Historical Implications

Ancient Societies

Socrates (469-399 BC) Purpose of education = develop an individuals

inherent knowledge and his ability to reason. Society is only as good as its schools. Socratic method = (inquiry method) – through a

questioning process, based on student’s experiences and analyzing the consequences of responses, he led the student to a better understanding of the problem.

Ancient Societies

Plato – Father of Idealism State should operate the educational system. Purpose of schools = to discover and develop the

abilities of the individual, to aid the individual in discovering the knowledge of truth that is within each of us, and to prepare the individual for his or her role in society.

Leadership by intelligence – absolute truth is within the mind.

Ancient Societies

AristotleCreated the scientific method of inquiryScientific realismTeach logic as a formal disciplinePurpose of education = development of the

intellect by the use of inductive and deductive reasoning. Also to produce good people and good citizens.

Core knowledge

Ancient Societies

Quintilian (35-95 AD) Roman educator Purpose of education = developing the person’s

whole intellectual and moral nature. Public schools, not at home with private tutors Learning from the successes and failures of others No corporal punishment

Middle Ages

Thomas Aquinas Scholasticism Reconcile religion with rationalism of Aristotle Man is composed of both a spiritual and physical

nature. Man can arrive at truth through deductive

processes, but when rationalism fails, man must rely on faith. These truths complement one another.

Curriculum = theology and liberal arts.

Renaissance

Erasmus (1466-1536)Humanistic philosophyFollower of QuintilianNecessity of understanding the student’s

individual needs and abilities.

Reformation

Catholics vs. Protestants

ProtestantsAuthority of the Bible over the ChurchStressed the responsibility of each person

for his own salvation (each person must be able to read and be educated)

Vernacular schools

Reformation

Martin Luther (1483-1546)Every child should have a free education It should be supported and controlled by

the stateCore knowledge, vocational training,

spiritual developmentSecondary schoolsUniversities

Reformation

John Calvin (1509-1564)Similar to Martin LutherTwo track system = common schools for

the masses and secondary schools teaching the classical, humanist curriculum for the preparation of the leaders of the church and state.

Reformation

Reformation in EnglandThe Jesuits = Training of teachers.

Later European Thought

Enlightenment (age of reason & scientific inquiry)

Francis Bacon scientific inquiry critical thinking skills (through the senses) utopia

John Locke Tabula rasa Exercise the mind beyond the 3 R’s

Later European Thought

Rousseau (1712-1778) Naturalism Father of modern psychology Children are naturally good, it is society that corrupts. Curriculum that is child-centered, developmentally

appropriate, and allows for freedom. Child is to learn directly through his/her senses. Students are not punished Education progresses when the child is ready and his

interests motivate him. Every student is taught a trade to prepare them for an

occupation in life.

Later European Thought

Johann Pestalozzi (1746-1827)Put Rousseau’s theories into practice. Influenced American educators with

Rousseau’s ideas.More than Rousseau, he recognized the

importance of human emotions (self respect & security) in the learning process.

Instruction should begin with concrete and proceed to abstract. (at learner’s pace)

Later European Thought

Johann Herbart (1776-1841)Purpose of education should be the

development of the moral character.Systematic steps of instruction:

PreparationPresentationAssociationGeneralizationApplication

Later European Thought

Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852) Established the first Kindergarten Provided the first theoretical basis for early

childhood education. Agreed with Pestalozzi on child-centered

instruction, but wanted to focus more on child development through activity and self-expression.

Activity Curriculum Miniature Societies

Education in the 19th & 20th Centuries

Horace MannFather of American EducationSpokesperson for the common school

movement (State System & State Board of Education)

Influenced educational legislation throughout the United States

Established the normal schools

Education in the 19th & 20th Centuries

Catherine BeecherNeed for female teachersNationwide system of teacher training Established a nationwide consensus of a

new female role in education

Education in the 19th & 20th Centuries

The Committee of TenCurriculum?NEA established the Committee of Ten

Early introduction to the basic conceptsFour curricula were proposed: classical, Latin-

scientific, modern language, and EnglishCollege preparatory courses for both college-

bound and terminal students.Observation, memory, expression, & reasoning

Education in the 19th & 20th Centuries

The Seven Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education Objectives of the high school curriculum:

Health Command of fundamental academic skills Worthy home membership Vocational preparation Citizenship Worthwhile use of leisure time Ethical character

Normal Schools

Institutions for specific training of teachersTeachers should be female ($)Prerequisite = elementary educationCourse of study = 1-2years Core knowledge in elementary schools Methods of teaching Educational psychology Classroom management Model school (lab school)

John Dewey

Progressive EducationNot subject-centered curriculum, but child-centered.Preferred method = Problem-solvingInstruction centered around student motivation.Should not only focus on the intellectual, but also on the social, emotional and physical needs of the child.

Child Study vs. Measurement Movement

Child Study Movement = emotional growth and personalityChild as an evolving organism

Measurement Movement = intelligence scale (comparison of intelligence to a norm)Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

George C. Counts

Social reconstructivism – schools should take the lead in planning for an intelligent reconstruction of society.

Socialism & Communism?

Montessori Movement

Froebel (early childhood) > all studentsSensory trainingUse of didactic materials, learning episodes, and physical exercises in a structured environmentInterest & motivation are the focus of the methodsRole of the teacher = be aware of the child’s readiness to learn, make sure the child has the materials to learn, and guide the child through experiences

Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka

End of legalized segregation

Civil Rights Act of 1964End segregation in public facilities, attack

discrimination in employment, and require nondiscriminatory practices in programs and institutions receiving federal funds.

1980’s

Reagan

Economic competition

Higher Standards

State (Nation at Risk) and Local level (Restructuring)

1990’s

National GoalsPolitical AgendaGoals 2000 (Federal Partnership)Shift of emphasis – from educational inputs to educational outcomes, from procedural accountability to educational accountabilityEnsuring all students access to high quality educational programs rather than providing supplemental services.

1990’s

Pressure Cooker:

IDEA

Culture and Curriculum Wars

High Stakes Testing

Baby Boom Echo

Teacher Shortage

^ # of Teachers & ^ Standards for Teachers?

1990’s

Republican takeover of CongressRights of parents? School choice funded

at public expense.Greater local control over curriculum

content and materialsCompetition would do what regulation had

failed to do.Big Business?

2000-2010

REGULATION

School Choice?

Economic Turn