history research guide 2011

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SHELDON COLLEGEHISTORY

GUIDE TO HISTORY ANDHISTORIOGRAPHY

2010


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WHAT IS HISTORY?

Historyis the investigation and account of the past. The word itself comes from the Greekword historia, which could mean investigation or story. Our word history contains boththese ideas. Hence the work of historians can be divided up into two main elements: theinvestigation and analysis of what happened in the past (historical research); and thereconstruction of that past into a story (historical writing). For some people, the work ofhistorians is rather morbid.

We study dead people.

Yet while there is a strict historical methodologywhich historians must follow if they wishtheir work to be respected, we as historians should never forget that we are studying people

who believed themselves to be just as real as we do. When we study the great events ofhistory we must also remember that these great events and movements were made up of

many ordinary people trying to make their way in the world, just like us.Whether its a youngChinese peasant girl daydreaming about her future husband while she carries water from theriver during the Ming Dynasty, or an old man smoking his pipe beside the fireplace on a

wintery evening in Austria while Napoleons army prepared for the Battle of Austerlitz, wemust never forget that history is made up of people very similar and also very different toourselves. This focus on studying history through the everyday people of the past has become

very popular in recent years and is usually called social history.

WHAT IS HISTORIOGRAPHY?Historiographyis the name usually given to the technical study of history through sources.

While history can be done by anyone, historiography is undertaken by people who have beentrained. It is the principles, theories, or methodology of scholarly historical research andpresentation. It is what historians do. It also refers to what historians think historyis. Likehistory, there are two main elements to historiography: the techniques, theories, andprinciples of historical research and investigation; and the reconstruction of the past into anarrative. The first aspect of historiography is focussed on using sources to investigate history.The second is the presentation of the version of the past that the historian has found mostlikely to be true. This version of the past is always up for re-evaluation; indeed historiansprobably spend more time fighting each other about what happened in the past than inactually finding out new things. Its relatively harmless though as most of them fight likesissies.

The beliefs that historians have on the nature of history itself will influence how they researchand present what occurred in the past. Some background on how understandings of historyhave changed over time will be useful in helping you develop your own beliefs about thenature of history. This is important should you wish to do historical research well.


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CHANGES IN BELIEFS ABOUT THE NATURE OF HISTORY

The beginnings of historyIn the West, history is traditionally thought to have begun with Herodotus aka the Father ofHistory. He was a Greek bloke who in the 5th Century BC decided to travel around the known

world and write about his travels. It was basically the first Lonely Planet guide. Like most

Greek writers he simplydescribedwhat he saw; and some of it, he made up. He talked aboutfar-flung places where people slept in their own ears. Yet most of it was reliable and some of

what he wrote is now considered very valuable for the information it provides us. The othermajor Greek historian is an Athenian named Thucydides. He was the first known writer tomention his sources; in the beginning of his great work The History of the Peloponnesian Warhe writes,

And with reference to the narrative of events, far from permitting myself to derive it fromthe first source that came to hand, I did not even trust my own impressions, but it restspartly on what I saw myself, partly on what others saw for me, the accuracy of the report

being always tried by the most severe and detailed tests possible. Thucydides (c.410 BC)in Crawley R. (tr.) (2004) History of the Peloponnesian War IDover: New York

This was significant and unusual. It was the first example of someone mentioning a historicalmethodology. Despite this, however, most historical writing remained descriptive andfocussed on the big events and the big men of history. This continued until a German dudenamed Leopold von Ranke came along.

The development of modern historiographyThe nineteenth century was a time of great development and innovation and the field of

history was no exception. The most important innovator was the German Leopold von Ranke;along with a few of his German mates he came up with foundations of modern historiography.It was he who first developed the system ofprimaryand secondary sources and ways toevaluate them consistently. He pioneered a method of history where the historians would not

just rely on official versions of events; he used letters, diaries, random documents and evenartefacts. He argued that history should not be just a random collection of facts; it should beunderstood and analysed. He applied the newly-developed principles of empirical science tothe study of history. It was a significant breakthrough, and the study of history was changedforever by it.

Even though, after von Ranke, historians began using much more diverse sources of evidenceand studying them more carefully, they still mainly focussed on political history. Historyremained the study of the big men.Also, historians believed that because they appliedscientific principles to the study of history that what they wrote was completely factual. This

was to be challenged by a new generation of philosophers who came along in the postwargeneration and especially in the 1970s.

Postmodernism and the Crisis of HistoryIn the 1970s this belief in the scientific nature of history and its focus on great individuals(usually men) and political events came under attack from people who argued that nohistorical source could be said to contain the truth. These postmodernists argued that there

was no such thing as truth; that because sources are incomplete, biased and use languageswhose meanings are not fixed, the past will always remain unknowable. These postmodernistsargued that there is no point investigating the past as it cannot be known; the only thing


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worth doing for academics was to deconstruct these texts to find evidence of subconsciousprejudice within them. By doing this postmodernists believed society could become moresocially just as the unconscious discourses that create prejudice would be eradicated. Thepurpose therefore of studying history was not to know the past; it was instead to seek to makepeople now more sensitive to injustice and prejudice.This war over the nature of history itself raged through the 1980s and 1990s. Again, it wasnt

very dangerous because academics arent very tough. A lot of egos were hurt, though. InAustralia there were the History Wars; a running battle over ways to look at indigenoushistory. On one side were historians and academics who wished to portray Australian historyas one vast tragedy (the black armband mob) and on the other side were historians andpoliticianswho emphasised only the triumphant aspect of Australian history (the whitecheerleader bunch). The net result of all this conflict was social division and a lot of dodgyhistory.In recent years, the postmodern view has given way to a more balanced approach. Whilemany historians are still interested in minority history (black history, womens history, etc.)the basic belief in the knowability of the past has been reasserted. While most historians

would agree that for our understandings of the past to make sense we need the completepicture, including those who were overlooked in the past, we shouldnt focus only on thosewho were silenced or marginalised. We need to look at the whole picture. This approach, oflooking at the big picture of history and trying to understand what life was like for people inthe past and understand how and why it occurred, is probably best referred to as socialhistory. Its the general approach I will emphasise with you, and is probably the approachthat youll find the most meaningful as you study the dead.


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YOUR GUIDE TO THE RESEARCH PROCESS

1. Start reading earlyYou should start reading on the topic during the holidays beforewe start that unit. Look for

general introductory books that can give you some background information on the topic. Thiswill make your research much easier and more efficient. You use your historical knowledgewhen youre analysing and evaluating sources. Youll find it difficult to evaluate sources well ifyou dont have a thorough knowledge of the topic.

2. Make sure you understand the taskBefore you begin your research, you need to understand exactly what the task is. Readthrough the task sheet slowly and carefully a few times, using your highlighter on importantterms or words you think you should look up. Once you understand the task sheet completelyand have internalised the information, look through the topics to see which one you would

like to get started on. Choose carefully; selecting the one that looks easiest can actually beharder because there is more competition for sources. Picking something interesting willmake your research feel much easier. Once youve chosen your topic you can begin yourresearch process. Your research journal will be composed of five sections: Definitions (whichcontains a glossary of the key historical terms youve encountered andyour initial thinking onthe topic. This initial thinking will lead you to your key question); Sources (biographicalinformation on the authors of the sources you are using which will help you with yourevaluations); Backgrounds, Changes and Continuities: Motives and Causes (this is thefirst of the research sections of your journal and must be driven byfocus questions from thesyllabus); Effects, Interests and Arguments (similar to section 3, however with different

focus questions); and Reflections and Responses (containing your thinking on the topicnow that you have completed your research, culminating in your final hypothesis).

3. Locate your sourcesBegin with sources that can give you a wide view of the historical events or key informationabout particular people or events or historical terms or images. The best sources for this willusually be tertiary sources. As your research progresses, you should generally find that youmove from tertiary sources to secondary sources and then finally primary sources. If you dontthen dont panic, however make sure that you are focussing the lens of your perspective as

you go: start by getting general information to answer your first set of focus questions andsub-questions however beware! Some people are getting bogged down answering their firstset of focus questions and not having enough time for the second set. The second set ofquestions is more useful for your assignment, so make sure you quickly get through your firstset of focus questions and sub-questions and give yourself enough time for section 4. As yougo youll refine the lens youre looking through more and more, so that by the end yourereally looking for quite specific information on particular questions. Thats where primarysources are most useful.Remember that: in year 11 you should have at least eight sources and in year 12 ten; at leasthalf of your sources must have been published by a reputable publisher; for Ancient Historystudents at least half your sources should be from the historical age youre investigating(ancient or medieval) and for Modern History students at least half your sources must beprimary; that images do not count toward your sources count, although they can be useful forbulking out your journal and getting more interesting information; you must ALWAYS look


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for high-quality sources to use for your research source quality and quality of your analysisand evaluation are the keys to good results. Dont just use the first sources you come across.

Any websites you use MUST have been bookmarked to Diigo. I strongly advise that youorganise your online resources early; dont leave them to the last minute. Before you go to asearch engine you MUST have looked thoroughly through what has been saved to our Diigogroup. Only then can you go to a search engine. Remember too that even if you find a source

yourself through a search engine you also MUST bookmark it to our Diigo group. Whenlooking through the group bookmarks use the tag search function; I have carefully addedtags to each website that I have saved so that if you look for keywords involving the regionand time period you will get good results. The net is particularly useful for primary sources;search for primary sources within our group bookmarks and the region or time period and

you will find there are many sites that you can use. Once you have a source on your browser,use Ctrl+F to search for keywords in the document. This can make your research much faster,easier and more effective.

4. Formulate your key question, focus questions and sub-questionsYou must begin your note-taking with some general knowledge on the topic, whether fromyour classwork, study from Scoodle or background reading. Youll have begun yourDefinitions and Sources sections, and have some knowledge of the key terms and concepts ofthe topic. With these in mind you put down your initial thinking on the topic. You might liketo brainstorm the keywords in the topic. This information will not be specific and is notreferenced, as its knowledge you already have in your head. Do not research for this section;itsjust meant to show what you think before you start researching. As a result of this youdevelop one key question. This is obviously one question which will drive your research.Check that answering your key question will fulfil the topic. If not, its not a good keyquestion. Make sure that you keep your key question in mind throughout your research

journal. It is advisable that every once in a while in your analysis and evaluations you showhow this source has helped to answer your key question.

Youre now ready to begin section 3, Backgrounds Changes and Continuities: Motive andCauses. This is where your research begins. At the start of this section you develop your focusquestions; these MUST be based upon the ones from the syllabus. Under each focus questionformulate a few sub-questions. These are in your own words and are where you can alter thedirection and focus more on what youre interested in for your key question. You then answerthese focus questions and sub-questions through your research into your sources. Make sure

you keep track of time and how large your research journal is becoming its easy to getcaught spending too much time on section 3 and then not have enough time later on.

Once you have answered your questions from section 3 satisfactorily then youre ready tostart section 4. The procedure for this section of your research journal is the same as section 3.

5. Take clear, relevant notesMake sure you balance your time well between reading and taking notes. Its a danger whenresearching that you can start reading through a book then look up an hour later and youvegot nothing to show for your time. Make sure you are taking notes as you go and that they arehelping you answer your focus questions; every source should contribute to your research,either by giving you answers to your focus questions or challenging you to change the

direction of your research. This is where it helps if youve been careful and taken the time tochoose quality sources and plan ahead. As you read and take notes make sure you are asking

yourself how this information fits with what youve learned before; dont just mindlesslycopy down information then write down your source analysis. Keep in mind what youve


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already learned on the topic; what new conclusions or observations can you make in light of

what youre reading? This will give you important things to say in your source evaluations.

6. Analyse and evaluate your sourcesThere are three criteria upon which you are assessed in history in Queensland. The first one

has to do with your research process, thats how well your structure your research, follow theAspects of Inquiry (the 5 sections) and use high-quality sources. Most students, with a littleeffort, do well in that. The third criterion is about how you communicate your historicalknowledge; you will improve in this criterion through your background reading, yourparticipation in class and your study through Scoodle and revision at home. The secondcriterion is probably the one that is the most difficult to do well in at a high school level. Itrequires a complex application of your knowledge, a good memory, a sharp eye for detail andcommon sense. This takes time to develop. The more knowledge you have developed thoughthe better youll be able to notice important details when youre evaluating. If you often lookat a source and cant think of anything to say in your evaluation, it means you dont know

enough about the topic, the context the source was created in and the background of theauthor. No matter what, make sure you use the questions in this guide to help with yourevaluations and BACK YOUR JUDGEMENTS UP WITH EVIDENCE FROM THE SOURCE.

You need to always remember that historical investigation in based upon three things:evidence, evidence and EVIDENCE. Following is an outline of what you need to look for

when doing source evaluations and some questions you can refer back to if you get stuck.Refer back to this throughout the year to help you as you do your research. Make sure youhave this guide open next to you as you do your research journal.

7. Put it all together into your final hypothesisA historical hypothesis must take account ofthe historical events; that means it should be afull or comprehensive explanation of what happened. It must be the result of careful thought,not a basic rewording of the topic. It also must be an answer to your key question. If youcome to this section and cant develop a hypothesis which does both these things, this usuallymeans you havent investigated correctly. This will also mean you wont have enough materialfor your assignment.

Just like in your Definitions section where you showed how your thinking led to your keyquestion, in section 5 you show how the knowledge you have developed leads you to yourfinal hypothesis. This is the hypothesis that you will use for your assignment.

QUESTIONS TO ASK YOURSELF WHEN EVALUATING YOUR RESEARCH PROCESS

(i) Have I used a diversity of high-quality primary, secondary and tertiary sources in myinvestigation?

(ii) Have I analysed and evaluated all the historical information I have found in myresearch?

(iii) Have I responded to new evidence by thinking about how it affectswhat Ive alreadylearned?

(iv) Have I supported my judgements with evidence and argued the case for my decisions?(v) Have I identified the perspective of the author(s), their time period and their values

and motives for producing the source and used these insights in my analyses?(vi) Have I taken account of the context within which the source was produced?


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HISTORICAL THINKING

Before you begin evaluating sources there are several factors to learn to consider, which somepeople call historical thinking. Its really just common sense applied in a particularly careful

way to the study of history. You need to use your knowledge of the historical period thesource was produced in (the context) to see if you can identify any hidden motives or

meanings in the source. This will also help you make intelligent observations on the source inyour evaluation. You will need to identify the perspective of the author or creator and howthis has affected the source; you do this by using the biographical information from yourSources section and showing how their perspective shows up in the source, or not. If yoursource is a historical account what can you identify about the quality of the historicalmethodology used by the author? You will also need to consider the audience the source wascreated for; by keeping all these things in mind you will find yourself able to make intelligentobservations about the source. This is what your assessors (me) want to see you being smart.It lights up our lives.Make sure you are careful and specific when analysing and evaluating your sources. It is not

enough to make vague and general statements; you must show your evidence and provideexamples to prove what you are saying to your assessor. A good source evaluation is detailedand contains original observations; sometimes merely noticing why the author or creator haspresented the historical information is enough. A good source evaluation also follows thesame basic structure as a paragraph it begins with a point, explains that point, backs it up

with SPECIFIC HISTORICAL EVIDENCE, and then winds up with a concluding sentence. Itsthe stuff historyteachers dreams are made of.


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QUESTIONS TO ASK WHEN EVALUATING SOURCES

Make sure you are careful and specific when analysing and evaluating your sources. It is notenough to make vague and general statements; you must show your evidence and provideexamples to prove what you are saying to your assessor.The following are some questions you can use when analysing your sources to help you; refer

to them when working on your research journal. They are meant to be used as a guide.

1. What is the perspective of the author?(i) Who created this source? When and where did they live? How has that context

affected the information in the source?(ii) Why did they create this source? Who was their audience? How does that

influence the information in the source? (Remember you must ALWAYS provideevidence and examples to support your judgements).

(iii) What was happening when they created this source? What observations can youmake about the events occurring at the time have affected the account?

(iv) What sources did they use? What might have been left out or distorted or wrongas a result? Remember to be specific.2. Does this source corroborate or contradict what Ive learned before?

(i) How does the information in this source fit with what Ive already learned? Keepan eye out as you go along; youll do this best if you do it as you go and take notes,rather than try to sit back when youve finished taking notes and do it afterwards.

(ii) If this source goes against what Ive learned before, why might that be the case?Which source is more reliable about what, or is one source more reliable abouteverything? If you cant find out, then look for more sources to help you decide.

(iii)

What new findings or conclusions come to you as a result of the information inthis source? Make sure you are thinking actively as you go; this will becomeeasier the more you learn. Knowledge is power.

3. What values can you identify in this source? (Values are what people think are good orbad).(i) How does the background, education, motive, cultural and historical context of

the author affect the information?

4. How reliable, relevant, representative and accurate is this source?(i)

What information in this source is probably correct, which is probably wrong,and what are you unsure about? Justify your decisions with evidence andexamples. Convince your assessor that your judgements are correct.

(ii) How careful was the historical methodology of the author? How do you know?(iii) Which focus questions does this source help you to answer? Show exactly what

information in this source helps to advance your investigation, and make sureyou look for sources later which help fill in the gaps.

(iv) How complete, entire or perfect is the information in this source? Why? Provideexamples and evidence to support your judgements.

5. How has this source helped you to answer your key question? Where are you up towith your key question as a result? Referring back to your key question periodicallywill help keep your research on track and will ensure you can develop a goodhypothesis.

history research guide 2011

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