History of anatomy 1

History of anatomy

Maya bust

The development of anatomy as a science extends from the earliestexaminations of sacrificial victims to the sophisticated analyses of the bodyperformed by modern scientists. It has been characterized, over time, by acontinually developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures inthe body. The field of Human Anatomy has a prestigious history, and isconsidered to be the most prominent of the biological sciences of the 19th andearly 20th centuries. Methods have also improved dramatically, advancing fromexamination of animals through dissection of cadavers to technologicallycomplex techniques developed in the 20th century [1] .

Anatomy is one of the cornerstones of a doctor’s medical education. Despitebeing a persistent portion of teaching from at least the renaissance, the formatand the amount of information being taught has evolved and changed along withthe demands of the profession. What is being taught today may differ in contentsignificantly from the past but the methods used to teach this have not really changed that much. For example all thefamous public dissections of the Middle Ages and early renaissance were in fact prosections. Prosection is thedirection in which many current medical schools are heading in order to aid the teaching of anatomy and some arguethat dissection is better. However looking at results of post graduate exams, medical schools (specificallyBirmingham) that use prosection as opposed to dissection do very well in these examinations [2] . This would suggestthat prosection can fit very well into the structure of modern medical training.

Ancient anatomyCharaka is referred to as the Father of Anatomy.

EgyptThe study of anatomy begins at least as early as 1600 BCE, the date of the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus. Thistreatise shows that the heart, its vessels, liver, spleen, kidneys, hypothalamus, uterus and bladder were recognized,and that the blood vessels were known to emanate from the heart. Other vessels are described, some carrying air,some mucus, and two to the right ear are said to carry the "breath of life", while two to the left ear the "breath ofdeath". The Ebers papyrus (c. 1550 BCE) features a treatise on the heart. It notes that the heart is the center of theblood supply, with vessels attached for every member of the body. The Egyptians seem to have known little aboutthe function of the kidneys and made the heart the meeting point of a number of vessels which carried all the fluidsof the body – blood, tears, urine and sperm.[3]

GreeceThe earliest medical scientist of whose works any great part survives today is Hippocrates, a Greek physician activein the late 5th and early 4th centuries BCE (460 - 377 BCE). His work demonstrates a basic understanding ofmusculoskeletal structure, and the beginnings of understanding of the function of certain organs, such as the kidneys.Much of his work, however, and much of that of his students and followers later, relies on speculation rather thanempirical observation of the body. One of the greatest achievements of Hippocrates was that he was the first todiscover the tricuspid valve of the heart and its function which he documented in the treatise On the Heart in theHippocratic Corpus. Later anatomists knew the function of the tricuspid valve after reading the Hippocratic Corpus.In the 4th century BCE, Aristotle and several contemporaries produced a more empirically founded system, based animal dissection. Around this time, Praxagoras is credited as the first to identify the difference between arteries and

History of anatomy 2

veins, and the relations between organs are described more accurately than in previous works.The first use of human cadavers for anatomical research occurred later in the 4th century BCE when Herophilos andErasistratus gained permission to perform live dissections, or vivisection, on criminals in Alexandria under theauspices of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Herophilos in particular developed a body of anatomical knowledge much moreinformed by the actual structure of the human body than previous works had been.

GalenThe final major anatomist of ancient times was Galen, active in the 2nd century. He compiled much of theknowledge obtained by previous writers, and furthered the inquiry into the function of organs by performingvivisection on animals. Due to a lack of readily available human specimens, discoveries through animal dissectionwere broadly applied to human anatomy as well. His collection of drawings, based mostly on dog anatomy, becamethe anatomy textbook for 1500 years. The original text is long gone, and his work was only known to theRenaissance doctors through the careful custody of Arabic medicine.

Medieval anatomyAfter the fall of the Roman Empire, the study of anatomy became stagnant in Christian Europe but flourished in themedieval Islamic world, where Muslim physicians and Muslim scientists contributed heavily to medieval learningand culture. The Persian physician Avicenna (980-1037) absorbed the Galenic teachings on anatomy and expandedon them in The Canon of Medicine (1020s), which was very influential throughout the Islamic world and ChristianEurope. The Canon remained the most authoritative book on anatomy in the Islamic world until Ibn al-Nafis in the13th century, though the book continued to dominate European medical education for even longer until the 16thcentury.The Arabian physician Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) (1091–1161) was the first physician known to have carried out humandissections and postmortem autopsy. He proved that the skin disease scabies was caused by a parasite, a discoverywhich upset the theory of humorism supported by Hippocrates and Galen. The removal of the parasite from thepatient's body did not involve purging, bleeding, or any other traditional treatments associated with the fourhumours.[4] In the 12th century, Saladin's physician Ibn Jumay was also one of the first to undertake humandissections, and he made an explicit appeal for other physicians to do so as well. During a famine in Egypt in 1200,Abd-el-latif observed and examined a large number of skeletons, and he discovered that Galen was incorrectregarding the formation of the bones of the lower jaw and sacrum.[5]

Ibn al-NafisThe Arabian physician Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288) was one of the earliest proponents of human dissection andpostmortem autopsy, and in 1242, he was the first to describe the pulmonary circulation[6] and coronary circulation[7]

of the blood, which form the basis of the circulatory system, for which he is considered the father of the theory ofcirculation.[8] Ibn al-Nafis also described the earliest concept of metabolism,[9] and developed new systems ofanatomy and physiology to replace the Avicennian and Galenic doctrines, while discrediting many of their erroneoustheories on the four humours, pulsation,[10] bones, muscles, intestines, sensory organs, bilious canals, esophagus,stomach, and the anatomy of almost every other part of the human body.[11]

History of anatomy 3

Early modern anatomy

In this 1559 anatomical plate by Juan Valverde deAmusco, a figure holds a knife in one hand and

his own skin in the other.

The works of Galen and Avicenna, especially The Canon of Medicinewhich incorporated the teachings of both, were translated into Latin,and the Canon remained the most authoritative text on anatomy inEuropean medical education until the 16th century. The first majordevelopment in anatomy in Christian Europe, since the fall of Rome,occurred at Bologna in the 14th to 16th centuries, where a series ofauthors dissected cadavers and contributed to the accurate descriptionof organs and the identification of their functions. Prominent amongthese anatomists were Mondino de Liuzzi and Alessandro Achillini.

The first challenges to the Galenic doctrine in Europe occurred in the16th century. Thanks to the printing press, all over Europe a collectiveeffort proceeded to circulate the works of Galen and Avicenna, andlater publish criticisms on their works. Vesalius was the first to publisha treatise, De humani corporis fabrica, that challenged Galen "drawingfor drawing" travelling all the way from Leuven[12] to Padua forpermission to dissect victims from the gallows without fear ofpersecution. His drawings are triumphant descriptions of the,sometimes major, discrepancies between dogs and humans, showingsuperb drawing ability. Many later anatomists challenged Galen intheir texts, though Galen reigned supreme for another century.

A succession of researchers proceeded to refine the body of anatomical knowledge, giving their names to a numberof anatomical structures along the way. The 16th and 17th centuries also witnessed significant advances in theunderstanding of the circulatory system, as the purpose of valves in veins was identified, the left-to-right ventricleflow of blood through the circulatory system was described, and the hepatic veins were identified as a separateportion of the circulatory system. The lymphatic system was also identified as a separate system at this time.

17th and 18th centuries

The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, by Rembrandt, depicts anautopsy.

The study of anatomy flourished in the 17th and 18thcenturies. The advent of the printing press facilitatedthe exchange of ideas. Because the study of anatomyconcerned observation and drawings, the popularity ofthe anatomist was equal to the quality of his drawingtalents, and one need not be an expert in Latin to takepart. [13] Many famous artists studied anatomy,attended dissections, and published drawings formoney, from Michelangelo to Rembrandt. For the firsttime, prominent universities could teach somethingabout anatomy through drawings, rather than relying onknowledge of Latin. Contrary to popular belief,thechurch neither objected to nor obstructed anatomicalresearch despite its antagonism towards other scientificpractices.[14] . The increase in demand for cadavers,

though, led to rumors about anatomy murder.

History of anatomy 4

Only certified anatomists were allowed to perform dissections, and sometimes then only yearly. These dissectionswere sponsored by the city councilors and often charged an admission fee, rather like a circus act for scholars. ManyEuropean cities, such as Amsterdam, London, Copenhagen, Padua, and Paris, all had Royal anatomists (or somesuch office) tied to local government. Indeed, Nicolaes Tulp was Mayor of Amsterdam for three terms. Though itwas a risky business to perform dissections, and unpredictable depending on the availability of fresh bodies,attending dissections was perfectly legal. Many anatomy students traveled around Europe from dissection todissection during the course of their study - they had to go where a fresh body was available (e.g. after a hanging)because before refrigeration, a body would decay rapidly and become unsuitable for examination.Many Europeans interested in the study of anatomy traveled to Italy, then the center of anatomy. Only in Italy couldcertain important research methods be used, such as dissections on women. M. R. Columbus and Gabriele Falloppiowere pupils of Vesalius, the 16th century anatomist. Columbus, as his immediate successor in Padua, and afterwardsprofessor at Rome, distinguished himself by rectifying and improving the anatomy of the bones, by giving correctaccounts of the shape and cavities of the heart, of the pulmonary artery and aorta and their valves, and tracing thecourse of the blood from the right to the left side of the heart, by a good description of the brain and its vessels, andby correct understanding of the internal ear, and the first good account of the ventricles of the larynx. Osteology atnearly the same time found an assiduous cultivator in Giovanni Filippo Ingrassias.

19th century anatomy

A plate of the skull from the 1918 edition ofGray's Anatomy

During the 19th century, anatomists largely finalised and systematisedthe descriptive human anatomy of the previous century. The disciplinealso progressed to establish growing sources of knowledge in histologyand developmental biology, not only of humans but also of animals.Extensive research was conducted in more areas of anatomy. GreatBritain was particularly important in this research. Demand forcadavers grew so great there that body-snatching and even anatomymurder came into use as a means of obtaining them.[15] In response,the English Parliament passed the Anatomy Act 1832, which finallyprovided for an adequate and legitimate supply of corpses by allowingdissection of destitutes. The relaxed restrictions on dissection provideda suitable environment for Gray's Anatomy, a text that was a collectiveeffort and became widely popular. Now seen as unwieldy, Gray'sAnatomy was born out of a need to create a single volume on anatomy for the traveling doctor.

The shift from the largely public displays of dissection in anatomy theatres to dissections carried out in classroomsmeant that there was a drastic change in who could observe a dissection. Females for example, who at this time werenot allowed to attend medical school, could broaden their knowledge by attending the anatomy theatres. So the shiftfrom prosection to dissection meant a reduction in the number of people that could benefit from a single cadaver. Atthis point as well tighter regulation of the medical profession and donations of bodies resulted in various implicationsfor carrying out dissections. Private medical schools which offered summer schools and various other coursesinvolving cadaveric dissection allowed one route into gaining membership to the Royal College of Surgeons.However from 1822 the Royal College of surgeons would no longer accept these qualifications, this as result wouldsee these largely unregulated schools begin to close [16] . Not only as a result of this, but the Anatomy Act 1832made it much harder (more bureaucracy) to obtain bodies for dissection. The act resulted in only the large teachinghospitals feasibly being able to continue teaching anatomy courses due to agreements with patients that if theydonated their body they would receive free treatment. So towards the end of 19th century anatomy courses had beenlargely professionalised at established medical schools and public dissection was no longer common place.

History of anatomy 5

Another source of anatomy teaching began with the foundation of many medical schools (particularly within theprovincial medical schools) and the medical museums found within them. A large portion of training occurred withinthese up until and for some time after the Second World War. The medical museum was very important and a lot ofeffort was put into creating something impressive. This was particularly so in provincial medical schools which werejust being established that needed credibility not only from other medical schools (namely Oxford and the Londonteaching hospitals) but also from the public. The museums were not only for students but also members of the publicpaid to see the exhibits within the museum. This brought not only much needed income but prestige as well [17] . Themore exhibits within the museum the more established the medical school appeared to be (at least to the public).Significant amounts of teaching occurred in the museum as well with students claiming they learnt far more in themuseum than they ever did in the lecture theatre. The decline of the museums within medical schools was largelydue to the demand in floor space for teaching and new disciplines and less importantly the great improvements inphotography and colour texts. For example the museum at Birmingham Medical School is now a computer clusterand teaching rooms, the only remains of the museum are the preserved specimens decorating the walls around thecomputer cluster.

Modern anatomyAnatomical research in the past hundred years has taken advantage of technological developments and growingunderstanding of sciences such as evolutionary and molecular biology to create a thorough understanding of thebody's organs and structures. Disciplines such as endocrinology have explained the purpose of glands that anatomistspreviously could not explain; medical devices such as MRI machines and CAT scanners have enabled researchers tostudy the organs of living people or of dead ones. Progress today in anatomy is centered in the development,evolution, and function of anatomical features, as the macroscopic aspects of human anatomy have been largelycatalogued. The subfield of non-human anatomy is particularly active as modern anatomists seek to understand basicorganizing principles of anatomy through the use of advanced techniques ranging from finite element analysis tomolecular biology.With increasing demands on the healthcare system and what could be deemed chronic under-training of doctors(numbers of doctors per capita compared to other industrialised countries) during the latter half of the 20th century,medical schools are now facing massive pressure to train as many doctors as possible. This has meant in recent yearscohort sizes have doubled and more in size, in order to try and meet the demand. This has resulted in increasedpressure of the facilities at all medical schools in the country. Anatomy is one department in particular that has hadto evolve to accommodate the number of students. At Birmingham dissection was once essential to the teaching ofanatomy but since the end of the 1980s the medical school has adopted prosection over dissection. At the time newdirectives from the General Medical Council (GMC) on the direction medical education was the major factoraccording the current head of anatomy. There are also many other reasons why prosection maybe favoured(discussed below). It has probably now become near impossible to restart dissection at Birmingham even if onewanted to. This is due to the fact that current prosection uses a very similar number of cadavers as dissectionpreviously did. If dissection was to be brought back the number of cadavers would be very large due the currentcohort size. To increase provision of prosection the medical school is currently investing in the region of£800,000-900,000 on a new prosectorium. This will allow up to about 40 students to observe prosected material inany one session. The vast amount of money required just to increase the amount of prosection demonstrates that it isno longer possible to carry out dissection at Birmingham (and is the case for many other universities). Prosectionmakes more efficient use of a cadaver when compared to dissection. A single cadaver when dissecting would be usedby up to 5 students whereas prosection allows if necessary and entire cohort to observe the prosected cadaver.Prosection also allows students to observe more than one cadaver whereas in dissection you would tend to just use asingle one. Logistically prosection allows more flexibility than dissection as there is no commitment to provide acadaver per a certain number of students, this in fact create opportunities for cadavers to be used, for example atBirmingham, for Special Study Modules (SSMs) and postgraduate teaching.

History of anatomy 6

Also there are many more aids to teaching anatomy then merely the prosectorium; improvements over the lastcentury in colour images and photographs means that an anatomy text is no longer an aid to dissection but rather acentral material to learn from. Plastic models are also regularly used in anatomy teaching sessions and they offer agood substitute to the real thing. One argument against plastic models is that they may provide a false sense ofconformity in the human body; there is no doubt quite a difference between a plastic model and a prosected cadaver.Use of living models for anatomy demonstration is once again becoming popular within teaching of anatomy.Anatomy is dynamic, for example the anatomy of the musculoskeletal system is by definition the anatomy ofmovement. So to provide an example of this to the audience (students) and be able to demonstrate the possiblemovements is beneficial. Surface landmarks that can be palpated on another individual also provide practice forfuture clinical situations. It is possible to do this on oneself and a good example of this being implemented isIntegrated Biology at the University of Berkeley; students are encouraged to “introspect” [18] on themselves and linkwhat they are being taught to their own body. This may seem like a relatively obvious idea but to formally link it intoteaching of anatomy should aid memory recall [16] .Donations of bodies have also declined in recent years with a marked decline of public confidence in the medicalprofession. With scandals such as Alder hay and Bristol, people are less confident that their wishes on what willhappen to their body will be carried out, so instead have not donated to medical science when in the past they mayhave [19] . The resultant legislation from these scandals (namely the Human Tissue Act 2004) has tightened up theavailability of resources to anatomy departments. Another factor facing body donations is the problems arising fromthe outbreaks of Bovine Spongiform Encephalitis (BSE) in the late 80s and early 90s and the restrictions of handlingof brain tissue that resulted from this. The exact pathology of the human form, variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease(vCJD) has meant that patients donating their body who suffered from Alzheimer’s or dementia and of course vCJDmeans their brains cannot be handled. As the method of transmission of these diseases and the link between them(i.e. is Alzheimer’s vCJD and vice versa) is not fully understood these precautions have to be taken [20] . Verysymptomatic patients are also not normally accepted for cadavers [16] . However this means that students are morelimited on what they can dissect within the head, this is particularly a problem in medical schools where dissection isstill carried out. It is less of a problem where prosection is carried out as the specimen will have already beendissected.

ConclusionAnatomy teaching has changed considerably over the last 1000 years though it is still very much at the heart of thephilosophy of western medicine. Western medicine seeks to find a cause to all disease and attempt to cure it; verymuch cause and effect. Without a good understanding of the arrangement of the human body then this becomessomewhat challenging. Western medicine is in fact taking a more holistic approach today, with the psychosocialbiomedical model of disease. However most practicing doctors if it was proven that there was a biological cause toall the various idiopathic diseases then they would readily adapt their thoughts and treatments accordingly. Anatomyis often regarded as being little left to discover, in that we know what and where most of the body is and does, butthere is still many mysteries left to work out. Public awareness of anatomy cannot be detrimental if it sparks interestin the discipline. The recent controversies with Gunther von Hagens and public displays of dissection may divideopinions on what is ethical (even the legality of a public dissection) [21] but this surely at least gets people thinkingabout how doctors learn anatomy and why in some it inspires them to pursue a career. The future of dissection maybe uncertain and indeed if pressure on cadavers continues even the few medical schools that continue to dodissection may have to halt. This hopefully however will not reduce the number of people able to benefit from asingle cadaver if current prosection methods become the prevalent method of demonstrating gross anatomy.

History of anatomy 7

Notes[1] Hak'''''Italic text'''''im Syed Zillur Rahman. Tarikh llm Tashrih [An extensive Book in Urdu on History of anatomy] (1967), Tibbi Academy,

Delhi, Second revised edition 2009 (ISBN 978-81-906070-), Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences, Aligarh[2] Skelton, J. 2008. CAWC (Curriculum and Welfare Committee) Meet the Dean Q&A session- year 2 students. Birmingham Medical School,

25 February 2008. Available at: http:/ / medsoc. bham. ac. uk/ cawc/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article& id=71:2ndyrQ&Asession& catid=42:feedbackQAdean& Itemid=61 [accessed 22 April 2008].

[3] Porter (1997), pp49-50[4] Islamic medicine (http:/ / encyclopedia. farlex. com/ Islamic+ medicine), Hutchinson Encyclopedia.[5] Emilie Savage-Smith (1996), "Medicine", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Vol. 3, p. 903-962

[951-952]. Routledge, London and New York.[6] S. A. Al-Dabbagh (1978). "Ibn Al-Nafis and the pulmonary circulation", The Lancet 1, p. 1148.[7] Husain F. Nagamia (2003), "Ibn al-Nafīs: A Biographical Sketch of the Discoverer of Pulmonary and Coronary Circulation", Journal of the

International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine 1, p. 22–28.[8] Chairman's Reflections (2004), "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting", Heart Views 5 (2), p. 74-85 [80].[9] Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic

Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher (http:/ / www. islamset. com/ isc/ nafis/ drroubi. html),Encyclopedia of Islamic World).

[10] Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in theWorks of Ibn al-Nafīs (died 1288)", p. 3 & 6, Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of Notre Dame. (http:/ / etd. nd. edu/ ETD-db/theses/ available/ etd-11292006-152615)

[11] Dr. Sulaiman Oataya (1982), "Ibn ul Nafis has dissected the human body", Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference onIslamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibn ul-Nafis has Dissected the Human Body (http:/ / www. islamset. com/ isc/nafis/ index. html), Encyclopedia of Islamic World).

[12] Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (http:/ / www. kuleuven. ac. be/ english/ )[13] http:/ / www. nlm. nih. gov/ dreamanatomy/ da_info. html[14] Howse, Christopher (10 June 2009). "The myth of the anatomy lesson" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ comment/ columnists/

christopherhowse/ 5496340/ False-myth-of-the-anatomy-lesson. html). The Daily Telegraph (London). . Retrieved 4 May 2010.[15] Rosner, Lisa. 2010. The Anatomy Murders. Being the True and Spectacular History of Edinburgh's Notorious Burke and Hare and of the

Man of Science Who Abetted Them in the Commission of Their Most Heinous Crimes. University of Pennsylvania Press[16] McLachlan, J. & Patten, D. 2006. Anatomy teaching: ghosts of the past, present and future. Medical Education, 40(3), p.243-53.[17] Reinarz, J. 2005. The age of museum medicine: The rise and fall of the medical museum at Birmingham's School of Medicine. Social

History of Medicine, 18(3), p. 419-37.[18] Diamond M. 2005. Integrative Biology 131 - Lecture 01: Organization of Body. Berkeley, University of California.[19] British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) News. 2001. Organ scandal background. [Online]. Available at: http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/

health/ 1136723. stm [accessed 22 April 2008].[20] Demiryurek, D. Bayramoglu, A. & Ustacelebi S. 2002. Infective agents in fixed human cadavers: a brief review and suggested guidelines.

Anatomical Record, 269(1), p.194–7.[21] British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) News. 2002 Controversial autopsy goes ahead. [Online]. Available at: http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/

hi/ health/ 2493291. stm [accessed 22 April 2008].

Bibliography• Mazzio, C. (1997). The Body in Parts: Discourses and Anatomies in Early Modern Europe. Routledge.

ISBN 0-415-91694-1.• Porter, R. (1997). The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present.

Harper Collins. ISBN 0-00-215173-1.• Sawday, J. (1996). The Body Emblazoned: Dissection and the Human Body in Renaissance Culture. Routledge.

ISBN 0-415-15719-6.

History of anatomy 8

External links• Historical Anatomies on the Web. National Library of Medicine. (http:/ / www. nlm. nih. gov/ exhibition/

historicalanatomies/ browse. html) Selected images from notable anatomical atlases.• Anatomia 1522-1867: Anatomical Plates from the Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library (http:/ / link. library.

utoronto. ca/ anatomia/ )• Human Anatomy & Physiology Society (http:/ / www. hapsweb. org) A society to promote communication

among teachers of human anatomy and physiology in colleges, universities, and related institutions.

Article Sources and Contributors 9

Article Sources and ContributorsHistory of anatomy  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=394922918  Contributors: Adambondy, Allen3, Altzinn, Andreas Erick, Andycjp, Aryeh, Avoided, Bamber Gascoigne,Beland, Belgrade18, Benyon3, Bryan Derksen, Champsae, Colincbn, Cutler, Damian Yerrick, Dar-Ape, Darkwind, Deb, Decoratrix, Derek Ross, Dontworry, Drgarden, Dzenanz, Eleassar,Ellmist, Enchanter, Eras-mus, Ewlyahoocom, FQ1513, Fastfission, Gabbe, Galmicmi, Geniac, Gwinva, Habj, Hashemi1971, Hmains, Ikiroid, Infinity Wasted, IronGargoyle, Jagged 85, Jane023,Jeltz, Jeronimo, KJS77, Kaketd, Linas, MER-C, Malcolm Farmer, Medicineman28, Mikeeg555, Mitartep, Mr Bound, Nono64, NuclearWarfare, OlEnglish, Olivier, Ottershrew, P88nugget,Pax:Vobiscum, Philippe, Pion, RadioFan, Ragesoss, RainbowOfLight, RedMC, Reedy, Rjwilmsi, Robth, SamuelTheGhost, Sayeth, Sionus, Smartse, Tameeria, Utcursch, Zzuuzz, 83 anonymousedits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Ngv, veracruz, testa con vita e morte, 300-600 dc.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ngv,_veracruz,_testa_con_vita_e_morte,_300-600_dc.jpg  License: CreativeCommons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: user:sailkoImage:Anatomia del corpo humano.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anatomia_del_corpo_humano.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Juan Valverde deAmuscoImage:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 007.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_007.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:AndreasPraefcke, Anne97432, CrazyPhunk, Diligent, EDUCA33E, Emijrp, Gamsbart, Ilse@, JdH, Oxxo, Poulos, QWerk, Rlbberlin, Talmoryair, Vincent SteenbergImage:Gray188.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gray188.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Arcadian, Lokal Profil, Magnus Manske

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