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HISTORY OFMODERN INDIA

An initiative of Group

B I G L E A R N I N G S M A D E E ASY

Civil Services Examination

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History of Modern IndiaContents

Unit – I: An Era of Power Struggle

Chapter-1

Mughals ............................................................21.1 Development of the Mughal Empire ....................2

Babur ...................................................................2

Humayun ..............................................................3

Sur Empire (1540-55) ...........................................3

Akbar....................................................................3

Jahangir ...............................................................5

Shah Jahan ..........................................................5

Aurangzeb ...........................................................5

1.2 Later Mughals ......................................................5

Bahadur Shah-I ....................................................6

Jahandar Shah (1712-13) .....................................6

Farrukh Siyar (1713-19) ........................................6

Saiyid Brothers .....................................................6

Muhammad Shah (1720-48) .................................6

1.5 Foreign Invasions .................................................6

Nadir Shah’s Invasion ..........................................6

Ahmed Shah Abdali’s Invasions ...........................7

1.6 Analysis ................................................................7

Causes of Decline of Mughal Empire ...................7

Chapter-2

Rise of Regional Powers...............................122.1 Introduction ........................................................12

2.2 Successor States ...............................................12

Awadh ................................................................12

Bengal ................................................................15

Hyderabad .........................................................17

2.3 The New states...................................................19

Punjab ................................................................19

Marathas ............................................................19

Jat State .............................................................21

2.4 Independent Kingdoms ......................................21

Mysore ...............................................................22

Kerala .................................................................25

Rajput States ......................................................25

2.5 Conclusion .........................................................27

Chapter-3

Advent of Europeans ....................................293.1 Introduction ........................................................29

3.2 Need for New Trading Routes ............................29

Geographical Causes ........................................29

Technological Advancement ..............................29

Political Causes ..................................................30

Economic Causes ..............................................30

Psychological Causes ........................................30

Religious Causes ...............................................30

3.3 The Portuguese ..................................................30

Portuguese Rise in India ....................................30

Portuguese Decline in India ...............................31

3.3 The Dutch ...........................................................31

Dutch Rise in India .............................................31

Dutch Decline in India ........................................32

3.4 The French .........................................................32

French Rise in India ...........................................32

French Decline in India ......................................32

3.6 The British ..........................................................33

Reasons for Success of British East India Company ............................................................33

Chapter-4

Obstacles to British Rise ..............................354.1 Anglo-French Conflict ........................................35

Introduction ........................................................35

First Carnatic War (1746-48) ..............................35

Second Carnatic War (1749-1754) .....................35

Third Carnatic War (1758-1763) .........................36

Critical Analysis ..................................................37

4.2 Anglo-Mysore Wars (1767-99)............................38

Introduction ........................................................38

First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69) ......................38

Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84) ................39

Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92) ....................39

Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1798-99) ..................40

4.3 Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775-1819) ......................41

Introduction ........................................................41

First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82) ....................41

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Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-06) ...............41Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-18) ...................42

4.4 Anglo-Sikh Relations ..........................................43The Sikhs ............................................................43Emergence of Ranjit Singh .................................44Governance under Ranjit Singh .........................44Religious Policies ...............................................44First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46) ..........................44Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49) .....................45

Chapter-5

Rise of British Power in Bengal ...................475.1 Introduction ........................................................47

5.2 Bengal ................................................................47Factories and Farmans.......................................47Tension in Bengal ...............................................47

5.3 Black Hole ..........................................................48

5.4 Battle of Plassey (1757) .....................................48Introduction ........................................................48Conspiracy .........................................................48Causes ...............................................................48Events ................................................................48Aftermath ............................................................49Significance of Plassey ......................................49

5.5 Mir Jafar .............................................................49

5.6 Mir Qasim ...........................................................49Treaty with Calcutta Council (1760) ...................49Mir Qasim and East India Company ...................50Conflict Continues ..............................................50

5.7 Battle of Buxar (1764) ........................................50Causes ...............................................................50Events ................................................................50Aftermath ............................................................50The Treaty of Allahabad .....................................50Significance of Battle of Buxar ...........................51

5.8 Dual Government in Bengal (1765-72) ...............51Dual Government ...............................................51Reasons for Dual Government ...........................51Impact ................................................................51

5.9 Analysis: Battle of Plassey and Battle of Buxar ..51

5.10 Conclusion .........................................................52

Chapter-6

Administration during East India Company (1757-1856)....................................536.1 Dual Administration of Bengal ............................53

Introduction ........................................................53

Consequences ...................................................53

Critiques of the Dual Administration ...................53

6.2 Judicial System ..................................................54

Need for a Judicial System ................................54

Development of Judicial System ........................54

An Overview .......................................................55

Critical Analysis ..................................................55

6.3 Indian Civil Services ...........................................55

Introduction ........................................................55

Important Chain of Events ..................................55

6.4 Finance and Revenue: Drain of Wealth ..............56

Drain of Wealth: Factors and Forces ..................56

Drain of Wealth: Mechanism ................................56

Drain of Wealth: Impact ......................................56

Drain of Wealth: Theories ...................................56

6.5 Land Revenue Policy .........................................56

Need for a Land Revenue System ......................57

Permanent Settlement ........................................57

Ryotwari Settlement ............................................58

Mahalwari System ..............................................58

6.6 Commercialization of Agriculture .......................59

Factors and Forces ............................................59

Pattern ................................................................59

Features .............................................................59

Impact ................................................................59

6.7 De-industrialization of India ................................59

Factors and Forces ............................................60

Impact ................................................................60

6.8 Famines ..............................................................60

Causes of Famines .............................................60

6.9 European Business Enterprises .........................60

Characteristics ...................................................60

Development of Means of Transport and Communication ..................................................60

Development of Industries .................................61

Unit – II: Awakening of India

Chapter-7

Socio-Religious Reform ................................657.1 Indian Society ....................................................65

7.2 Reform Movements ............................................65

Brahmo Samaj ....................................................65

Young Bengal Movement ...................................67

Prarthana Samaj .................................................68

Ramakrishna Mission .........................................68

Arya Samaj .........................................................69

Paramhansa Mandalis ........................................69

Satyashodhak Samaj (Truth Seekers’ Society) ...69

Gyan Prasarak Mandalis ....................................70

The Servants of India Society .............................70

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Social Service League .......................................70

Seva Sadan ........................................................70

Shuddhi Movement ............................................70

Veda Samaj ........................................................70

7.3 Philosophical Movements ...................................70

Deva Samaj ........................................................70

Radha Swami Movement ....................................70

7.4 Movements in South India ..................................70

Shri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Movement (SNDP) ..............................................70

Vokkaligara Sangha ...........................................71

Justice Movement ..............................................71

Self Respect Movement .....................................71

Indian Social Conference ...................................71

Theosophical Society of India ............................71

7.5 Movements by the Muslims ................................72

Wahabi/Walliullah Movement .............................72

Aligarh Movement ..............................................72

Titu Mir’s Movement ...........................................72

Faraizi Revolt ......................................................72

Ahmadiyya Movement ........................................72

7.6 Parsi Reform Movements ...................................73

Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha ........................73

7.7 Sikh Reform Movement ......................................73

Singh Sabha Movement .....................................73

Akali Movement ..................................................73

7.8 Movements Organized by Orthodox Sections ....73

Dharma Sabha ...................................................73

Bharat Dharma Mahamandala ...........................73

Deoband School ................................................73

7.9 Analysis of the Socio-Religious Reform ..............73

Positive Impact ...................................................73

Negative Impact .................................................74

7.10 Conclusion .........................................................75

Chapter-8

Revolt of 1857 ................................................778.1 Introduction ........................................................77

8.2 Causes ...............................................................77

Economic Causes ..............................................77

Socio-Religious Causes .....................................78

Political Causes ..................................................78

Administrative Causes .......................................78

Military Causes ...................................................78

Immediate Cause ...............................................79

8.3 Beginning and Spread of the Revolt ..................79

Delhi ...................................................................79

Kanpur ...............................................................80

Lucknow .............................................................80

Jagdishpur .........................................................80

Jhansi .................................................................80

Other Areas ........................................................80

8.4 Causes of Failure of the Revolt ...........................80

8.5 Analysis of the Revolt .........................................81

8.6 Changes After the Revolt ...................................81

In Administration ................................................81

In Military ............................................................82

In Economy ........................................................82

In Society ...........................................................82

8.7 Nature of the Revolt: Analysis ............................82

Unit – III: From Crown Rule to Independence

Chapter-9

Indian National Movement: First Phase (1858-1907) .....................................................869.1 Introduction ........................................................86

Nation .................................................................86

Nationalism ........................................................86

Indian Nationalism ..............................................86

India: A Nation ...................................................86

9.2 Causes that helped the Rise of Indian Nationalism ........................................................86

Political and Administrative Unification of India..86

Development of Transportation and Communication Network ....................................86

Western Education .............................................87

British Rule .........................................................87

Modern Press .....................................................87

Contemporary Movements .................................87

Rediscovery of the Past .....................................87

Social and Religious Reform ..............................88

Rise of New Middle Class Intelligentsia .............88

British Policies ....................................................88

9.3 Political Developments .......................................89

In Bengal Presidency .........................................89

In Bombay Presidency .......................................89

In Madras Presidency ........................................90

In Other Parts .....................................................90

9.4 First Phase (1885-1905) .....................................91

Efforts at National Unity ......................................91

Major Initiatives ..................................................91

9.5 Foundation of Indian National Congress ............92

Safety-Valve Theory ...........................................92

9.6 Programme and Objectives of Early Congress ..93

9.7 Social Composition of Early Congress Leadership .........................................................93

9.9 Moderates and Extremists ..................................93

The Moderates ...................................................93

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Major Demands ..................................................94

Economic Nationalism ........................................94

Achievements of Congress in Its Early Phase ....95

Failures of Early Congress .................................95

The Extremists ....................................................95

9.10 Partition of Bengal (1905) ...................................97

9.11 Anti-Partition Movement .....................................97

Swadeshi Movement ..........................................98

Rift between Moderates & Extremists .................98

Movement under Extremists ...............................98

New Forms of Struggle .......................................99

Weakening of the Movement and Annulment of the Partition ................................100

9.12 Analysis of the Swadeshi Movement ................100

Achievements...................................................100

Failures.............................................................101

9.13 Surat Split (1907)..............................................101

Ideological Differences ....................................101

The Split ...........................................................101

Chapter-10

Indian National Movement: Second Phase (1907-17) ...........................................10410.1 Rise of Extremism .............................................104

Militant Nationalism ..........................................104

Doctrine ............................................................104

Factors for the Rise ..........................................104

10.2 All India Muslim League ...................................105

Background......................................................105

10.3 Revolutionary Nationalism ................................106

Rise of Revolutionary Movements ....................106

Bengal Scenario ...............................................106

Major Leaders of Anti-Partition Agitations in Bengal ..........................................................107

Ghadar Party ....................................................109

Hindustan Socialist Republican Association ....109

Chittagong Armoury Raid .................................110

10.4 Royal Commission on Decentralisation ............110

10.9 First World War and Nationalist Responses .....111

Beginning of First World War ............................111

Indian Scenario at the outbreak of First World War ........................................................111

Nationalist Movements during First World War .111

10.10 India after First World War ................................115

Chapter-11

Indian National Movement: Gandhian Era (1917-47) ................................................11611.1 Introduction ......................................................116

11.2 Rise of Gandhi..................................................116

Champaran ......................................................116

Ahmedabad .....................................................117

Kheda ...............................................................117

Analysis ............................................................117

11.3 Montague: August Declaration .........................118

Background......................................................118

Key Features ....................................................118

Implications of August Declaration...................118

11.5 Rowlatt Satyagrah ............................................118

11.6 Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement ........119

Khilafat Movement ............................................119

Non-Cooperation Movement ............................120

11.7 Characteristics of Gandhian Nationalism and Gandhi’s Popular Appeal ..........................122

Characteristics of Gandhian Nationalism .........122

Gandhi’s Popular Appeal .................................123

11.8 Post Non-Cooperation Movement ....................123

National Politics ................................................123

No Changers ....................................................125

11.9 Revolutionary Movement-II ...............................125

11.10 Simon Commission ...........................................126

11.11 Nehru Report ....................................................126

11.12 Delhi Proposals and Jinnah’s Fourteen Points .127

11.13 Delhi Manifesto.................................................128

11.14 Lahore Session .................................................128

11.15 Civil Disobedience Movement ..........................128

Reasons Behind CDM ......................................129

Course ..............................................................129

11.16 Gandhi-Irwin Pact (Delhi Pact) .........................131

Evaluation of Civil Disobedience Movement ....132

Reasons Gandhi Agreed to Call Off CDM ........132

11.17 Karachi Congress Session (1931) ....................132

11.18 2nd Round Table Conference and 2nd Phase of CDM ..................................................132

Government Action ..........................................133

Communal Award .............................................133

Gandhi’s Response ..........................................133

Poona Pact .......................................................133

11.19 Evaluation of CDM ............................................134

11.20 Government of India Act, 1935 ........................134

Provisions of the Act .........................................134

Evaluation of the GoI Act, 1935 ........................135

11.21 Strategic Debate ..............................................136

First Stage ........................................................136

Struggle-Truce-Struggle and Standing for Victory ..............................................................136

Second Stage...................................................137

11.22 Elections of 1937 ..............................................137

UnitI

An Era of Power Struggle1. Mughals ........................................................................................2

2. Rise of Regional Powers ............................................................... 12

3. Advent of Europeans ...................................................................29

4. Obstacles to British Rise ...............................................................35

5. Rise of British Power in Bengal .....................................................47

6. Administration during East India Company ..................................53

11Mughals

1.1 Development of the Mughal Empire The word 'Mughals' derives from the Mongols, a nomadic tribe native to Mongolia. In the thirteenth century A.D. Chengez (Genghis) Khan united fragmented groups of Mongol people to lay the foundation of the Mongol Empire, which straddled across Asia and Europe during the thirteenth and fourteenth century A.D. Later in the fourteenth century, Timur, a Barlas Turk, proclaimed himself as the son in law of the Genghis Khanid dynasty and declared himself as an independent sovereign. Babur a descendent of Chengez (Genghis) Khan founded the Mughal Empire in India by defeating Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of Panipat in 1526.

BaburBabur’s ancestor, Timur, had largely benefited of his Indian adventure. Timur had annexed some areas of Punjab, which remained with his successors for several generations. When Babur conquered Afghanistan, he felt he had right over these areas. This conquest made him think of the conquest of India.

Reasons for Conquest of IndiaLike myriad earlier invaders of India from Central Asia, Babur too was drawn towards India by the lure of its wealth. Babur was looking towards India as a place which could add to his meager revenue from Kabul. Moreover, he was apprehensive of the attack of Uzbeks on Kabul, because of which he considered India as a suitable base for refuge and also to carry out operations against Uzbeks. Also, the splintered political conditions of India suited Babur. He also received embassies from Afghan chief Daulat Khan Lodi and Rana Sanga, requesting him to invade India.

By defeating Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat (20 April 1526), Babur established his control up to Delhi and Agra. But presence of Babur in the Indo-Gangetic valley was a threat to Rana Sanga. While Sanga wanted to confine Babur to Punjab, Babur accused Sanga of breach of agreement as Sanga did not join him against Ibrahim

Babur

Lodi. The armies of Babur and Rana Sanga eventually fought the Battle of Khanwa in 1527, where Sanga was defeated.

Painting: Scene from First Battle of Panipat

The Battle of Khanwa secured Babur’s position in the Delhi-Agra region. He then led a campaign (Battle of Chanderi) against Medini Rai of Chanderi in 1528, in which he captured Chanderi.

Painting: Scene from Battle of Khanwa

But, the Afghans who were dominant in eastern Uttar Pradesh were not reconciled. In 1529, Babur started a campaign (Battle of Ghaghara) against them but could not win a decisive victory. He signed an agreement with Afghan chiefs, who were allowed to rule over Bihar. Shortly after, Babur died on 26th December 1530.

Although Babur was an orthodox Sunni, he was not bigot. He was one of the two important writers in the Turkish language. He wrote ‘Tuzuk-i-Baburi’.

Significance of Babur’s Conquest of India1. He brought Kabul and Qandhar within the North Indian

Empire, which

• secured the North-west frontier for almost 200 years.

• increased India’s share of trade with China and Mediterranean seaports.

2. Defeat of Lodi's and the Rajput confederacy under Sanga, eventually led to the formation of an all-India Mughal empire.

3. A new mode of warfare began in India. Although already known, Babur popularized gunpowder and artillery in India.

4. He formed a state based on strength and prestige of the crown.

HumayunHumayun succeeded Babur in 1530. He had various challenges in the form of consolidation of the infant Mughal empire, timurid tradition of dividing the empire among all the brothers, the Afghans who were thinking of expelling Mughals from India and growing power of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. Shortly, Humayun undertook Gujarat campaign. He won both Gujarat and Malwa from Bahadur Shah, but also lost them in a quick succession. However, he succeeded in destroying the threat posed by Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.

Meanwhile, Sher Shah, a powerful Afghan sardar, increased his power when Humayun was busy in his Gujarat campaign. Although Sher Shah professed loyalty to the Mughals, he was planning to expel Mughals from India. Sher Shah defeated Humayun in the battle of Kannauj (1540). This battle made Humayun a prince without a kingdom and he had to take a shelter at the court of Iranian king.

The major cause of Humayun’s defeat was that he failed to understand the nature of the Afghan power. Afghan tribes were scattered over north India, who could always unite under a capable leader. Sher Shah gave them this leadership. Also, Humayun showed bad political sense in the form of his Bengal campaign against Sher Shah. Also, after Sher Shah’s victories he did not receive help from his brothers.

But in 1555, with the breaking up of the Sur empire, Humayun was able to recover Delhi. But he died soon thereafter, after falling from the first floor of the library building in his fort at Delhi. His tomb was build by his favourte wife Bega Begum.

Humayun

Sur Empire (1540-55)Sher Shah ascended the throne of Delhi in 1540. He ruled over the mightiest empire in the North India since the time of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. He added Malwa and Rajasthan to his territories. He died in 1545 and was succeeded by his son Islam Shah, who ruled till 1553. After Islam Shah's death a civil war set in amongst his successors. This created an opportunity for Humayun, who in 1555 defeated Afghans, to recover Delhi and Agra.

Contribution of Sher Shah1. He re-established law and order across his empire.

2. He improved communication by building roads which helped in fostering trade and commerce. He restored the Grand Trunk Road connecting Bengal with North-west. He built sarais and inns along these roads. Many of these sarai developed into market-towns (qasbas) and stages for news service or dak-chowki.

3. His currency reforms and standardisation of weights and measures all over the empire helped in increasing trade and commerce.

4. For land revenue administration, he insisted on measurement of the sown land for computation of average produce to determine the state’s share, which was one-third of the average produce.

5. The tomb built by Sher Shah for himself at Sasaram is seen as a culmination of Sultanat type of architecture and a starting point of a new Mughal style.

AkbarAkbar was the greatest of the Mughal

Akbar

rulers. He was crowned in 1556. After the Second battle of Panipat between him (led by his wakil Bairam Khan) and Hemu, the Afghan leader, he established his control over the empire. During the first phase of expansion of the empire, he brought regions like Ajmer, Malwa, Garha-Katanga, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Bengal under his control.

The administrative changes made by Akbar as well as his liberal religious policy resulted in rebellions in Gujarat, Bengal and Bihar. These rebellions kept the empire distracted for two years (1580-81). Akbar with the services of his nobles like Todar Mal, Raja Man Singh etc. successfully handled these rebellions.

Soon after this, due to rising threat from Uzbeks, Akbar had to concentrate on the North-west frontier. He consolidated his power in the North-West and gave the empire a scientific frontier. He also captured Odisha (Earlier known

Sher Shah Suri

3An initiative of Group


History of Modern India

as Orissa) and Dacca. With this, by the turn of the century the political integration of the North India was achieved.

Hereafter, Akbar turned his attention towards the Deccan. He was afraid that sectarian rivalries of the Deccani states could spread into the Mughal empire in the North. Also, the Portuguese were trying to expand their position over the mainland. This along with proselytizing activities by the Portuguese impelled Akbar to get involved in the Deccani affairs.

Akbar himself marched down to capture Khandesh in 1601. In the same year control was established over Berar, Ahmadnagar and parts of Telangana. However, no lasting solution could be arrived at for the Deccani problem, as Bijapur was yet to accept Mughal suzerainty. This situation was left to be tackled by Jahangir.

Land Revenue Administration under AkbarIn the field of land revenue administration, Akbar instituted a new system called the dahsala (Ain-i-Dahsala). Under it, the average produce of different crops and average prices prevailing over the past 10 years were calculated. One third of the average produce was the state’s share. The revenue demand was in cash. This system was called the zabti system. The zabti system was associated with Raja Todar Mal.

Other systems of assessment were also followed during Akbar’s period. The batai or ghalla-bakshi system was the most common and oldest of all. Under it, the produce was divided in the fixed proportion between the peasants and the state. Under batai, the peasants had the choice to pay in either cash or in kind, but the state preferred cash. Another system which was used was nasaq.

Akbar was interested in advancement of cultivation. Under him, loans (taccavi) to peasants was provided for seeds, implements etc. In fixing of the land revenue, continuity of cultivation was taken into account. Also, the land was classified as per the quality of the land.

Todar Mal and Akbar

Mansabdari SystemUnder this system, every officer was assigned a rank (Mansab). The lowest rank was 10 and the highest was

5000 for the nobles, which was later raised to 7000. The rank decided the personal status (zat) of a noble and salary due to him as well as the number of cavalrymen (sawar) he was required to maintain. Ideally, for every one cavalryman, two horses had to be maintained.

The Mansabdars were paid by assigning jagirs to them. But, sometimes paid in cash too. Akbar would not have been able to expand his empire and maintain his hold over it without a strong army. For this purpose, it was necessary for him to organize the nobility as well as his army. Akbar realized both these objectives by means of the mansabdari system.

Relations with the RajputsAkbar expanded Humayun’s policy of winning over the Rajputs through matrimonial alliances. But, he did not insist upon matrimonial relations as a precondition. Many Rajputs, like rulers of Ranthambhor, Banswara etc. surrendered to him without entering into matrimonial relations. The Rajput policy also had the angle of broad religious toleration. The only state that defied Mughal suzerainty was Mewar, led by Rana Pratap.

Painting: Akbar Greeting Rajput Rulers

Akbar’s policy of inducting the Rajput rajas into Mughal service and treating them at par with Mughal nobles benefited. This along with his religious tolerance cemented Akbar’s ties with the Rajputs. Akbar’s Rajput policy was continued by his successors, Jahangir and Shah Jahan.

Akbar’s Religious PolicyAkbar followed a liberal religious policy. He emphasized that the state should be based on sulh-i-kul i.e. equal toleration of and respect to all sections irrespective of their religious beliefs. In 1575, Akbar built Ibadat Khana, the Hall of Prayer at Fatehpur Sikri, where he discussed religious and spiritual topics with selected theologians, mystics, scholarly courtiers and nobles. He tried to establish a new order tauhid-i-Ilahi which literally means ‘Divine Monotheism’.

Akbar also introduced social and educational reforms. He stopped sati and allowed it only when a widow herself



Mughals

2.1 IntroductionThe death of Aurangzeb in 1707 triggered the decline of Mughal Empire in India. The rise of regional powers was primarily due to the decline of the Mughal Empire. The regional nobles and overlords had already become powerful during Aurangzeb's reign and the chain of events after his death gave them the leeway to assert their independence.

The regional states that rose in the 18th century can be broadly classified into Successor states-states that arose due to assertion of independence by governors of Mughal provinces due to decay of central authority- and Rebel states- states that arose due to rebellion by local chieftains, Zamindars and peasants against Mughal authority,

2.2 Successor StatesAwadh

IntroductionAwadh was established as one of the twelve original subahs (top-level imperial provinces) by Mughal emperor Akbar and it became a hereditary tributary polity after the death of Aurangzeb. Awadh was known as the granary of India as it was a fertile plain between the Ganges and the Yamuna rivers. It was important strategically for the control of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab and was a wealthy and prosperous province. Faizabad was the capital of Awadh

and it consisted of five sarkars viz Awadh, Lucknow, Bahraich, Khairabad and Gorakhpur.

As the Mughal power declined after the death of Aurangzeb the later emperors lost their paramount status and the feudal lords strengthened their position. Awadh grew stronger and more independent. It’s capital city was Faizabad. Saadat Khan, the first Nawab of Awadh, laid the foundation of Faizabad at the outskirt of ancient city of Ayodhya.

Saadat Ali KhanSaadat Ali Khan I was declared as the first Subedar Nawab (Governor) of the Mughals in Awadh province from 1722 to 1739. Son of a wealthy merchant of Khurasan, at the age of 25, he accompanied his father Muhammad Nasir and took part in the campaign of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb against the Marathas. He was honored with the title of Khan Bahadur for his contribution to the Mughal Emperor.

He was among the commanding Mughal generals in the Battle against Nadir Shah. Saadat Khan was captured during the battle and died in the massacre of Delhi by Nadir Shah on 19 March 1739. Faizabad, the capital city of Awadh, was founded in 1730 by Saadat Ali Khan. He is the founder of the lineage Nawab of Awadhs. He was succeeded by Nawab Safdarjang and Nawab Shuja-ud-daula who further consolidated power in the awadh region.

Political Sphere of InfluenceAfter the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Nawabs of Awadhs exercised significant influence in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab region. Safdarjang, who succeeded Saadat Khan, was an able administrator. He was not only effective in keeping control of Awadh, but also rendered valuable assistance to the weakened Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah.

Saadat Ali Khan

Safdarjang

2Rise of Regional Powers

Safdarjang was given governorship of Kashmir by the Mughal Emperor, gradually became a central figure at the Delhi court. He gained complete control of administration in the Mughal Empire in the later years of Muhammad Shah. When Ahmad Shah Bahadur ascended the throne at Delhi in 1748, Safdar Jung was given the title of Chief Minister of Hindustan. Shuja-ud-Daulah, the son of Safdarjang, was also an able administrator. He was chosen as Grand Wazir by Shah Alam II.

Shuja-ud-daulah, the 3rd Nawab, allied with Mir Qasim of Bengal against the British, lost the crucial battle of Buxar in 1764. This resulted in beginning of the political influence of British in the Awadh region. Given the strategic significance of the region, British always maintained an upper hand in the region. After installing Saadat Khan II as Nawab in 1801, they pressurized him to cede half of the Awadh to him. Even at the time of first war of Independence in 1857, Awadh was a crucial political region.

ReligionThe Nawabs of Awadh belong to Persian Shia Muslim dynasty from Nishapur. They encouraged the existing Persian literature to shift from Delhi to Awadh. During that period Awadh also witnessed a steady stream of scholars, poets, jurists, architects, and painters from Iran. Nawab of Awadhs like the erstwhile great Mughal rulers was largely tolerant in their religious outlook. Saadat Khan, the founder of the Awadh Royal House, had many Hindus in his service who from time to time helped him to achieve his goal.

Shuja-ud-daula, the 3rd Nawab, did not impose undue restrictions on the personal freedom of Hindus as well as on the public celebrations of their religious festivals. Many Hindu saints who came to Ayodhya were allowed to settle down and granted plots of land for the erection of temples and Dharmashalas for pilgrims. Hindus and Muslims used to celebrate each other’s festivals and there was not restriction on the Hindus.

EconomyAs discussed earlier, Awadh was the region of the fertile land in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. Therefore, the economy during the reign of Nawabs was dominantly agrarian in nature. The traditional crops were sugarcane, wheat and rice. Due to presence of well managed supply chain, peasants were generally prosperous under the nawabs.

It is also pertinent to mention that Awadh was one of the prosperous provinces of the Mughal Empire. This period also witnessed the decline of the traditional urban trade

Shuja-ud-Daulah

centers such as Delhi, Agra, Burhanpur etc. The new trade centers were established in Lucknow, Faizabad etc.

To remove economic hardships, Nawabs also commissioned various public works in which the laborers were paid from the treasury. One such initiative had led to the construction of the majestic Bara Imambara in Lucknow. The East India Company after establishing influence over Awadh, plundered it of its wealth, and resulted in the decline of the Industrial towns such as Kanpur and Lucknow.

Bara Imambara

SocietyThe society at the time of Nawabs of Awadhs was largely traditional in nature. Cities such as Lucknow, Faizabad, Jaunpur etc. witnessed the growth of the synthesis of the Hindu-Muslim culture also commonly known as Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb. The caste system was still highly prevalent as the top positions in the administrations were generally occupied by the Brahmins. With the rise of British influence, and development of mercantile trade, the trading class also assumed significant role in the society. Jagat Seth was one of the prominent people, who dealt in hundis –a type of negotiable instrument to send money from one place to another. Education was still limited to the privileged few, and due to adoption of purdah system from cultural synthesis, the condition of women further deteriorated in the society.

LiteratureThe Nawabs of Awadh, patronized literature and several noted writers and poets were part of their court. The period saw the development of Indo-Persian genre of the literature. Urdu was also a popular language of literature at that time. Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was among the great patrons of literature. The renowned urdu poet 'Ghalib' was in the court of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah. Apart from him, other notable persons were ‘Barq’, ‘Ahmad Mirza Sabir’, ‘Mufti Munshi’, and ‘Aamir Ahmad Amir’, who wrote books at the orders of Wajid Ali Shah.




33Advent of Europeans

3.1 IntroductionIn 1498, when Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese explorer, arrived at Calicut on the south-western coast of India, he had discovered a new (all-sea) trade route, around Africa via Cape of Good Hope, to India. It was the culmination of efforts, which began in Europe, to search a new and all-sea trading route to India. It was precisely in this endeavor to search a new trading route to India that Christopher Columbus, a Spanish explorer, reached and discovered America in 1492. But you may now ask: why did the European nations, especially Portugal and Spain, embark on a journey to search all new trading routes to India?

Portuguese Ships

3.2 Need for New Trading RoutesIn popular western imagination, India was a fabled land of riches and of highly profitable trade. Many foreign rulers had invaded India for its fabulous wealth. Besides the plundering raids, a highly profitable trade between India and European countries dated back to the ancient times.

Since the days of the Roman Empire Indian cloths, spices and drugs were in great demand in Europe. Initially, this trade between East and West was carried on along several routes but in beginning of the late fourteenth century a number of changes in the geopolitical conditions in West Asia and Europe forced the traders to search for new routes. Now let’s look at the changes or causes which brought the search for new trading routes.

Geographical CausesUnstable Land Route: In the Middle ages (5th century CE to 15th century CE) the land route from the Middle East to

Europe was preferred by the traders but with the rise of Arabs in the tenth century and their plundering raids along the route, the land route became unstable and dangerous for trade.

Safe Passage through Water: While the land with a number of passes fell within the territory of one or the other kingdom, the oceans and seas had not yet been brought under control and thus offered a safe passage.

Technological Advancement

Astrolabe, Mariner’s Compass and Canons

Navigation: The period witnessed a number of technological advancements. The advancements in navigation (astrolabe for fixing the height of heavenly bodies for navigation and mariner’s compass) by the Arabs and ship building by the Europeans at a time when land route had become unstable made waterways a natural choice.

Map of Ottoman Empire

Use of Gunpowder: By the end of thirteenth century gunpowder, which was invented in China in the ninth century, spread to Eurasia. As sea voyages gained

popularity in the fifteenth century, canons and gunpowder began to be used on ships to protect them from attacks. The use of gunpowder made ships safe from attacks as it added more firepower, was easier to carry, was more stable and helped in making of most destructive weapons of the time.

Political CausesMonopolies: The merchants of Venice and Genoa monopolized the trade between Asia and Europe. The western side, i.e. the Mediterranean area, was under the merchants of Venice and Genoa and eastern side, i.e. the Asian side, was under the Arab merchants. These merchants did not allow new merchants from other West European countries to trade through the old routes under their control.

Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople in 1453 and established the Ottoman Empire in the area stretching from Syria to Egypt. This brought the old routes under the Turkish control. Moreover, expansion of Turkish power in eastern Europe and growth of Turkish navy alarmed the Europeans.

Rise of New Nation States: The later part of the 15th

century saw rise of centralised states with strong kings, like Spain and Portugal, who were keen to partake in trade with Asia. The Kings encouraged, often supported and sponsored geographical explorations and navigators.

Economic CausesEconomic Growth in Europe: The European economy was expanding rapidly due to expansion of land under cultivation, introduction of improved plough and scientific rotation of crops. As a result of this growth, there was rise of towns and an increase in trade.

Demand for Spices and Pepper: The economic revival in Europe increased demand for spices and pepper which were needed to make meat palatable.

Tolls and Taxes: The tolls and taxes were constantly increased on both the European as well as the Asian side of the trade, which reduced the profit margins.

Profit Maximization: Although the trade between Asia and Europe was carried on along several routes, yet it was highly profitable. However, raids along the land route and monopolies by various groups had been reducing the profits. Thus, there was attempt to maximize profit through new trade routes.

Psychological CausesRenaissance: The cultural revival or Renaissance in Europe during the fourteenth century infused a spirit of daring and adventure among the people of Western Europe.

Glory: Above all the desire to achieve glory acted as inspiring factor for navigators and explorers.

Mercantilism: A set of economic doctrines and policies involving state intervention to promote national prosperity and strength known as mercantilism had gripped the European states in its clutches.

Religious CausesProselytizing Zeal: The explorers were motivated by zeal to spread Christianity into the new lands.

3.3 The PortugueseVasco da Gama, who reached Calicut in 1498, he was welcomed by Zamorin, the then king of Calicut, returned with a cargo, which sold for sixty times the cost of his entire expedition. After this, direct trade between India and Portugal grew, albeit slowly Francisco De Almeida came to India in 1505 as first portuguese viceroy. The 'Blue Water' policy is attributed to Francisco De Almeida. According to it, the Portuguese should be the sole trade power in Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean. In 1510, Albuquerque captured Goa from Bijapur. Here after, the Portuguese established trading settlements at Cochin and Daman and Diu.

The Portuguese established their domination over the entire Asian coast from Hormuz in the Persian Gulf to Malacca in Malaya. They almost monopolized the highly profitable Eastern trade for nearly a century.

Portuguese Rise in IndiaEarly Mover Advantage: Being the first in India they established their supremacy over the Malabar Coast. With Goa, Daman and Diu and Cochin under their belt, it took less than fifteen years for them to completely destroy the Arab supremacy of trade over the Indian coast.

Spanish Renouncing of Interest in East: The Spanish king Charles V renounced interests in the Indian ocean area giving Portuguese a monopoly in Eastern maritime empire.

Short Sightedness of Mughals: Another reason for the rise of the Portuguese in India is that they did not have to face the might of the Mughals as the Mughal empire was still in its formative stage. Moreover, when the Mughal empire was established they were not interested in developing the navy as their territories were not adjacent to coastal areas and they were not keen happenings in south India.

Naval Supremacy: The Portuguese navy controlled the sea with the help of its superior navigational technology and arms especially with the help of gunpowder.

Vasco de Gama



Advent of Europeans

Strategic Presence: Conquest of Goa, strategically located on the west coast of India, by Albuquerque in 1510, allowed the Portuguese to command and control Malabar trade and keep an eye on the policies of the rulers in the Deccan.

Cartaz System: The Portuguese rise in India could also be attributed to the Cartaz system - a system of license or pass for ships sailing to a destination not reserved by the Portuguese.

Portuguese Decline in India

Political CausesAttachment to Spain: In 1580, Portugal got attached to the Spanish crown which linked it to the declining fortunes of Spain.

Aristocratic Dominance: The Portuguese society was dominated by aristocrats. The merchants lacked the social influence required to mould the state policy suitable to their interests.

Lack of Political Will: The Portuguese political masters were mainly concerned with establishing sea trading posts and not concerned in territorial expansion thus making them vulnerable to attacks on their trading posts.

Social CausesReligious Conversions: The Portuguese were religious fanatics and resorted to forceful religious conversions in their spheres of influence. This led to a general sense of hostility among the locals against them.

Technological CausesRise of other Naval Powers: Rise of other naval powers like the Dutch and British increased the competition on the naval routes leading to armed conflicts with the Portuguese.

Loss of Spain's Naval Supremacy: In 1588 Spain`s naval supremacy was challenged and busted by the British navy. This was a big jolt to Portuguese empire which had been attached to the Spanish empire.

ConclusionWith all these developments, the Portuguese were reduced in their sphere of influence to Daman, Diu, Goa, East Africa and Timor. In a way the Portuguese became the victims of their early mover advantage as they kept on establishing only trading ports and did not make any significant territorial expansion to protect their interest.

3.3 The DutchAfter the vacuum created by the fall of Portuguese in the East the Dutch took the charge of these territories. The Dutch had been steadily adding to their commercial and Dutch

naval superiority in the sixteenth century by transporting goods brought to Lisbon by the Portuguese.

• The Dutch defeated the Portuguese and built Fort William in modern Kochi in 1663.

• The first Dutch company in Bengal was setup in Pipali (1627) later in Chinsurah (1635).

• The Dutch were the first to start a joint stock company to trade with India.

Dutch Rise in India

Dutch Factory in Hooghly

Political CausesVacuum Created by the Portuguese Losses: As the Portuguese empire weakened due to internal conflicts, rigid aristocracy and poor strategic planning on the eastern trading posts, it created a vacuum which was filled by the Dutch.

Nationalistic Feeling: Arousal of the nationalistic feelings among Dutch in their struggle against the domination of Spain over their homeland Netherlands, helped the Dutch rival Portugal (which had then been attached to Spain) in the spice trade in the East.

Fluyt Ship: The Dutch built fluyt ships which were a masterpiece of Dutch shipbuilding industry. These ships were lighter, could carry more cargo and required fewer people to operate as compared to their peers. These ships helped in reducing its operating cost. Eventually these ships proved to be superior to the bulkier and slower Portuguese ships.

Indian Cloth Trade: The Dutch, who initially had interests in the spices trade in the Indonesian archipelago and Spice Islands, soon realised the importance and necessity of Indian cloths in trade with South-East Asia where they were in good demand.

Factories at Malabar and in Ceylon: Dutch factories in Malabar and their Cinnamon trade with Ceylon struck decisive blows to the Portuguese control of Goa. This presence also helped in blocking Goa in the trading seasons.




be said of Buxar. Mir Qasim had made adequate preparations for the conflict and the Nawab of Oudh had assembled his best soldiers in the field but it was the victory of superior military power.

• Buxar confirmed the power and position of the England which they have achieved by the results of Plassey.

• The Battle of Buxar was only an attempt by the native powers to challenge the position acquired by the English in Bengal, Bihar, Odisha its victory in Plassey.

• After the Battle of Buxar, English power in Northern India became almost unchallengeable. They had to contend with the Afghans and the Marathas as serious rivals in their struggle for an Indian Empire.

5.10 ConclusionIt can, therefore be safely concluded that the both the Battles Plassey as well as Buxar had important effects on the growth of British Power in India but it is true that the results of the Battle of Buxar were more important for the British. The Battle of Buxar completed the work of Plassey. The eventual and secondary consequences of the Battle of Buxar were very important. By this war the English were drawn into connection with upper India, and were brought out upon a scene of fresh operations that grew rapidly wider.

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Battle of Buxar

• It demonstrated superiority of English Army.

• The Company ceased to be a trading company and became a political power.

• The British defeated both the Nawab and the Mughal Emperor.

• It made the English contenders for the supremacy of the whole country.

• It con�rmed the decision of Plassey.

• Failure of Mir Qasim to ful�ll the Company's �nancial demand.

• The Nawab- Company tussle over transit and trade duty

• Outbreak of series of wars between the English and Mir Qasim in 1763

Causes Signi�cance

• It made the British masters of Bengal. • The revenues of Bengal enabled the

Company to organise a strong army.• The control of Bengal’s revenue and

monopoly over its trade strengthened the �nancial position of the company.

• It helped the Company’s servants amass untold wealth.

• Indian Industries declined rapidly after this Battle.

• After the battle began a process which culminated in Anglicisation of India.

• Misuse of trade privileges by the Company o�cials.

• Attack on the sovereignty of the Nawab by forti�cation of Calcutta by the Company.

• Asylum to political fugitives by the Company.

• Black hole tragedy.• The Company was on the o�ensive and

wanted to replace the Nawab with Mir Jafar.

Causes Signi�cance

Battle of Plassey

• Led to an administrative breakdown in Bengal.

• Neither the company nor the Nawab cared for the administration and public welfare.

• Company’s servants rack-rented the people.

• Company’s reluctance to take the responsibility of administration of Bengal.

• Company only wanted to make good of its revenue possessions.

• Company’s unwillingness to recognise the transformation in its role from a trading company to a ruling power.

Reasons Impact

Dual Government



Rise of British Power in Bengal

66Administration during East India Company (1757-1856)

6.1 Dual Administration of BengalIntroductionBy the Treaty of Allahabad of 1765, Shah Alam granted the company the Diwani (revenue collecting rights) of Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha–in another words, absolute control over the lucrative resources of the prosperous Bengal. The East India Company became the real master of Bengal from 1765. The Nawab depended on the British for his internal and external security. As the Diwan, the Company directly collected its revenues, while through the right to nominate the Deputy Subahdar, it controlled the Nizamat or the police and judicial powers. This arrangement is known in history as the ‘dual’ or ‘double’ government.

Shah Alam Conveying the Grant of the Diwani to Lord Clive

Consequences• The dual Government in Bengal helped the East India

Company to remain free from the real responsibility of administration of Bengal.

• The English Company got power and pelf by this system of Government by successfully keeping themselves away from the hazards of administration.

• The Nawab and his officials had the responsibility of

administration but not the power to discharge it. For

every omission and commission in the Government,

the Nawab of Bengal was to be held responsible. The

weaknesses of the government could be blamed on

the Indians while its fruits were gathered by the British.

• The consequences for the people of Bengal were

disastrous; neither the Company nor the Nawab cared

for their welfare.

• The Company’s servants who were not conversant with

the language, customs, traditions, and laws prevailing

in Bengal rack-rented the people.

• The company stopped sending money to England

to purchase Indian goods. Instead, they purchased these goods from the revenues of Bengal and sold them abroad. These were known as the Company’s Investment and formed a part of its profits. In the year 1766, 1767, and 1768 alone, nearly £ 5.7 million was drained from Bengal.

Critiques of the Dual Administration1. It brought catastrophic results. The administration in

Bengal was shattered completely.

2. Lawlessness prevailed in most parts of Bengal. Cases of theft and robbery increased by leaps and bounds. The common people suffered due to want of justice. They suffered to such an extent that they preferred even to leave their home and heart.

3. Agriculture in Bengal gradually deteriorated under the Dual Government of Clive. The power of collection of revenue rested in the hands of the company only. So, the Nawab could not make any provision like irrigation for the development of agriculture in Bengal.

4. The poor administration in Bengal led to a rapid

increase in private trade. While the servants of the

East India Company carried on trade and commerce

privately without paying any taxes and earning profit

out of this trade, the merchants of Bengal suffered a

lot because they were over burdened with tax. Thus,

“I shall only say that such a scene of anarchy, confusion, bribery, corruption, and extortion was never seen or heard of in any country but Bengal; nor did such and so many fortunes acquire in so unjust and rapacious a manner. The three provinces of Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha, producing a clear revenue of £3 million sterling, have been under the absolute management of the Company’s servants, ever since Mir Jafar’s restoration to the Subahship; and they have, both civil and military, exacted and levied contributions from every man of power and consequence, from the Nawab down to the lowest Zamindar.”

– Robert Clive

the Dual Government dealt a terrible blow to the local

trade and commerce.

Painting: Bengal Under British Rule

5. The servants of the Nawab became wayward and

oppressive when they came to know that the Nawab

was a puppet in the hands of the English company.

6. The Dual Government of Clive was further responsible

for the downfall of local industries. The company’s

people forced the local weavers to work exclusively for

the company. Many other small local industries also

were brought under the control of the company.

7. The judges of the Nawab were influenced by British

authority because the latter played a vital role in their

appointment. Thus, the judges failed to give an impartial

verdict which was detrimental to the interest of the

common people.

8. The English Company became apathetic to agriculture in

Bengal which led to the loss of production in the field. It

ultimately resulted in a decrease of revenue collection.

9. The Dual Government proved a failure in Bengal. The

absence of responsibility on the part of the company

led to abuse of power and corruption.

6.2 Judicial SystemAdministration of justice between 1765 and 1772 was

under Indian officers and the process of dispensing justice

was often arbitrary as it depended to a large extent on the

colonisers’ understanding and interpretation of indigenous

justice system.

Need for a Judicial System• The Mughal judicial system was never centrally

organized and depended to a large extent on the local

Faujdars and their executive discretion.

• The focus of this system was more on the mutual

resolution of a conflict rather than punitive justice

(except in the case of rebellion), and punishment

when meted out often depended on the status of the

accused.

• People were perceived to be more driven by

consideration for pecuniary benefits than justice and

this led to the complaint about the “venality” of the

justice system.

• Need for some sort of direct or overt European

supervision to ensure a centralization of the judicial

system to assert company’s sovereignty.

Development of Judicial System

Phase-1: Warren Hasting (1772-85)When Warren Hastings took charge as the Governor of

Bengal in 1772, he undertook efforts to take full control

of the judicial system and devised a new judicial system,

based on the Mughal model. The new system had two tiers:

one at the districts and other at Calcutta or Murshidabd

(Appellate).

At the district there were two courts, a civil court or Diwani

Adalat and a criminal court or Faujdari Adalat. The civil

courts were to be presided over by the European District

collectors, assisted by maulvis and Brahman pundits

interpreting the indigenous laws for their understanding.

The criminal courts were to be presided by Indian officers

of the Company with the assistance of Kazis (qazis) and

muftis. The European districts collectors were vested with

the power of supervision of these courts.

The Muslim laws were to be applicable in criminal cases

and the Muslim or Hindu laws in civil cases as per the

religion of the litigant.

Appeals from the Faujdari Adalat lay to the Sadar Nizamat

Adalat presided by Deputy Nizam assisted by the Chief

Qazi, the Chief Mufti and three Maulvis. For a brief period

(1772-1774, when its seat was at Calcutta) the court was

presided by the President (Governor of Bengal) and

council members. Appeals from the Diwani Adalat could

be made to Sadar Diwani Adalat presided by the President

and council members with its seat at Calcutta.

Under the Regulating Act of 1773, a Supreme Court was

established at Calcutta. Initially, it acted as an appeal court.

But very soon its jurisdiction clashed with other courts,

which led to confinement of its authority to Calcutta and

to matters related to factories dependent on Fort William.

Later in 1780, the Sardar Diwani Adalat was reconstituted

to serve as an appeal court, with Sir Elijah Impey, the Chief

Justice of the Supreme Court, as its Superintendent.

Phase-2: Cornwallis (1786-93)The process begun by Warren Hastings was continued by

his successor, Cornwallis. He introduced a code, popularly known as Cornwallis’s code of 1793, which separated



Administration during East India Company (1757-1856)

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