history of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/enzymes_1.pdf · non-hydrolytic addition or...
TRANSCRIPT
![Page 1: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
History of enzymes
1835 Jacob Berzelius – catalytic function of diastase
pol. 18.stol. Luis Pasteur – vitalistic theory
1878 Frederic W. Kühn – „enzyme“
1894 Emil Fischer –„lock and key theory“
1897 Büchner’s experiment
1926 James Sumner – crystalization of urease
30. léta Northrop and Kunitz – enzyme activity is
proportional to protein concentration
1963 primary structure of ribonuclease A
1965 X ray analysis of lysozyme structure
![Page 2: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
Enzymes = biocatalysts Nearly each (metabolic) reaction has its own enzyme
![Page 3: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Enzymes – biological catalysts
Catalyst is not either reactant or product of the reaction, does not undergo permanent structural change
Increases reaction rate in both directions, decreases activation energy of both reactions
It implies, that catalyst shorten the time required for reaching the equilibrium, does not influence the equilibrium itself!
Catalyst can accelerate the only reaction which would proceed in its absence.
![Page 4: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Enzym = protein or apoenzyme (protein ) + cofactor = holoenzyme
Kofactor: non proteinaceous part of the enzyme, directly involved in catalysed reaction (often vitamines)
Prosthetic group – covalently bound to the peptide chain
Coenzym - loosely-bound
![Page 5: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
prosthetic group (ex. FAD, PLP, heme)
E-Pr + S1 E-Pr* + P1
E-Pr* + S2 E-Pr + P2
_____________________
E-Pr
S1 + S2 P1 + P2
β-D-glucose + O2 → δ-D-gluconolactone + H2O2
![Page 6: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
coenzym (second substrate of the reaction) (ex. NAD(P),CoA, ATP)
E1
S1 + K P1 + C*
E2
C* + S2 K + P2
________________
CH3-CH2OH + NAD+ → CH3-CHO + NADH + H+
NADH + H+ + Q → NAD+ + QH2
![Page 7: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
Enzymes – biological catalysts …….have additional features: effective decrease of the activation energy specifita (účinku, substrátová) regulovatelnost účinnosti (aktivity)
![Page 8: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Catalyst Reaction rate(mol.l-1.s-1) Ea (kJ.mol-1)
None 10-8 71,1
HBr 10-4 50,2
Fe(OH)2-triethylen
tetraamin
103 29,3
Catalase 107 8,4
Activation energy of hydrogen peroxide
decomposition
H2O2 → 2H2O + O2
![Page 9: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
Enzymes – biological catalysts …….have additional features: effective decrease of the activation energy specificity can be regulated (next lecture)
![Page 10: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
Active Site of an Enzyme
• The active site is a region
within an enzyme that fits the
shape of substrate molecules
• Amino acid side-chains align
to bind the substrate through
H-bonding, salt-bridges,
hydrophobic interactions, etc.
• Products are released when
the reaction is complete (they
no longer fit well in the active
site)
![Page 11: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Enzymes
active site – binding groups
- catalytic groups
stereospecificity
![Page 12: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Enzyme Specificity
• Enzymes have varying degrees of specificity for
substrates
• Enzymes may recognize and catalyze:
- a single substrate
- a group of similar substrates
- a particular type of bond
![Page 13: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Lock-and-Key Model
• In the lock-and-key model of enzyme action:
- the active site has a rigid shape
- only substrates with the matching shape can fit
- the substrate is a key that fits the lock of the active site
• This is an older model, however, and does not work for all enzymes
![Page 14: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Induced Fit Model
• In the induced-fit model of enzyme action:
- the active site is flexible, not rigid
- the shapes of the enzyme, active site, and substrate adjust to maximize the fit, which improves catalysis
- there is a greater range of substrate specificity
• This model is more consistent with a wider range of enzymes
![Page 15: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Conformational change of hexosekinase caused by thr
presence of substrate in the active site – induced fit
D-glc + ATP → D-glc-6-fosfát + ADP
![Page 16: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Enzyme Effectivity
Proximity and orientation of substrate(s) in active site
lower water concentration / lower polarity of the
environment
conformational changes
electrostatic effects
concentration effect
![Page 17: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Molecular mechanism of
chymotrypsine cleavege of
peptide bond:
1. Nucleophilic attack of Ser oxygen
2. Formation and stabilisation of the
first reaction intermediate
3. Formation of the first reaction
product (peptide)
4. Nucleophilic attack of water
oxygen
5. Formation of the second
intermediate
6. Release of the second product
(peptide)
![Page 18: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
Enzyme classification
http//www.rrz.uni-hamburg.de/biologie/b_online/e18_1/ec.htm
http://www.expasy.org/enzyme/
ExPASy Proteomics Server
(Expert Protein Analysis System) proteomics server of the Swiss Institute of
Bioinformatics
Enzyme Commission (EC) IUBMB EC 1.1.1. 1 alkoholdehydrogenase
INTERNATIONAL UNION OF BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iubmb/enzyme/
![Page 19: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
EC X.Y.Z.W
Class 1 - 6
Type of reaction
Subclass
substrate
subsubclass
Special characteristic (Acceptor etc)
Ordinal number
![Page 20: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Common names, “half-systemic", systemic, -ase
Systemic: substrate 1: (substrate 2) class (ase)
examples:
H2O2 + H2O2 = O2 + 2 H2O
hydrogen peroxide:hydrogen peroxide oxidoreductase (catalase)
β-D-glucose + O2 → δ-D-gluconolactone + H2O2
β-D-glucose:oxygen 1-oxido-reductase (glucose oxidase)
Enzyme nomenclature
![Page 21: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Enzyme classes
1. Oxidoreduktasy
2. Transferasy
3. Hydrolasy
4. Lyasy
5. Isomerasy
6. Ligasy
![Page 22: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Enzyme classification
Class Reaction catalyzed Typical reaction Enzyme example(s) with
trivial name
EC 1
Oxidoreductases
Catalyze oxidation/reduction
reactions; transfer of H and O
atoms or electrons from one
substance to another
AH + B → A + BH
A- + B → A + B-
Dehydrogenase, oxidase,
oxygenase
EC 2
Transferases
Transfer of a ffunctional
groupsfrom one substance to
another. The group may be
methyl-, acyl-, amino- or
phosphate group
AB + C → A + BC Transaminase, kinase
EC 3
Hydrolases
Hydrolysis of substrate AB + H2O → AOH + BH Lipase, amylase, protease,
peptidase
EC 4
Lyases
Non-hydrolytic addition or
removal of groups from
substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-
S bonds may be cleaved
RCOCOOH → RCOH + CO2
or [x-A-B-Y] → [A=B + X-Y]
decarboxylase
EC 5
Isomerases
Intramolecule rearrangement,
i.e. isomerisation changes
within a single molecule
AB → BA Isomerase, mutase,
racemase
EC 6
Ligases
Join together two molecules by
synthesis of new C-O, C-S, C-N
or C-C bonds with
simultaneous breakdown of
ATP
X + Y+ ATP → XY + ADP +
Pi
Synthetase
![Page 23: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
1. Oxidoreduktases
CH3-CH2-OH
NAD+ NADH + H+
CH3-CHO
acceptor
donor
EC 1.1.3.4 -D-Glukosa:O2-1-oxidoreduktasa, glukosaoxidasa
-D-glucose + FAD -D-glucono-1,5-lactone + FADH2
FADH2 + O2 FAD + H2O2
-D-glucose + O2 -D-glukono-1,5-lakton + H2O2
![Page 24: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Cofactors of oxidoreduktases
Nikotinamidadenindinukleotid
- PO3
2- = NADP
+
![Page 25: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
![Page 26: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Flavine cofaktors
Flavine adenine dinucleotide - FAD
Flavine mononucleotide - FMN
Riboflavine, vitamin B2
![Page 27: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Flavine adedine dinucleotide (FAD) oxidized form
Flavine adedine dinucleotide - reduced form (FADH2)
![Page 28: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
N
N
N
N
O O O O
Fe
Heme – prosthetic group
![Page 29: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
2. Transferases
glycerol-3 phosphate acyltransferase
+ acyl-SCoA + HSCoA
hexokinase
ATP + D-hexose → ADP + D-hexose-6-phosphate
CH2
CH
CH2
OH
OH
O P
O
O
O
CH2
CH
CH2
O
OH
O P
O
O
O
C
O
R1
![Page 30: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
Cofactors of transferases
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
![Page 31: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
Cofactors of transferases
Coenzyme A (CoA, CoASH)
β-mercaptoethylamine
Panthotenic
acid
![Page 32: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Pyridoxalphosphate (B6 – pyridoxol, pyridoxamine)
Ex. transfer of amino groups
![Page 33: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Lipoamide (transferases, oxidoreductases)
![Page 34: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Biotin, tranfers carboxyl group, prosthetic group (transferases, ligases)
Growth factor of yeasts, avidin-biotin komplex
![Page 35: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
Thiaminediphosphate (vitamine B1), transfer of 2C residues, aldehydes
Cereal grains, beri-beri
![Page 36: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
Good news – 3. hydrolases does not need cofactors for their action
![Page 37: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
Lyases :
pyruvate decarboxylase
CH3-CO-COOH CH3-CHO + CO2
carbonate anhydrase
H2CO3 CO2 + H2O
![Page 38: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Adenylate cyclase
cAMP
H
P
O
OH
O
O
H
O
H
H
CH2
H
NN
NN
NH2
OP
O
O
OP
O
O
OO
HP O
O
O
H
O
H
H
CH2
H
NN
NN
NH2
O
O
P
O
O
OP
O
O
OO
ATP cAMP + PPi
+
![Page 39: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Isomerases
• Triosaphosphate isomerase
• D-glyceraldehyde-3-fphosphate dihydroxyacetonphosphate
• EC 5.3.1.5 glukosaisomerasa
Glucose fructose
CH
CH
CH2
O
OH
O P
O
O
O
CH2
C
CH2
OH
O
O P
O
O
O
![Page 40: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
6. Ligases
tyrosine-tRNA-ligase
L-Tyr + tRNATyr + ATP L-Tyr-tRNATyr + AMP + PPi
Pyruvate carboxylase
CH3-CO-COO- + HCO3- +ATP -OOC-CH2-CO-COO- + ADP + Pi
DNA-ligase
ATP + (deoxyribonucleotide)n + (deoxyribonucleotide)m
(deoxyribonucleotide)n+m + AMP + PPi
![Page 41: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
Tetrahydrolistová kyselina, přenáší 1C zbytky vázané na N5
![Page 42: History of enzymesold-biomikro.vscht.cz/vyuka/ba1/Enzymes_1.pdf · Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from substrates. C-C, C-N, C-O or C-S bonds may be cleaved RCOCOOH](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052005/6018d3036f5c82325723555a/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
Thiamindifosfate, transfer of 2C residues, aldehydes
Obilné slupky, beri-beri