Process

Religious issues

Experiments conducted

Federal and governmental regulations

Medical issues

World view

Pros and Cons

PRESENTED BY

ARMAN FIROZ – M.Sc.BIOMEDICAL GENETICS

History

History of Cloning:

1885 -

First-ever demonstration of artificial embryo twinning.

Sea urchin 

Hans Adolf Edward Dreisch

This experiment showed that each cell in the early embryo has its own complete set of genetic instructions and can grow into a full organism.

1902 -

Artificial embryo twinning in a vertebrate.

Salamander 

Hans Spemann

This experiment showed that embryos from a more-complex animal can also be “twinned” to form multiple identical organisms—but only up to a certain stage in development.

1928 -

The cell nucleus controls embryonic development.Essentially the first instance of nuclear transfer, this experiment showed that the nucleus from an early embryonic cell directs the complete growth of a salamander, effectively substituting for the nucleus in a fertilized egg.

Salamander Hans Spemann

First successful nuclear transfer

Frog 

- Robert Briggs and Thomas King

1952 -

Briggs and King transferred the nucleus from an early tadpole embryo into an enucleated frog egg (a frog egg from which the nucleus had been removed). The resulting cell developed into a tadpoleMost importantly, this experiment showed that nuclear transfer was a viable cloning technique. It also reinforced two earlier observations. First, the nucleus directs cell growth and, ultimately, an organism’s development. Second, embryonic cells early in development are better for cloning than cells at later stages.

Nuclear transfer from a differentiated cell

1958 -

This experiment showed that, despite previous failures, nuclei from somatic cells in a fully developed animal could be used for cloning. Importantly, it suggested that cells retain all of their genetic material even as they divide and differentiate (although some wondered if the donor DNA came from a stem cell, which can differentiate into multiple types of cells).

John Gurdon

Rabbit 

J. Derek Bromhall

This experiment showed that mammalian embryos could be created by nuclear transfer. To show that the embryos could continue developing, Bromhall would have had to place them into a mother rabbit's womb. He never did this experiment.

First mammalian embryo created by nuclear transfer

1975 -

First mammal created by nuclear transfer

1984 - This experiment showed that it was possible to clone a mammal by nuclear transfer—and that the clone could fully develop. Even though the donor nuclei came from early embryonic cells, the experiment was considered a great success.

Sheep 

Steen Willadsen

Nuclear transfer from embryonic cellThis experiment added cows to the list of mammals that could be cloned by nuclear transfer. Still, mammalian cloning was limited to using embryonic cells as nuclear donors. Cloning using nuclei from differentiated adult somatic cells still wasn’t thought possible

Cow 

Neal First, Randal Prather, and Willard Eyestone

1987-

Dolly: First mammal created by somatic cell nuclear transferOf 277 attempts, only one produced an embryo that was carried to term in a surrogate mother. This famous lamb, named Dolly, brought cloning into the limelight. Her arrival started conversations about the implications of cloning, bringing controversies over human cloning and stem cell research into the public eye.

Sheep 

Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell

1996-

1998-1999 - More mammals cloned by somatic cell nuclear transfer

2001 - Endangered animals cloned by somatic cell nuclear transferPrimate embryonic stem cells created by somatic cell nuclear transfer

2007 - This experiment showed that nuclear transfer in a primate, which researchers had tried for years without success, was possible. It opened the door to the possibility of human therapeutic cloning: creating individual-specific stem cells that could be used to treat or study diseases.

Rhesus monkey 

Shoukhrat Mitalipov and colleagues

Human embryonic stem cells created by somatic cell nuclear transfer

2013 - In this experiment, researchers took a skin cell from the patient and fused it with a donated egg cell. Key to the success of the experiment were modifications to the culture liquid in which the procedure was done and to the series of electrical pulses used to stimulate the egg to begin dividing.

Shoukhrat Mitalipov and colleagues

No one truly knows the future of human cloning, but many believe models will be cloned to make designer babies. It is highly probable that a cloned human being lives among us now. You might read breaking headlines about cloning but most of those are A few years behind. Some say they just discovered a new process to human cloning in 2010, but in reality it was completed in 2005. In 2001, there was such a stir in the human cloning idea that hundreds of scientist did their work with out anyone knowing. Thousands of dollars, eggs, adult cells ect. have been donated to human cloning research. As citizens of the world we can not ignore scientific research, but instead regulate it. “Either we control gene technology today, or technology will redesign us by tomorrow.”

Future of Human Cloning

ETHICAL ISSUES

Religious issuesSome people believe that cloning is similar to playing God. They believe that God should be the creator of all living and natural things.

It is believed that a human has the right for the full human development in a natural environment and that the human embryo should be left alone after the 14th day of fertilization.

Some religious people believe that if you clone a human being it has no soul.

People believe human cloning takes away from an Individual being unique and stresses Psychological and social development.

Medical issuesTechnically, human gene grows older with age. It’s feared that the cloned individual would retain the age of the donor’s genes.

Cloning animals through somatic cell nuclear transfer is simply inefficient. The success rate ranges from 0.1 percent to 3 percent, which means that for every 1000 tries, only one to 30 clones are made. Some reasons include•The enucleated egg and the transferred nucleus may not be compatible•An egg with a newly transferred nucleus may not begin to divide or develop properly•Implantation of the embryo into the surrogate mother might fail•The pregnancy itself might failProblems during later development•Cloned animals that do survive tend to be much bigger at birth than their natural counterparts. Clones with LOS(Large Offspring Syndrome)have abnormally large organs. This can lead to breathing, blood flow and other problems.

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Abnormal gene expression patterns•  one challenge is to re-program the transferred nucleus to

behave as though it belongs in a very early embryonic cell. This mimics natural development, which starts when a sperm fertilizes an egg.

• In a naturally-created embryo, the DNA is programmed to express a certain set of genes. Later on, as the embryonic cells begin to differentiate, the program changes.

• In cloning, the transferred nucleus doesn't have the same program as a natural embryo. It is up to the scientist to reprogram the nucleus Complete reprogramming is needed for normal or near-normal development. Incomplete programming will cause the embryo to develop abnormally or fail.

Telomeric differences• As cells divide, their chromosomes get shorter. The telomere

lengths of cloned animals, found no clear answers. Chromosomes from cloned cattle or mice had longer telomeres than normal. These cells showed other signs of youth and seemed to have an extended lifespan compared with cells from a naturally conceived cow

Pros Cons

Defective genes could be eliminated There is a possibility of faster aging.

Faster recovery from traumatic injury There is a reduced sense of individuality.

Infertility could be eliminated. It may reduce the overall value of human life.

Cloned body parts can serve as backup systems for humans

Weaken diversity and ability of adaptation.

Combat genetic diseases Production of undesirable traits.

Replicate animals for research purposes & also alterations of plants & animals

Invites malpractices into society.

Produce people with desirable traits. Humans acting as God

World viewsAustralia

Australia has prohibited human cloning, therapeutic cloning is now legal in some parts of Australia.

CanadaCanadian law prohibits the following: cloning humans, cloning stem cells, growing human embryos for research purposes, and buying or selling of embryos, sperm, eggs or other human reproductive material.

IndiaIndia does not have specific law regarding cloning but has guidelines prohibiting whole human cloning or reproductive cloning. India allows therapeutic cloning and the use of embryonic stem cells for research proposes

ArgentinaProhibits:: “experiments concerning cloning of human cells in order to generate human beings .”

REFERENCE• Wilmut I; Schnieke AE; McWhir J; Kind AJ; et al. (1997). "Viable offspring derived

from fetal and adult mammalian cells". Nature 385(6619): 810–3

• Campbell KH; McWhir J; Ritchie WA; Wilmut I (1996). "Sheep cloned by nuclear transfer from a cultured cell line". Nature 380(6569): 64–6.

Supported by a Science Education Partnership Award (SEPA) Grant No. R25RR016291 from the National Center for Research Resources, a component of the NIH. The contents provided here are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of NIH.• Religious Opposition to Cloning, Journal of Evolution and Technology  -  Vol. 13

– October 2003 http://jetpress.org/volume13/bainbridge.htm by William Sims Bainbridge, Ph.D.

• Bainbridge, William Sims. 2003. "Sacred Algorithms: Exchange Theory of Religious Claims," in Defining Religion edited by Aurthur L. Greil and David G. Bromley. Oxford: JAI/Elsevier (Volume 10 of Religion and the Social Order).

• Benin, Mary Holland. 1985. "Determinants of Opposition to Abortion," Sociological Perspectives, 28: 199-216.