History of IndiaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThis article is about the history of theIndian subcontinentwithIndiain focus prior to thepartition of Indiain 1947. For the modern Republic of India(post 1947), seeHistory of the Republic of India. ForPakistanandBangladeshin focus, seeHistory of PakistanandHistory of Bangladesh."Indian history" redirects here. For other uses, seeNative American history.Part ofa serieson the

History ofIndia

Chronology of Indian history

Ancient India

Prehistoric IndiaandVedic India Religions,Society,Mahajanapadas Mauryan Period Economy,Spread of Buddhism,Chanakya,Satavahana Empire The Golden Age Discoveries,Aryabhata,Ramayana,Mahabharata

Medieval India

The Classical Age Gurjara-Pratihara Pala Empire Rashtrakuta Empire Art,Philosophy,Literature Islam in India Delhi Sultanate,Vijayanagara Empire,Music,Guru Nanak Mughal India Architecture,Maratha Confederacy

Modern India

Company Rule Zamindari system,Warren Hastings,Mangal Pandey,1857 British Indian Empire Hindu reforms,Bengal Renaissance,Independence struggle,Mahatma Gandhi,Subhas Chandra Bose

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Outline of South Asian historyHistory of Indian subcontinent

Soanian people(500,000 BP)[show]

Stone Age(70003000 BC)[show]

Bronze Age(30001300 BC)[show]

Iron Age(120026 BC)[show]

Classical period(211279 AD)[show]

Late medieval period(12061596)[show]

Early modern period(15261858)[show]

Colonial period(15101961)[show]

Other states(11021947)[show]

Kingdoms of Sri Lanka[show]

Nation histories[show]

Regional histories[show]

Specialised histories[show]

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Thehistory of Indiabegins with evidence of human activity ofAnatomically modern humans,as long as 75,000 years ago, or with earlier hominids includingHomo erectusfrom about 500,000 years ago.[1]TheIndus Valley Civilization, which spread and flourished in the northwestern part of theIndian subcontinentfrom c. 3300 to 1300 BCE in present-day Pakistan and northwest India, was the first major civilization inSouth Asia.[2]A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture developed in theMature Harappanperiod, from 2600 to 1900 BCE.[3]This civilization collapsed at the start of the second millennium BCE and was later followed by theIron AgeVedic Civilization, which extended over much of theIndo-Gangetic plainand which witness the rise of major polities known as theMahajanapadas. In one of these kingdoms,Magadha,MahaviraandGautama Buddhapropagated theirShramanicphilosophies during the fifth and sixth century BCE.Most of the subcontinent was conquered by theMaurya Empireduring the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. From the 3rd century BC onwardsPrakritandPaliliterature in the north and theSangam literaturein southern India started to flourish.[4][5]The famousWootz steeloriginated in south India in the 3rd century BC and was also exported to foreign countries.[6][7][8]Various parts of India were ruled by numerousMiddle kingdomsfor the next 1,500 years, among which theGupta Empirestand out. This period, witnessing aHindureligious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or "Golden Age of India". During this period, aspects of Indian civilization, administration, culture, and religion (HinduismandBuddhism) spread to much ofAsia, while kingdoms in southern India had maritime business links with the Roman Empire from around 77 CE. During this period Indian cultural influence spread over many parts ofSoutheast Asiawhich led to the establishment ofIndianized kingdomsinSoutheast Asia(Greater India).[9]The most significant event between the 7th and 11th century was theTripartite strugglebetween thePala Empire,Rashtrakuta Empire, andGurjara Pratihara Empirecentered onKannaujthat lasted for more than two centuries. Southern India saw the rule of theChalukya Empire,Chola Empire,Pallava Empire,Pandyan Empire, andWestern Chalukya Empire. Seventh century also saw the advent of Islam as a political power, though as a fringe, in the western part of thesubcontinentin modern day Pakistan.[10]TheChola dynastyconquered southern India and successfully invaded parts ofSoutheast AsiaandSri Lankain the 11th century.[11][12]The early medieval periodIndian mathematicsinfluenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world and theHindu numeralswere introduced.[13]Muslim rule started in parts of the north India in the 13th century when theDelhi Sultanatewas founded in 1206 CE by the central Asian Turks.[14]The Delhi Sultanate ruled the major part of northern India in the early 14th century, but declined in the late 14th century, which saw the emergence of several powerful Hindu states like theVijayanagara Empire,Gajapati Kingdom,Ahom KingdomandMewar dynasty. In the 16th centuryMughalscame from Central Asia and covered most of India gradually. The Mughal Empire suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, which provided opportunities for theMaratha Empire,Sikh EmpireandMysore Kingdomto exercise control over large areas in the subcontinent.[15][16]Though western exploration and trade started in some parts of India in the 16th century; from the late 18th century to the middle of 19th century, large areas of India were annexed by the British East India Company. Dissatisfaction with Company rule led to theIndian Rebellion of 1857, after which theBritish provincesof India were directly administered by theBritish Crownand witnessed a period of both rapid development of infrastructure and economic stagnation. During the first half of the 20th century, a nationwidestruggle for independencewas launched with the leading party involved being theIndian National Congresswhich was later joined by other organizations as well.The subcontinent gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, after the British provinces werepartitionedinto the dominions of India and Pakistan and theprincely statesallaccededto one of the new states.Contents[hide] 1Chronology of Indian history 2Prehistoric era 2.1Stone Age 2.2Indus Valley Civilisation 3Vedic period (1750 BCE 500 BCE) 3.1Vedic society 3.2Sanskritization 3.3Sanskrit Epics 4"Second urbanisation" (500200 BCE) 4.1Mahajanapadas (600300 BCE) 4.2Upanishads and Shramana movements 4.3Magadha Empire 4.4Persian and Greek conquests 4.5Maurya Empire (322185 BCE) 5Classical period (c. 200 BCE-1100 CE) 5.1Early Classical Period (ca. 200 BCE650 CE) 5.1.1Sunga Empire 5.1.2Satavahana Dynasty 5.1.3Kharavela Empire 5.1.4Northwestern kingdoms and hybrid cultures 5.1.5Kushan Empire 5.1.6Travels to India 5.1.7Roman trade with India 5.1.8Gupta Empire - Golden Age 5.1.9Vakataka Dynasty 5.1.10The White Huns 5.1.11Empire of Harsha 5.2Late-Classical period (c. 6501100 CE) 5.2.1Chalukya Empire 5.2.2Rashtrakuta Empire (8th10th century) 5.2.3Pala Empire (8th12th century) 5.2.4Chola Empire (9th13th century) 5.2.5Western Chalukya Empire 6Coming & coexistence of Islam and the rise of the Mixed Culture 6.1Early Islamic intrusions into South Asia (8th12th Century) 6.2Delhi Sultanate (12061526) 6.3Vijayanagara Empire (14th16th century) 6.4Regional powers 6.5Mughal Empire 6.6Maratha Empire (16741818) 6.7Sikh Empire (North-west) 6.8Other kingdoms 7Beginning of European explorations and establishment of Colonialism 7.1Western explorers and traders (c.15001750) 7.2Expansion of the British East India Company rule in India (17571857) 8Modern period and Independence (after c.1850) 8.1The rebellion of 1857 and its consequences 8.2British Raj (18581947) 8.2.1Reforms 8.2.2Famines 8.3The Indian independence movement 8.4Independence and partition (1947present) 9Historiography 10See also 11Notes 12References 13Sources 13.1Printed sources 13.2Web-sources 14Further reading 14.1General 14.2Historiography 14.3Primary 15External linksChronology of Indian history[edit]See also:Outline of South Asian history[show]Chronology of India v t e

James Mill(17731836), in hisThe History of British India(1817), distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations. This periodisation has been influential, but has also been criticised, for the misconceptions it has given rise to. Another influential periodisation is the division into "ancient, classical, medieval and modern periods", although this periodization has also received criticism.[17]Romila Thapar notes that the division of Hindu-Muslim-British periods of Indian history gives too much weight to "ruling dynasties and foreign invasions,"[18]neglecting the social-economic history which often showed a strong continuity.[18]The division in Ancient-Medieval-Modern overlooks the fact that the Muslim-conquests took place very slowly and gradually taking a long time during which many things came and went off, while the south was never completely conquered.[18]According to Thapar, a periodisation could also be based on "significant social and economic changes," which are not strictly related to a change of ruling powers.[19][note 1]Prehistoric era[edit]Stone Age[edit]Main article:South Asian Stone AgeFurther information:Peopling of India,Mehrgarh,Bhimbetka rock sheltersandEdakkal Cave

Bhimbetka rock painting,Madhya Pradesh, India (c.30,000 years old)

Stone age(5000 BCE) writings ofEdakkal CavesinKerala, India.Isolated remains ofHomo erectusin Hathnora in theNarmada Valleyin central India indicate that India might have been inhabited since at least theMiddle Pleistoceneera, somewhere between 500,000 and 200,000 years ago.[20][21]Tools crafted by proto-humans that have been dated back two million years have been discovered in the northwestern part of the subcontinent.[22][23]The ancient history of the region includes some of South Asia's oldest settlements[24]and some of its major civilisations.[25][26]The earliest archaeological site in the subcontinent is the palaeolithichominidsite in theSoan River valley.[27]Soanian sites are found in theSivalik regionacross what are now India, Pakistan, and Nepal.[28]TheMesolithicperiod in the Indian subcontinent was followed by theNeolithicperiod, when more extensive settlement of the subcontinent occurred after the end of the lastIce Ageapproximately 12,000 years ago. The first confirmed semipermanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in theBhimbetka rock sheltersin modernMadhya Pradesh, India. Early Neolithic culture in South Asia is represented by theBhirranafindings (7500 BCE) inHaryana, India &Mehrgarhfindings (70009000 BCE) inBalochistan, Pakistan.[29][30][31]Traces of a Neolithic culture have been alleged to be submerged in theGulf of Khambatin India,radiocarbon datedto 7500 BCE.[32]However, the one dredged piece of wood in question was found in an area of strong ocean currents. Neolithic agriculture cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region around 5000 BCE, in the lower Gangetic valley around 3000 BCE, and in later South India, spreading southwards and also northwards intoMalwaaround 1800 BCE. The first urban civilisation of the region began with theIndus Valley Civilisation.[33]Indus Valley Civilisation[edit]Main article:Indus Valley Civilisation

"Priest King" ofIndus Valley CivilisationTheBronze Agein theIndian subcontinentbegan around 3300 BCE with the early Indus Valley Civilisation. It was centred on theIndus Riverand its tributaries which extended into theGhaggar-Hakra Rivervalley,[25]theGanges-Yamuna Doab,[34]Gujarat,[35]and southeastern Afghanistan.[36]The civilisation is primarily located in modern-day India (Gujarat,Haryana,PunjabandRajasthanprovinces) and Pakistan (Sindh,Punjab, andBalochistanprovinces). Historically part ofAncient India, it is one of the world's earliest urban civilisations, along withMesopotamiaandAncient Egypt.[37]Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, theHarappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft (carneol products, seal carving), and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin.The Mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the beginning of urban civilisation on the subcontinent. The civilisation included urban centres such asDholavira,Kalibangan,Ropar,Rakhigarhi, andLothalin modern-day India, andHarappa,Ganeriwala, andMohenjo-daroin modern-day Pakistan. The civilisation is noted for its cities built of brick, roadside drainage system, and multistoried houses.During thelate periodof this civilisation, signs of agradual declinebegan to emerge, and by around 1700 BCE, most of the cities were abandoned. However, the Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly, and some elements of the Indus Civilization may have survived, especially in the smaller villages and isolated farms. The IndianCopper Hoard Cultureis attributed to this time, associated in theDoabregion with theOchre Coloured Pottery.Vedic period (1750 BCE 500 BCE)[edit][show]Spread of IE-languages

[show]Indo-Aryan migration

Main articles:Indo-Aryans,Indo-Aryan migration,Vedic period,Vedic CivilisationandHistorical Vedic religionSee also:Proto-Indo-Europeans,Proto-Indo-European religion,Indo-IraniansandProto-Indo-Iranian religionTheVedic periodis characterised byIndo-Aryanculture associated with the texts ofVedas, sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed inVedic Sanskrit. TheVedasare some of the oldest extant texts in India.[38]The Vedic period, lasting from about 1750 to 500 BCE,[39][40]contributed the foundations ofHinduismand other cultural aspects ofIndian subcontinent. In terms of culture, many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from theChalcolithicto theIron Agein this period.[41]

A map ofNorth Indiain the lateVedic period.Vedic society[edit]Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit aVedic culturein thePunjab regionand the upperGangetic Plain.[41]Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves ofIndo-Aryan migrationinto the subcontinent from the north-west.[42][43]Vedic people believed in the transmigration of the soul, and thepeepaltree and cow were sanctified by the time of theAtharva Veda.[44]Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later like Dharma, Karma etc. trace their root to the Vedas.[45]

Theswastikais a major element ofHindu iconography.Early Vedic society is described in theRigveda, the oldest Vedic text, believed to have been compiled during 2nd millennium BCE,[46][47]in the northwestern region of theIndian subcontinent.[48]At this time, Aryan society consisted of largely tribal and pastoral groups, distinct from the Harappan urbanisation which had been abandoned.[49]The early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to theOchre Coloured Pottery culturein archaeological contexts.[50][51]At the end of the Rigvedic period, the Aryan society began to expand from the northwestern region of theIndian subcontinent, into the westernGangesplain. It became increasingly agricultural and was socially organised around the hierarchy of the fourvarnas, or social classes. This social structure was characterized both by syncretising with the native cultures of northern India,[52]but also eventually by the excluding of indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure.[53]During this period, many of the previous small tribal units and chiefdoms began to coalesce into monarchical, state-level polities.[54]Sanskritization[edit]Main article:SanskritizationSince Vedic times,[55][note 2]"people from many strata of society throughout the subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanic norms", a process sometimes calledSanskritization.[55]It is reflected in the tendency to identify local deities with the gods of the Sanskrit texts.[55]TheKuru kingdomwas the first state-level society of the Vedic period, corresponding to the beginning of the Iron Age in northwestern India, around 1200 800 BCE,[56]as well as with the composition of theAtharvaveda(the first Indian text to mention iron, asyma ayas, literally "black metal").[57]The Kuru state organized the Vedic hymns into collections, and developed the orthodoxsrautaritual to uphold the social order.[58]When the Kuru kingdom declined, the center of Vedic culture shifted to their eastern neighbours, thePanchalakingdom.[58]The archaeologicalPainted Grey Ware culture, which flourished in theHaryanaand westernUttar Pradeshregions of northern India from about 1100 to 600 BCE,[50]is believed to correspond to theKuruandPanchalakingdoms.[58][59]During the Late Vedic Period, the kingdom ofVidehaemerged as a new center of Vedic culture, situated even farther to the East (in what is today Nepal andBiharstate in India).[60]The later part of this period corresponds with a consolidation of increasingly large states and kingdoms, calledmahajanapadas, all across Northern India.Sanskrit Epics[edit]Main articles:MahabharataandRamayanaIn addition to the Vedas, the principal texts of Hinduism, the core themes of the Sanskrit epicsRamayanaandMahabharataare said to have their ultimate origins during this period.[61]TheMahabharataremains, today, the longest single poem in the world.[62]Historians formerly postulated an "epic age" as the milieu of these two epic poems, but now recognize that the texts (which are both familiar with each other) went through multiple stages of development over centuries. For instance, theMahabharatamay have been based on a small-scale conflict (possibly about 1000 BCE) which was eventually "transformed into a gigantic epic war by bards and poets".There is no conclusive proof from archaeology as to whether the specific events of the Mahabharat have any historical basis.[63]The existing texts of these epics are believed to belong to the post-Vedic age, between c. 400 BCE and 400 CE.[63][64]Some even attempted to date the events using methods ofarchaeoastronomywhich have produced, depending on which passages are chosen and how they are interpreted, estimated dates ranging up to mid 2nd millennium BCE.[65][66]"Second urbanisation" (500200 BCE)[edit]During the time between 800 and 200 BCE theShramana-movement formed, from which originatedJainismandBuddhism. In the same period the firstUpanishadswere written. After 500 BCE, the so-called "Second urbanisation" started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain, especially the Central Ganges plain.[67]The Central Ganges Plain, whereMagadhagained prominence, forming the base of theMauryan Empire, was a distinct cultural area,[68]with new states arising after 500 BCE[web 1]during the so-called "Second urbanisation".[69][note 3]It was influenced by the Vedic culture,[70]but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region.[68]It "was the area of the earliest known cultivation of rice in South Asia and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar".[71]In this region theShramanicmovements flourished, andJainismandBuddhismoriginated.[67]Mahajanapadas (600300 BCE)[edit]

TheMahajanapadaswere the sixteen most powerful kingdoms and republics of the era, located mainly across the fertileIndo-Gangetic plains, there were a number of smaller kingdoms stretching the length and breadth ofAncient India.Main articles:MahajanapadasandHaryanka dynastyIn the later Vedic Age, a number of small kingdoms or city states had covered the subcontinent, many mentioned in Vedic, early Buddhist and Jaina literature as far back as 500 BCE. sixteen monarchies and "republics" known as theMahajanapadasKashi,Kosala,Anga,Magadha,Vajji(or Vriji),Malla,Chedi,Vatsa(or Vamsa),Kuru,Panchala,Matsya(or Machcha),Shurasena,Assaka,Avanti,Gandhara, andKambojastretched across theIndo-Gangetic Plainfrom modern-day Afghanistan toBengalandMaharastra. This period saw the second major rise of urbanism in India after theIndus Valley Civilisation.[72]Many smaller clans mentioned within early literature seem to have been present across the rest of the subcontinent. Some of these kings were hereditary; other states elected their rulers. Early "republics" such as theVajji(or Vriji) confederation centered in the city ofVaishali, existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE. The educated speech at that time wasSanskrit, while the languages of the general population of northern India are referred to asPrakrits. Many of the sixteen kingdoms had coalesced to four major ones by 500/400 BCE, by the time ofGautama Buddha. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha.The Life of Gautam Budhha was mainly associated with these four kingdoms.[72]This period corresponds in an archaeological context to theNorthern Black Polished Wareculture.Upanishads and Shramana movements[edit]

Nalandais considered one of the first great universities in recorded history. It was the centre ofBuddhistlearning and research in the world from 450 to 1193 CE.Main articles:History of Hinduism,History of BuddhismandHistory of JainismSee also:Gautama BuddhaandMahaviraFurther information:Upanishads,Indian Religions,Indian philosophyandAncient universities of IndiaThe 7th and 6th centuries BCE witnessed the composition of the earliestUpanishads.[73][74]Upanishads form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism and are known asVedanta(conclusion of theVedas).[75]The older Upanishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack on the ritual by comparing those who value sacrifice with an unsafe boat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and death.[76]Increasing urbanisation of India in 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or shramana movements which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals.[73]Mahavira (c. 549477 BCE), proponent ofJainism, andBuddha(c. 563-483), founder ofBuddhismwere the most prominent icons of this movement. Shramana gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept ofsamsara, and the concept of liberation.[77]Buddha found aMiddle Waythat ameliorated the extremeasceticismfound in theSramanareligions.[78]Around the same time,Mahavira(the 24thTirthankarainJainism) propagated a theology that was to later become Jainism.[79]However, Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time and scholars believeParshva, accorded status as the 23rd Tirthankara, was a historical figure. TheVedasare believed to have documented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to theshramanamovement.[80]Magadha Empire[edit]Main article:MagadhaMagadha(Sanskrit:) formed one of the sixteenMah-Janapadas(Sanskrit: "Great Countries") orkingdoms in ancient India. The core of the kingdom was the area ofBiharsouth of theGanges; its first capital wasRajagriha(modern Rajgir) thenPataliputra(modernPatna). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar andBengalwith the conquest ofLicchaviandAngarespectively,[81]followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily mentioned inJainandBuddhisttexts. It is also mentioned in theRamayana,Mahabharata,Puranas.[82]A state of Magadha, possibly atribal kingdom, is recorded in Vedic texts much earlier in time than 600BCE. Magadha Empire had great rulers like Bimbisara and Ajatshatru.The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in theAtharva-Vedawhere they are found listed along with theAngas,Gandharis, and Mujavats. Magadha played an important role in the development ofJainismandBuddhism, and two of India's greatest empires, theMaurya EmpireandGupta Empire, originated from Magadha. These empires saw advancements in ancient India's science, mathematics,astronomy, religion, and philosophy and were considered the Indian "Golden Age". The Magadha kingdom included republican communities such as the community of Rajakumara. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions.Persian and Greek conquests[edit]See also:Achaemenid Empire,Greco-Buddhism,Indo-Greek Kingdom,Alexander the Great,Nanda EmpireandGangaridai

Asia in 323 BCE, theNanda Empireand theGangaridaiin relation toAlexander's Empire and neighbors.In 530 BCECyrus the Great, King of the PersianAchaemenid Empirecrossed the Hindu-Kush mountains to seek tribute from the tribes of Kamboja, Gandhara and the trans-India region (modern Afghanistan and Pakistan).[83]By 520 BCE, during the reign of Darius I of Persia, much of the northwestern subcontinent (present-day eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the rule of the PersianAchaemenid Empire. The area remained under Persian control for two centuries.[84]During this time India supplied mercenaries to the Persian army then fighting in Greece.[83]Under Persian rule the famous city ofTakshashilabecame a centre where both Vedic and Iranian learning were mingled.[85]The impact of Persian ideas was felt in many areas of Indian life. Persian coinage and rock inscriptions were adopted by India. However, Persian ascendency in northern India ended withAlexander the Great's conquest of Persia in 327 BCE.[86]By 326 BCE,Alexander the Greathad conquered Asia Minor and the Achaemenid Empire and had reached the northwest frontiers of the Indian subcontinent. There he defeatedKing Porusin theBattle of the Hydaspes(near modern-dayJhelum, Pakistan) and conquered much of thePunjab.[87]Alexander's march east put him in confrontation with theNanda EmpireofMagadhaand theGangaridaiofBengal. His army, exhausted and frightened by the prospect of facing larger Indian armies at the Ganges River, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modernBeas River) and refused to march further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer,Coenus, and learning about the might ofNanda Empire, was convinced that it was better to return.The Persian and Greek invasions had important repercussions on Indian civilisation. The political systems of the Persians were to influence future forms of governance on the subcontinent, including the administration of the Mauryan dynasty. In addition, the region of Gandhara, or present-day eastern Afghanistan and northwest Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian, Persian, Central Asian, and Greek cultures and gave rise to a hybrid culture,Greco-Buddhism, which lasted until the 5th century CE and influenced the artistic development ofMahayana Buddhism.Maurya Empire (322185 BCE)[edit]Main article:Maurya EmpireFurther information:Chandragupta Maurya,BindusaraandAshoka the Great

TheMaurya EmpireunderAshoka the Great.

Ashokan pillaratVaishali, 3rd century BCE.TheMaurya Empire(322185 BCE), ruled by the Maurya dynasty, was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military empire in ancient India. It was the first empire to unify India into one state, and the largest on the Indian subcontinent. The empire was established byChandragupta MauryainMagadha(in modernBihar) when he overthrew theNanda Dynasty.[88]He went on to conquer the northwestern parts of the subcontinent that had been conquered by Alexander the Great. The empire flourished under the reign of Chandragupta's grandson,Ashoka the Great.[89]At its greatest extent, it stretched to the north to the natural boundaries of theHimalayasand to the east into what is nowAssam. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, to theHindu Kushmountains in what is now Afghanistan. The empire was expanded into India's central and southern regions by the emperors Chandragupta andBindusara, but it excluded extensive unexplored tribal and forested regions nearKalingawhich were subsequently taken by Ashoka.[90]Ashoka ruled the Maurya Empire for 37 years from 268 BCE until he died in 232 BCE.[90]During that time, Ashoka pursued an active foreign policy aimed at setting up a unified state.[91]However, Ashoka became involved in a war with the state ofKalingawhich is located on the western shore of the Bay of Bengal.[92]This war forced Ashoka to abandon his attempt at a foreign policy which would unify the Maurya Empire.[91]During the Mauryan Empire slavery developed rapidly and a significant amount of written records on slavery are found.[93]The Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy and society. However, the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by the government.[94]Although there was no banking in the Mauryan society, usury was customary with loans made at the recognized interest rate of 15% per annum.Ashoka's reign propagatedBuddhism. In this regard Ashoka established many Buddhist monuments. Indeed, Ashoka put a strain on the economy and the government by his strong support of Buddhism, towards the end of his reign he "bled the state coffers white with his generous gifts to promote the promulgation of Buddha's teaching".[91]As might be expected, this policy caused considerable opposition within the government. This opposition rallied around Sampadi, Ashoka's grandson and heir to the throne.[95]Religious opposition to Ashoka also arose among the orthodox Brahmins and the adherents ofJainism.[96]Chandragupta's ministerChanakyais traditionally credited with authorship of theArthashastra, a treatise on economics, politics, foreign affairs, administration, military arts, war, and religion. Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era ofNorthern Black Polished Ware(NBPW). TheArthashastraand theEdicts of Ashokaare primary written records of the Mauryan times. TheLion Capital of AshokaatSarnath, is the national emblem of India.During this period the high quality steel calledWootz steelwas developed in south India and was later exported to China and Arabia.[6]Classical period (c. 200 BCE-1100 CE)[edit]Main article:Middle Kingdoms of IndiaThe time between 200 BCE and ca. 1100 CE is the "Classical Age" of India. It can be divided in various sub-periods, depending on the chosen periodisation. TheGupta Empire(4th6th century) is regarded as the "Golden Age" of Hinduism, although a host of kingdoms ruled over India in these centuries. In southern India TheSangam literatureflourished from the 3rd century BC to 3rd century CE in southern India.[5]Early Classical Period (ca. 200 BCE650 CE)[edit]Sunga Empire[edit]

Ancient Indiaduring the rise of theSungaandSatavahanaempires.Main article:Sunga EmpireTheSunga EmpireorShunga Empirewas an ancient Indian dynasty fromMagadhathat controlled vast areas of theIndian Subcontinentfrom around 187 to 78 BCE. The dynasty was established byPushyamitra Sunga, after the fall of theMaurya Empire. Its capital wasPataliputra, but later emperors such asBhagabhadraalso held court atBesnagar, modernVidishain EasternMalwa.[97]Pushyamitra Sunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his sonAgnimitra. There were ten Sunga rulers. The empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers. They fought battles with theKalingas,Satavahanas, theIndo-Greeks, and possibly thePanchalasandMathuras. Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period including small terracotta images, larger stone sculptures, and architectural monuments such as the Stupa atBharhut, and the renowned Great Stupa atSanchi. The Sunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by the empire was a variant ofBrahmiand was used to write theSanskrit language. The Sunga Empire played an imperative role in patronizingIndian cultureat a time when some of the most important developments inHinduthought were taking place.Satavahana Dynasty[edit]Main article:Satavahana DynastyThetavhana Empirewas a royal Indian dynasty based fromAmaravatiinAndhra Pradeshas well asJunnar(Pune) and Prathisthan (Paithan) inMaharashtra. The territory of the empire covered much of India from 230 BCE onward. Stavhanas started out as feudatories to theMauryan dynasty, but declared independence with its decline. They are known for their patronage ofHinduismandBuddhismwhich resulted in Buddhist monuments fromEllora(aUNESCO World Heritage Site) toAmaravati. The Stavhanas were one of the first Indian states to issue coins struck with their rulers embossed. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as well as the transfer of ideas and culture to and from theIndo-Gangetic Plainto the southern tip of India. They had to compete with theSunga Empireand then theKanva dynastyofMagadhato establish their rule. Later, they played a crucial role to protect a huge part of India against foreign invaders like theSakas,YavanasandPahlavas. In particular their struggles with theWestern Kshatrapaswent on for a long time. The notable rulers of the Satavahana DynastyGautamiputra SatakarniandSri Yajna Stakarniwere able to defeat the foreign invaders like theWestern Kshatrapasand to stop their expansion. In the 3rd century CE the empire was split into smaller states.Kharavela Empire[edit]

Kharavela EmpireKharavela, the warrior king ofKalinga,[98]ruled a vast empire and was responsible for the propagation ofJainismin the Indian subcontinent.[98]The Kharavelan Jain empire included a maritime empire with trading r