegoro (Maret 1962-Februari 1966) as a minister of research and technology

MIPI established in 1956, is considered as the beginning of a new history of the Indonesian scientific organizations. (based on UU No.6 Year of 1956)

After Durenas dissolved in 1966, National Research Institute had formed (March 27 1966-25 July 1966). In addition there is the Department of Higher Education and Science (PTIP), which also has authority in knowledge, including the conduct of research. Then the MPRS Decree No. 18 / b /, 1967, on the dissolution Lemrenas and MIPI then LIPI has been established (until present).

1974-1978 Prof.Sumitro Djojohadikusumo

1978-1998 Prof.Dr.Ing.BJ. Habibie

Tahun 1998 Prof. Dr. Rahadi Ramelan

S&T Policy in New Order1966 - 1998

Policy Focus At the beginning, New Order government inherited an

economic downturn left by the previous administration. This economic downturn is characterized by low per capita income of Indonesia's population, reaching only 70 dollars, the high inflation reached 65%, and the destruction caused by the economic means of conflict in the Sukarno government.

To overcome this slump, the New Order government make short-term programs directed at controlling inflation and economic means of rehabilitation efforts, and increased economic activity. All of it taken in consideration when inflation can be controlled and stability is achieved, economic activity will recovered and production will increase.

Policy Focus

Since April 1st 1969, the government created the foundation for the construction of the so-called Five-Year Development Plan (Five-Year Plan). The first Five-Year Plan which commenced in 1969 is focused on the rehabilitation of key infrastructure and the development of business and investment climate. Development of the agricultural sector was given priority to fulfill the food needs before building other sectors. Development among others implemented by building infrastructures such as irrigation agriculture, transportation, agricultural technology, financing needs, and bank loans. Farmers also assisted through the provision of facilities such as the main support to the marketing of fertilizer production.

Policy Focus Repelita I bring economic growth from an average of 3%

to 6.7% per year, per capita income increased from 80 dollars to 170 dollars, and inflation could be reduced to 47.8% at the end of the first Five-Year Plan in 1974.

Second Five-Year Plan (1974-1979) and the Third Five-Year Plan (1979-1984) focused on the achievement of economic growth, national stability, and equitable development with an emphasis on agriculture and industry that processes raw materials into raw materials. In 1984, Indonesia achieved rice self-sufficiency status of what was formerly one of the largest rice importer in the world in the 1970s.

The focus of the fourth Five-Year Plan (1984-1989) and V Five-Year Plan (1989-1994), in addition to trying to maintain progress in the agricultural sector, also began to move focus on the industrial sector, especially industries that produce export goods, labor absorbing industries, agro-processing industries, and industries that can produce industrial machines

Policy Focus Since running, the New Order government emphasizes

its focus on the development of the agricultural sector because they think food security is a prerequisite of economic and political stability. The sector is growing rapidly as the government builds a wide range of agricultural infrastructure such as irrigation and transportation, agricultural technology, to business counseling. The government also provides certainty marketing products through institutions named Bulog(National Logistics Agency).

Development and utilization of S&T and research should really support the business development with an emphasis on the development of the agricultural sector towards self-sufficiency by increasing industry that processes raw materials into finished goods and raw materials in order to balance the economic structure of Indonesia

Policy Focus Habibie’s concept: “start from the end and it ended from the beginning”

4 Stages of Implementing, namely:

Licensing Stage.

Technology Integration Stage.

Innovation Stage.

Implementing Basic Research Stage.

9 focus: aerospace, maritime, transportation, electronic and communication, energy, engineering, tools and agriculture machine.

Policy focus is the transformation of a number of industry sectors that have large domestic markets and can be protected so that it can provide economies of scale large enough to finance the transformation process, especially at the early stages when it has not been able to compete directly at the international level.

ActorNo. Period Institution

1. Pelita II R&D in every Department

PUSPIPTEK Serpong

2. Pelita III (1978 – 1982) Agency for the Assessment and Application of

Technology (BPPT)

General Program of the National formulator

(PEPUNAS)

3. Pelita IV (1983 – 1987) The National Standards Council (DSN)

National Research Council as a

refinement of PEPUNAS

4. Pelita V (1988 – 1992) Strategic Industries Management Agency

(BPIS)

Indonesian Academy of Sciences (AIPI)Source: Own Elaboration, 2013

Supporting ResourcesFinancial Support

Source: Repelita I-VI, Indikator Iptek Nasional, Statistik Indonesia

Supporting ResourcesFinancial Support

Comparison of R&D expenditure in Indonesia compared to GDP at the beginning of Pelita I at 0.2%, then at Pelita III ratio of R&D expenditure to GDP ranged at 0.3% and then have decreased at Pelita V range at 0.08% until present

Supporting ResourcesHuman Resources

Researcher Level Year of 1982 Percentage Year 0f 1985 Percentage

Researcher Assistant

Junior Researcher

Researcher

Senior Researcher

632

281

111

62

58,2

26,0

10,1

5,7

627

400

186

88

48,2

30,7

14,3

6,8

Total 1.081 100,0 1.301 100,0

Source: BKKI, 1986

S&T Policy in Reform Order1998 - 2011

ZuhalReformasi Pembangunan

Cabinet(23 Mei ‘98-26 Okt ‘99)

MAS HikamPersatuan Nasional Cabinet

(26 Okt ‘99-9 Agu ‘01)

Hatta RajasaGotong Royong Cabinet(9 Agu ‘01-20 Okt ‘04)

Kusmayanto KadimanIndonesia Bersatu

Cabinet(21 Okt ‘04-22 Okt ‘09)

Suharna SurapranataIndonesia Bersatu II

Cabinet (22 Okt ‘09-19 Okt ‘11)

Gusti Muhammad HattaIndonesia Bersatu II Cabinet

(19 Okt ‘11-sekarang)

Policy FocusGBHN 1998: utilization, development, mastery of S&T more precise, fast, careful, responsible for realizing self-sufficient society, advanced, and prosperous

Jakstranas Iptek 2000-2004: acquisition and utilization of science and technology to create a society that is humane welfare, quality, and highly civilized

Jakstranas Iptek 2005-2009: a) technology as a driver of economic growth and independence of the nation, b) humanistic science and technology, c) the realization of a spatial information system; d) nuclear science Safer reliable; e) science and technology aerospace, and f) as a reinforcement of the competitiveness of SNI.

Jakstranas Iptek 2010-2014: science and technology for the welfare and civilization progress

PT

Industry

LPK

LPNKKMNRT

10 Priority Industries : PT DI, PT LEN, PT PAL dst.

ProffesionInstitution

Supporting Institution

Local R&D Institution

Ministry of Education

Ministry Concerned

Local Government

Min

istr

yof

Fin

anci

ngSupporting

of S&TActivities

User DecissionMaker of

S&T Policy

DRN

Other Sector of Government

S&T Producer

MASYARAKAT

National Innovation System

Supporting ResourcesFinancial Support

Supporting ResourcesHuman Resources

The number of bachelor degree graduates is increasing around 15% (1998-2009)

The number human resources of S&T is increasing around 8,8% (2005-2008)

The number of researcher is increasing around 20,6% (2001-2013)

The number of engineers is 2261 people until 2013

Conclusion

In old order, the leader of government become a central figure, dan focus untuk membangun bangunan bersejarahyang menjadi ciri khas Indonesia

In New Order shown that the government is become an architect who designed the S&T policies with good preparation. Science and technology policies in the new order is a continuation of the old order policy (it shown by GBHN and Repelita). Pembangunan difokuskan pada industry teknologi tinggi dan meningkatkan kuantitas SDM berkualitas

S&T Policy in Reform Order, need a figure who can be a role model for the progress of S&T policies, which can accommodate all the actors and the needs of S&T, so that its direction becomes widespread, especially with the support of the policy of regional autonomy. S&T tidak menjadi focus utama pembangunan. Namun di orde inilah awal muladigaungkannya gema inovasi.

Conclusions - Constraints Lack of infrastructure and supporting resources, especially

the quality of teachers and researcher in the field of Science and engineering, it causes resources for the development of S&T are less able to follow the development of S&T that is needed by the industry

Lack of coordination between actor of science and technology

Political Situation that did not giving great support for S&T sector.

Financing is constrained bureaucracy

Lack of Respect for researchers

Recommendation Effective mechanism design for funding research

The creation of a conducive environment for the actors of science and technology development, especially in the conduct of research

S & T policy for a long-term are clearly headed to a huge goal, in which each actor involved should be aligned towards achieving and completely each other.

Clear roadmap for each actors of S&T development.

The government should be able to see what opportunities are needed by today's society related to S&T Policy, and then policy maker After a set of science and technology polic, and socialization is still needed to convey to the public a clear and definite policy towards Indonesia actual science.

Science must have a structure, it’s a system, and should be a synergy system. There must be a relation between low tech and high technology, as well as the interrelated processes from upstream to downstream processes.

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