history of biotechnology - wordpress.com · biotechnology is the application of scientific and...
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Biotechnology is the application of scientific and
engineering principles to the processing of materials by biological agents to provide goods and services.
OR
using scientific methods with organisms to
produce new products or new forms of organisms and eliminating the existing products.
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• To understand more about the processes of inheritance and gene expression
• To provide better understanding & treatment of
various diseases, particularly genetic disorders • To generate improved plants and animals for
agriculture and efficient production of valuable biological molecules
Goals of Biotechnology
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Biotechnology Biotechnology is multidisciplinary/ interdisciplinary in nature and involves • Microbiology • Cell & Molecular biology • Immunology • Virology • Biochemistry • Physical & Organic chemistry • Genetics • Engineering • Bioinformatics etc.
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Ancient Biotech • Begins with early civilization • Not known when biotech began exactly • Domestication is seen by scientists as the
beginning of biotechnology • Developments in agriculture and food
production and their preservation • Cheese is one of the first food products
made through biotechnology
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Classical Biotech • Makes wide spread use of methods from
ancient, especially fermentation • Methods adapted to industrial or large
scale production of important products • Produce large quantities of food products
and other materials in short time • Meet demands of increasing population • Many methods developed through
classical biotech are widely used today
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Modern Biotech
• Manipulation of genetic material within organisms which is also known as genetic engineering
• Roots involved the investigation of genes • Based on genetics and the use of related
sciences and technologies
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Genetics
• Study of heredity • Most work has focused on animal
and plant genetics • Genes – are determinants of
heredity
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Genes
• Carry the genetic code • Short segment of DNA which
control the synthesis of a polypeptide (protein) or mRNA.
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Heredity • How traits are passed from parents to
offspring • Members of the same species pass the
characteristics of that species • Differences exist within each species. • These differences are known as
variability • Heredity & variability are used in modern
biotechnology
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Recombinant DNA • Genetic material is moved from one
organism to another • Materials involved are quite small • Challenging and often controversial • Many have opposing or negative
views of biotechnology
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People in Biotechnology
Zacharias Janssen • Discovered the principle of the
compound microscope in 1590 • Dutch eye glass maker
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Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
• Developed single lens microscope in 1670’s
• First to observe tiny organisms and document observations
• Work led to modern microscopes
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Gregor Mendel • Austrian Botanist and monk • Formulated basic laws of heredity • Experimented with peas • Studied inheritance of seven pairs of
traits • Bred and crossbred thousands of plants • Determined that some traits were
dominant and other recessive • Findings were published in 1866
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Walter Sutton
• Determined in 1903 that chromosomes carried units of heredity identified by Mendel
• Named “genes” in 1909 by Wilhelm Johannsen, Danish Botanist
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Thomas Hunt Morgan
• Studied genetics of fruit flies • Early 1900’s • Experimented with eye color • His work contributed to the
knowledge of X and Y chromosomes • Nobel Prize in 1933 for research in
gene theory
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Ernst Ruska
• Build the first electron microscope in 1932
• German electrical engineer • Microscope offered 400X
magnification
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Alexander Fleming • Discovered penicillin in 1928 • First antibiotic drug used in treating human
disease • Observed that bacteria close to the molds
(Penicillium genus) were dead • Extracting and purifying the molds took a
decade of research • Penicillin first used in 1941 • Penicillin credited with saving many lives
during WWII when wounded soldiers developed infections.
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Norman E. Borlaug
• Developed wheat varieties producing high yields
• Semi dwarf varieties • Developed wheat variety that would
grow in climates where other varieties would not
• Credited with helping relieve widespread hunger in some nations
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Mary Clare King
• Research into nature of DNA during late 1900’s
• Determined that 99% of human DNA is identical to chimpanzee
• 1975 found similar gene pools between humans and chimpanzee made it possible to research hereditary causes of cancer
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Ian Wilmut
• Cloning of a sheep named Dolly in 1997
• Produced from tissue of an adult sheep
• Previous cloning efforts had been from early embryos
Friedrich Miescher 1869, first isolated a substance from the nucleus of cells that he called “nuclein.” His student, Richard Altmann, called the substance “nucleic acid” due to its acidic nature. Biochemists identify two types of nucleic acids, later called RNA and DNA.
Frederick Griffith
In 1928, Frederick Griffith carried out experiments on pneumonia bacteria in mice. Discovery: something in heat-killed virulent (pathogenic) bacteria could be transferred to live, harmless bacteria and make them virulent.
Oswald Avery Avery continued working with Griffith’s findings in hope of discovering what factor in bacteria carried the trait of virulence. Isolated proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids and applied them to non-virulent bacteria. Only nucleic acids (DNA) caused a change.
Erwin Chargaff Chargaff studied DNA itself, in hopes of providing some clues about its structure. Discovered that there are always equal amounts of the bases Adenine and Thymine, and equal amounts of Cytosine and Guanine. Chargaff proposed that these bases pair with one another in some way.
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Research in France and England
Led to discovery of structure of DNA
Her early research was used to produce an
atomic bomb
Set up X ray diffraction lab
Photographs of DNA showed that it could
have a double helix structure
Rosalind Franklin
Watson and Crick James Watson and Francis Crick were also working on discovering the structure of DNA. Applied Chargaff’s rule, assumed that A always pairs with T and C with G. The DNA ladder forms a spiral, or helical structure, with the two sides held together with hydrogen bonds. Had major impact on genetic engineering carried out today
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James Watson and Francis Crick
• Collaborated research at Cambridge University in England to produce the first model of DNA structure in 1953
• Described DNA dimensions and spacing of base pairs
DNA Nucleotide
O O=P-O O
Phosphate Group
N Nitrogenous base (A, G, C, or T)
CH2
O
C1 C4
C3 C2
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Sugar (deoxyribose)
Nitrogenous Bases • PURINES 1. Adenine (A) 2. Guanine (G) • PYRIMIDINES 3. Thymine (T) 4. Cytosine (C) 5. Uracil (U)
• Adenine always pair with Thymine
• Guanine always pair with Cytosine
• Their amounts in a given DNA molecule will be about the same.
G C
T A
• Adenine must pair with Thymine
• Guanine must pair with Cytosine
• Their amounts in a given DNA molecule will be about the same.
G C T A
DNA structure
DNA is made up of four bases. RNA also has four bases, but has uracil instead of thymine.
EVOLUTION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY TIMELINE
Prior to 1750 Plants and animals used for food
Plants and animals domesticated, selectively bred for desired characteristics Microorganisms used to make cheese, beverages, and bread by fermentation
1797 1838
Edward Jenner Schleiden & Schwann
Used living microorganisms to protect people from disease Proposed cell theory
1859 Charles Darwin
Hypothesized that animal and plant populations adapt over time to best fit the environment
1864 Louis Pasteur
Proved existence of microorganisms Showed that all living things are produced by other living things
1865 Gregor Mendel
Investigated how traits are passed from generation to generation - called them factors
1869 Johann Meischer Isolated DNA from the nuclei of white blood cells
1893 Koch, Pasteur Fermentation process patented
Lister Diphtheria toxin isolated
1902 Walter Sutton
Coined the term "gene" Proposed that chromosomes carry genes (factors which Mendel said that could be passed from generation to generation)
1910 Thomas H. Morgan
Proved that genes are carried on chromosomes "Biotechnology" term introduced
1928 Frederick Griffiths
Noticed that a rough kind of bacterium changed to a smooth type when unknown "transforming principle" from smooth type was present
1928 Alexander Fleming Discovered antibiotic properties of certain molds
1941 George Beadle Proposed "one gene, one enzyme" hypothesis
Edward Tatum
1943-1953
Linus Pauling
Described sickle cell anemia calling it a molecular disease DNA is identified as the genetic material
1944 Oswald Avery
Performed transformation experiment with Griffith's bacterium
Mid-1940's Penicillin produced
1950 Erwin Chargaff
Determined that there is always a ratio of 1:1 adenine to thymine in DNA of many different organisms
1952 Alfred Hershey
Used radioactive labeling to determine that it is the DNA
Margaret Chase
not protein which carries the instructions for assembling new phages
1953 James Watson Determined the double helix structure of DNA
Francis Crick
1956 Dangr Sequenced insulin (protein) from pork
1957 Francis Crick Explained how DNA functions to make protein
1958 Coenberg Discovered DNA polymerase
1960 Isolation of m-RNA 1965 Classification of the plasmids
1966 Marshall Nirenberg Determined that a sequence of three nucleotide
Severo Ochoa bases determine each of 20 amino acids
1971 Discovery of restriction enzymes
1972 Paul Berg Cut sections of viral DNA and bacterial DNA with same restriction enzyme Spliced viral DNA to the bacterial DNA
1973 Stanley Cohen Produced first recombinant DNA organism by
Herb Boyer
introducing an antibiotic resistance gene into E.coli bacteria Beginning of genetic engineering
1978 Stanford University First successful transplantation of mammalian gene
1979 Genentech, Incorporat-ion
Produce human growth hormone and two kinds of interferon DNA from malignant cells transformed a strain of cultured mouse cells - new tool for analyzing cancer genes
1983 First transfer of foreign gene in plants
1986 First field trials of DNA recombinant plants resistant to insects, viruses, bacteria
1988 First living mammal was patented 1993 2003
Flavor saver tomatoes sold to public Human Genome Project was completed providing information on the locations and sequence of human genes on all 46 chromosomes