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  • 7/23/2019 Hopkins, C. - The Siege of Dura

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    The Siege of Dura

    Author(s): Clark HopkinsSource: The Classical Journal, Vol. 42, No. 5 (Feb., 1947), pp. 251-259Published by: The Classical Association of the Middle West and South, Inc.Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3292064

    Accessed: 04/06/2009 07:51

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    OX T@HE

    II)DLE

    Eup1zrates,

    ig1z

    bove

    t1ze

    muddy

    river,

    stand

    massive

    grey

    walls

    and

    ponderous

    astions,

    uins

    of an

    anS

    cient

    ort.

    Here,

    astride

    1ze

    oyal

    zighway

    rom

    Antioch

    o

    Seleucia,

    ual

    apitals f

    t1ze

    eleucid

    empire,

    1ze

    Macedonians

    ong

    ago

    placeda

    strong1zold

    o

    guard1ze

    esert

    ways,

    and

    named

    itfor

    Seleucus'

    irt1zplace,

    uropos.F1ze

    eduin,

    indifferento

    Balkan

    entiment,

    alledt

    simply

    Ddr

    't1ze

    ort';

    reborn n

    the

    archaeologist's

    spade,n modernecordst appears s Dura

    Europos.

    Commanding

    1ze

    aravan

    rails,

    all but

    m

    pregnable

    e1zind

    ts

    stout

    defenses,

    ura

    was

    a

    prize

    to be

    foug1zt

    ver.

    Macedonian,

    1zen

    Part1zian,1zen

    oman,

    t was

    a

    keystonen

    t1ze

    arcof

    Rome's

    yrian

    rontier

    1zen,

    nA.D

    2 56,

    one

    more

    nemy,

    anners

    treaming,

    ppeared

    ((Clark

    Hopkins,

    son

    of

    Edward

    Washburn

    opkins,

    Professor f

    Sanscrit

    and

    Comparative

    hilologyat

    YaleUniversity,was born n NewYorkonSeptember

    I6,

    I895.

    He is a

    graduate f

    Yale A.B., 9I7),

    Oxford

    (Rhodes

    Scholar,

    9ItI9tI;

    A.B., I9tI

    and

    A.M.,

    I926)

    andthe

    University

    f

    Wisconsin

    Ph.D.,

    I924).

    He

    has

    aught

    t Rice

    nstitute,Yale

    and

    he

    University

    of

    Michigan.He

    studied

    at

    Athens

    n I927-I928,

    and

    in I928-I929

    was

    Assistant

    Director f

    Yale's

    xcava

    tions

    at

    DuraSEuropos;rom 93I

    to I935

    he

    was Field

    Director

    f the

    Dura

    excavations.

    reserve

    officer f

    the U.

    S.

    Army,he

    served

    n

    World

    War

    as a znd

    Lieutenant,

    nfantry,

    nd n

    World

    War

    I

    as a

    Major

    in the

    Sixth

    Service

    Command's

    Training

    Division.

    He is

    now

    Professor f

    Classical

    Art

    and

    Archaeology

    attheUniversity fMichigan.

    Volume 4t

    Uniquen

    the

    Annals

    f

    War

    A

    Story

    Unearthedy

    the

    Spade

    T h e

    S i e g e

    o f

    D u r a

    Clart

    Hopkins

    before

    he

    ramparts.

    Heralds

    were

    detached

    from

    1ze

    main

    body o

    ride o

    the

    gates

    ndcal1

    upon

    he

    defenderso

    surrender.

    reetedwith

    jeers

    and

    insults,

    1ze

    nvaders

    laced

    1ze ity

    under

    iege.

    T@1zessue

    wasa

    disaster

    nique

    n

    the

    annals

    of

    war.

    THE

    MACEDONIAN

    NGINEERS

    HO,n

    the

    third

    century

    B.C.,

    were

    detailed o

    build he

    fortress

    which

    was

    to be

    DuraEuropos,

    selecteda spot where the Syrianplateau

    breaks

    ff n a

    cliff

    droppingo

    the

    Euphrates,

    a

    site

    well

    suited

    by

    nature

    or

    defense.

    The

    cliS is

    broken

    t two

    points

    by

    deep

    gullies

    running

    ack nto

    the

    desert,he

    wadis

    f the

    field

    reports.The

    cliS and

    the

    gullies,

    heir

    crests

    crowned

    by a

    crenellated

    all of

    cut

    and

    fitted

    native

    stone,

    formed

    nvulnerable

    defenses n

    east,

    northand

    south,

    as

    you

    can

    see

    from

    FIGURE

    , which

    shows

    the

    entire

    perimeter

    f the

    walled

    own.

    On

    the

    west

    there

    was no

    natural

    rotec

    tion;

    on

    this

    side he

    wall

    was

    therefore

    made

    much

    stronger,

    hirty feet

    high

    and

    fifteen

    feet

    thick,

    studdedwith

    towers

    at

    close n

    tervals.

    Midwayof

    this

    wall,

    visible

    t the

    ex

    treme

    eft

    of

    FIGURE, was

    the

    Palmyra

    ate,

    its

    passage

    arred y

    threesets

    of

    doors

    and

    flanked n

    each

    sideby a

    great

    double

    ower.

    Here

    he

    caravans

    ound

    ast rom

    he

    desert

    metropolis

    f

    Palmyra

    were

    halted

    to

    pay

    portduesandmake beisanceo thetutelary

    gods

    of

    Dura; his

    accomplished,

    hey

    were

    X=I

    -

    -

    - -

    =

    o

    - c

    e =

    s

    -

    -

    -

    r

    a

    -

    v

    s

    = _

    t

    5 L

    O

    u

    h

    Number S

    FEBRUARY

    947

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    CLARK

    HOPKINS

    sa

    FIGURE. AIR

    VIEWOPDURA

    PROMHE OUTH,

    ECEMBER

    932.

    (Dura

    Reportv,

    Frontispiece)

    allowed

    o pass hrough o

    the bataar nd ts

    varied

    ascinations.

    Dura

    had been

    Seleucidrom ts

    founding

    until

    about OO B.C.,

    then a western

    outpost

    of the

    empire f the

    Parthians.n I65 A.D.

    the

    Romansmade t

    a bastionof their

    eastern

    frontier;but

    whether heir

    overlordswere

    Greek,Persian r

    Roman an have

    mattered

    little to

    the mixedbreed

    Durans,who

    tended

    sheep, armed

    heir mall lotsalong

    heriver,

    and raded ispassionatelyithallpassers y.

    Fornearly

    hundred earsRome's

    ight o

    rulethe

    middleEuphrates

    as not seriously

    challenged,ut a

    noteofdangerwas

    sounded

    in

    A.D.

    227,

    when the new dynasty

    of the

    Sassanians

    verthrewhevacillating

    arthians

    and

    established strong nd

    energetic entral

    power n Persia.

    To repel heirraids

    n A.D

    23I-233

    requiredthe

    personalefforts of

    A]exander

    everus; ndGordianII,

    wounded

    in his victoryover

    he

    Persians tResaenan

    A.D. 243,

    died and was buried,we are told,

    somewhere ear

    Dura.

    In spite of

    frontierdisorders, he

    com

    mercial

    apitals f Syria,

    Damascus,

    isibis,

    Carrhae,Edessa,

    Palmyra

    nd manymore,

    had grown

    remendously

    uring he second

    andearly

    hird enturies, nd

    Duraprospered

    with

    them.The Roman

    governor, he Dux

    Ripae, as

    an inscription

    alls him, had a

    palace

    next the

    campof his troops,

    ne-arhe

    cliff,and built

    bathsand a

    miniaturemphi

    theater

    or their comfort

    and pleasure.By

    A.D. 220

    therewere enoughChristians n

    Dura to

    build a chapelfor

    their intimate

    worship;

    nd in A.D. 246

    Jews built a

    synaS

    gogue nthe

    shadow f the western

    wall,and

    frescoedt with

    scenes rom

    he OldTesta

    ment.

    They

    were not to enjoy

    them ong. Soon

    after 246

    the Roman

    garrison ound t ex

    pediento reinforce

    he mightywalls.

    Along

    their

    whole extentthey

    piled an earthem

    bankment,ifty

    feet wide at the base

    andas

    highas the walls,and aced t with mudbrick

    to control

    rosion.Buildings

    earthe

    walls,

  • 7/23/2019 Hopkins, C. - The Siege of Dura

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    THE SIEGEOF DURA

    253

    privatehouses, he Christian hapel nd the

    synagogue ereengulfed, ndwith them he

    pagan temples to Aphlad, the Gods of

    Pa]myra,Attanathkona, nd Mithra. Some

    newmethod f siegehadshaken he Romans'

    reliance n wallsof mere tone.

    In A.D. 2y6 the Sassanianroopsof Sapor

    advanced ictoriously long the Euphrates

    andappearedeforeDura.We havenorecord

    of the eventswhich precededhe formaln

    vestment,but we can picture or ourselves

    the flurry f orders, he hurried otching f

    extraarrows, he forging f new lanceheads,

    thepledgeso the gods, he strict nstructions

    to the sentries, he checking f supplies....

    PerhapsSapor ested the Romans' emper

    with a frontal ttackupon he greatPalmyra

    Gate; f so, he was thrownback.Perhaps e

    sentscouts o scale hecliffs t night, n hopes

    of finding he guards rowsy; f so, they too

    were disappointed.

    Sapor alled orhisengineers. littlenorth

    of the PalmyraGate,oppositeTower I9 on

    theofficial lan f theexcavationsnd tarting

    at some distanceout in the plain, sappers

    begana mine,a tunnelaimedat the lowest

    foundations f this tower. The entrance o

    this minehas not yet been found. Perhaps

    they usedone of the many hamberombs n

    Dura's emeteryor the purpose;n anycase,

    the visitorcan see, opposite he tower and

    fortymeters ut in the plain,a greatheapof

    earthand gravelwhich, it seems easonable

    to suppose,was debris rom he mine.

    The mine was driven without serious

    hindrancesfarastheouterwallof thetower.

    The garrisonmust have known what was

    going on; the activity, and the growing

    mound f fresh ubsoil, ouldnot havebeen

    dissetnbled;ut at first hey took no action,

    as if uncertainwhat action to take. The

    Sassanian apperscompleted,beneath the

    foundations f the west wall of the tower,

    a chamberf considerableize.Shoring p the

    roofas they went along, hey extendedt be

    neath he northwallof the towerasfaras the

    curtainwall, and then dug a lateralbranch,

    fifty feet long, under he curtainwall itself.

    FIGUREAshows he situation:TowerI9

    (J, J), the curtainwall (H), the glacisor em

    bankment f dirt and mudbrick nsideand

    outsidethe wall and towers, the mine ap

    A B

    FIGURE. TOWER9: PLANOPMINES NDCOUNTERMINE.

    (DuraReportVI,Figure4)

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    CLARKHOPKINS

    S4

    proachinghe tower rom he southwest, he

    chambernder hewestandnorth idesof the

    tower E,E),and he ong ateral ranch nder

    the curtain D, D). Supposenow that the

    Sassanians,s they proceedwith this work,

    haveproppedhe massive oundationsbove

    theirheadswith heavytimbers, o that the

    outer aceof the towerandthe adjacenturS

    tain are supported ot on bedrockbut on

    wooden horing; uppose urther hat when

    all is readya pi]eof faggots, trawandpitch

    is lighted among he timbers, o that the

    wholeminebecomes n infernon which he

    supportsare consumed.You may properly

    expect hat the towerand a long sectionof

    the wall will collapse,disconcertinghe de

    fenders ndmaking breachn the wall into

    whichthe attackersmayrush o overwhelm

    the town. This was clearly he Sassanians'

    intention,but something appened o pre

    vent ts fullaccomplishment.

    The group f galleries, hosepurposewas

    clearly o cause he collapse f the walls,con

    nectswith anotherntendedo join he mines

    under he wallswith the interior f the city.

    Near the northeast ngleof Tower I9, the

    gallerywas perfectlypreserved, ven the

    piecesof wood supportinghe earthbeing

    still n place.The sidesweremade f two lines

    of roundhardwood osts, our o five nches

    in diameterndabout ix eet n length, awed

    straightat the two ends. The distancebe

    tween the linesof postswas about our eet

    and they were implanted n the earth to

    depths varying rom ten to fifteen nches,

    undoubtedlyn order to offiergreaterre

    sistance o the lateralpressure f the earth.

    The topsof the postsserved s supportor

    strongplanks. he partof the gallery ear he

    curtain nd he towerbears nly nsignificant

    tracesof fire and smoke, hough the part

    nearer he city has been burned.However,

    the intensityof the fireand its effiectswere

    not everywherehe same. n a toneextending

    under he old facades f the housesclose to

    the wall the posts,carbonizedt the top, are

    still in p]ace(FIGURE) and, although he

    ceilingplanksappear o have been burned,

    the gallerymade n well packed arth, n the

    spacebetweenwallandhouses,hasnot been

    obstructed y fallendebris.In addition o

    FIGURE. TOWER9: TUNNELUPPORTS

    xn sxtu.

    (Dura ReportVI,PlateI8, 2)

    largepiecesof burnedwoodfrom he ceiling,

    fragments f faggotsand straw which had

    beenusedto startthe firewereeasilyrecog

    nited.At the very end the galleryhasfallen

    in but contains o traces f fire.

    A very curious eaturewas the fact that

    the passage ot far rom he curtainwa]lhad

    beenobstructed ith rubble ndgreatblocks

    of stone.M. Du Mesnil du Buisson, Cap

    tain n the FrenchArmyanda veteransofhe

    trenchby trenchdefense f Francen World

    War I, excavated his systemof minesand

    publishedhem.He suggests hat the stones

    were piledup and fastenedwith plasterby

    menwhowere acing he city, in otherwords

    by the Persians, ndthat the workwas done

    after he fire.

    In the gallery eyond he blocked p tone

    was madea seriesof findsof great nterest.

    Going astoneencounters extto the barrier

    a skeleton ying on its back FIGURE). At

    the momentwhenhe fell the manwas turned

    toward he east, .e., the city. As the ske]eton

    measures.8Sm., the soldiermusthavebeen

    we]l over six feet in height.The chest was

    envelopedn a well preservedoatof mail, n

    the form f a shirtwhichwas slipped n over

    the head.The legs were burnedbut M. Du

    Mesnil believes hat he fell in fight rather

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    THE

    SIEGE

    OF DURA

    2ss

    than

    by

    suffocation r burns.

    Not

    far

    awayin the

    trenchwas

    a large

    ovoid

    helmet, ts

    two pieces

    oined

    ogether

    by

    bandsof iron.

    From

    helower

    edgehung

    a

    piece f mail

    imilaro

    thoseusedon

    Persian

    helmets f

    the middle

    ages.Close

    by was a

    large word

    which at

    the time of

    discovery

    was

    represented

    nly by a

    few

    fragments

    of

    bad]y

    oxidizedron

    and a jade

    pommel.

    Scattered

    ragmentsf

    iron

    appearobe

    parts

    of the

    mounting nd

    boss of a

    shield.

    Two

    bronze

    ibulae

    nda

    number f coins

    appear

    also to

    have

    belonged o this

    warrior.

    Further ast,

    close to

    the city end

    of the

    gallery, he

    bodies of

    sixteen or

    eighteen

    soldierswere

    oundwith

    the remains

    f

    their

    armor ndclothing.

    n the

    partnearest

    he

    wal],

    the bodies

    were

    calcined n

    the fire;

    toward he

    middle he

    bones

    had

    remained

    white

    and in good

    condition

    o that

    it was

    possible o

    recognize

    odies

    ntertwined.

    n

    the

    part nearest

    he city, the

    skeletonsay

    in

    contracted

    ositions s

    f themen

    had ried

    to

    save

    hemselves

    rom cave

    n or had

    been

    crushed

    n positions

    f

    defense.One

    appears

    to have

    been

    seated,his

    spinal

    olumn eing

    markedly

    urved.

    Another ay,

    thrown

    back,

    with his legs spreadwide apartandfolded

    underhim as

    if he had

    madean

    attempt

    o

    rise.

    Metalobjects

    ound

    with the

    bodies,

    though

    badly

    corroded,

    eem o be

    partsof

    swords,

    perhaps lsoof a

    javelin,and

    bosses

    of

    shields rather

    than

    helmets.

    One large

    swordwas

    preserved

    ntactwith its

    pommel

    of

    rock

    rysta].The ron

    coatsof

    mail,

    hough

    found n

    fragments,

    were

    readily

    recogni;

    able.

    Fragments f

    wooden shields

    were

    recovered,

    and some

    pierced

    ornamental

    plaques.

    The most

    important

    ollateral

    iscovery

    was

    that of the

    coins ound

    grouped

    t three

    diffierent

    oints

    monghe

    bodies. n

    onecase,

    it

    couldbe

    clearly eetl

    hat hecoins

    hadbeen

    placed nder

    he

    coat Dfnzail

    nveloping

    ne

    of the

    skeletonsand

    near the thigh

    bone,

    probablyn

    the

    belt. The same

    eems o

    be

    true in

    two other

    cases.

    The

    coins were

    Romanand

    dated up to

    A.D aS6.

    M.

    Du

    Mesnil,

    who as

    excavator

    f the mine

    s the

    personmostcognitantof the evidenceand

    bestable

    ointerpret

    heresults,

    elieves

    hat

    the

    bodieswere

    those of

    Romans

    ndsup

    ports

    his

    hypothesiswith the

    Roman oins.

    Accordingo

    his

    reconstruction,he

    Romans,

    detecting he

    constructionf

    the mine,

    built

    a

    counterminerom

    he

    edgeof the

    embank

    mentwithin

    the city

    toward

    he tower

    and

    met he mine

    of the

    Persians.

    Battle n

    the

    Dark

    AT THE

    MEETING

    of the two

    mines,

    here

    was an

    underground

    attlebetween

    Persians

    and Romans.

    The latter

    were

    overcome

    nd

    crowded ack nto

    the

    countermine

    ollowed

    by the

    Persians.At

    that moment

    he de

    fendersof

    the city,

    seeing

    that the

    Roman

    auxiliarieswere retreatingn disorder, nd

    fearinghat

    the Persians

    would

    emerge

    nto

    the

    city, hastily

    blockedup

    the

    entrance f

    the

    countermine,

    hutting up

    inside those

    whowere

    wounded

    r agging

    ehind.At

    the

    same

    ime he

    Persians,

    howere

    undoubted

    ly too

    few in

    numbero enter

    he city,

    setfire

    to

    the

    counterminend

    rapidly

    withdrew.

    They

    thenblocked

    p the

    counterminey

    a

    wall of

    rubbleand

    plaster,

    ompleted heil

    operationsnder

    he tower,

    uccessfully

    ired

    theshoringnd toodbyto await heco]lapse

    of

    the

    tower.

    FIGURE. TOWER

    9:

    ARMORED

    KELETON

    OFPERSIANWARRIOR,S FOUND N MINE.

    (DuraReport

    VI,

    Plate I8, 3)

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    ts6

    CLARK

    HOPKINS

    This

    account

    of

    Du

    Mesnil

    satisfactorily

    explains

    he

    Roman

    oins,

    and

    he

    blocking

    f

    the

    countermine,

    ut

    it

    still

    leaves

    a

    nutnber

    of

    things

    la

    doubt.

    It

    seems

    hard

    o

    believe

    that

    he

    Roznans

    roping

    n

    a

    countermine

    or

    the

    sappers

    f

    the

    Persianshouldmeetthegallery f the

    Persians

    o

    exactly

    hat

    mine

    and

    countermine

    ecome

    perfectly

    traight

    tunnel.

    Furthermore,

    t

    is

    hard

    not

    to

    as

    sociate

    he

    firing

    f

    the

    mine

    beyond

    he

    block

    with

    he

    firing

    f

    the

    tower

    gallery.

    Finally,

    if

    he

    Persians

    ad

    ime

    o

    wall

    of

    part

    of

    the

    mine

    efore

    ompleting

    heir

    work

    under

    he

    tower,

    t

    seems

    trange

    hat

    the

    lA;omans

    id

    not

    at

    least

    uncover

    he

    mine

    entrance

    o

    give

    ecent

    burial

    o

    those

    they

    knew

    were

    within.

    One

    wouldexpectthatthey wouldhave

    eopened

    he

    entrance

    s

    soon

    as

    it

    was

    safe,

    o

    see

    f

    some

    of

    the

    wounded

    might

    not

    still

    urvive.

    The

    evidence

    s

    by

    no

    means

    lear,

    but

    I

    am

    nclined

    o

    favor

    another

    nterpretation.

    The

    act

    that

    the

    Persian

    mine

    turned

    nto

    the

    ity,

    as

    well

    as

    followed

    he

    walls

    of

    tower

    and

    urtain,

    may

    have

    meant

    hat,

    as

    else

    where,

    hey

    were

    intending

    o

    introduce

    band

    f

    soldiers

    ecretly

    nto

    the

    city.

    If

    a

    bandereintroduced,t wouldhaveto be

    at

    he

    moment

    f

    the

    collapse

    f

    the

    tower,

    or

    they

    ould

    easily

    be

    overpowered

    y

    the

    de

    fenders.

    o

    accomplish

    his

    the

    mine

    would

    have

    o

    be

    pushed

    orward

    o

    the

    very

    edge

    of

    he

    embankment

    nd

    the

    chosen

    band

    of

    soldiers

    ould

    necessarily

    e

    stat1oned

    n

    position

    efore

    he

    firing

    f

    the

    tower,

    a

    firing

    which

    ould

    block

    any

    retreat

    or

    hope

    of

    reinforcements.

    ven

    so,

    smoke

    rom

    he

    fire

    might

    uffocate

    hem,

    or

    the

    fire

    might

    pread

    andollapse heirgallery.To prevent his,

    when

    verything

    as

    complete,

    nd

    he

    tower

    ready

    o

    be

    fired,

    elected

    oldiers

    were

    sealed

    in

    he

    nd

    of

    the

    mine

    beyond

    the

    tower

    with

    wall

    of

    rubble

    nd

    stone.

    Signal

    f

    the

    attack

    ould

    be

    the

    collapse

    f

    the

    tower.

    Obviously,

    he

    plan

    did

    not

    work.

    Either

    smoke

    eeped

    hrough

    he

    mine

    blocli,

    or

    the

    end

    f

    the

    mine

    collapsed

    nd

    trapped

    he

    forward

    arty.

    The

    Ro1nan

    oins

    are

    not

    so

    easy

    o

    explain

    but

    it

    is

    not

    hard

    o

    believe

    thatoldiers,who hadcarriedheirraids o

    successfully

    s

    to

    cut

    Dura

    off

    from

    help,

    should

    ave

    Roman

    money

    s

    part

    of

    tlle

    loot

    in

    their

    pockets.

    However

    you

    prefer

    to

    interpret

    the

    blocked

    unnels

    nd

    he

    bodies

    ound

    n

    the1n,

    the

    Sassanian

    lans

    were

    rudely

    hwarted

    ytheworkof a manwhohadthen

    been

    dead

    Sve

    centuries.

    When

    the

    underground

    up

    pQtS

    had

    burned

    way,

    Tower

    I9

    and

    fifty

    feet

    of

    the

    curtain

    wall

    sagged

    nd

    sank.

    But

    the

    engineer

    who,

    in

    that

    farzof

    day

    of

    Dura's

    ounding,

    ad

    designed

    he

    fortifica

    tions

    f

    the

    city,

    had

    done

    his

    work

    well.

    The

    ower,

    roughly

    dropped

    ight

    feet

    in

    to

    he

    cavernous

    rave

    prepared

    eneath

    t,

    failed

    o

    collapse,

    ailed

    to

    open

    an

    avenue

    to

    he

    besiegers,

    arled

    o

    betray

    Dura o herenemiesFIGUREB).

    oday,

    700

    years

    ater

    still,

    ower

    Ig

    is

    standing,

    attered

    ut

    still

    defensible,

    till

    menacing

    he

    Syrian

    lain.

    Redeployment

    THE

    ASSANIANS

    ithdrew

    o

    think

    hings

    over.

    At

    the

    southwest

    orner

    f

    the

    walls,

    at

    the

    dge

    of

    the

    south

    wadi

    and

    visible

    n

    the

    left

    oreground

    f

    FIGURE

    , standsTower

    4.

    Asaybe

    seen

    frotn

    he

    picture,

    ts

    south

    side

    ies

    along

    he

    deep

    avine,

    while

    he

    west

    facade

    s

    turned

    toward

    the

    desert.

    The

    ravine

    llowed

    he

    Sassanians

    o

    approach

    he

    tower

    ith

    less

    danger

    rom

    hostile

    arrows,

    partially

    creened

    rom

    observation.

    About

    forty

    eters

    west

    of

    this

    tower,

    therefore,

    new

    ine

    was

    begun

    rom

    he

    ravine

    oward

    the

    ower,

    hrough

    he

    soft

    native

    rock.

    This

    .

    .

    .

    4

    mlne

    s

    a

    narrow?

    w1st1ng

    unnel,

    unsup

    ported

    y

    woodandscarcelyheheightof aman.

    n

    its

    progress

    oward

    the

    tower

    it

    crossed

    wo

    sepulchral

    hambers,

    part

    of

    the

    ast

    ecropolis

    hich

    covered

    he

    desert

    outside

    he

    west

    wall

    of

    the

    city.

    In

    he

    gallery

    were

    found

    objects

    ost

    or

    abandoned

    y

    the

    miners;

    endants,

    oughly

    made

    imestone

    amps,

    ring,

    tc.

    Other

    mall

    objects,

    uch

    as

    a

    glass

    ase

    of

    the

    type

    known

    as

    ear

    ottles,

    doubtless

    ame

    rom

    he

    tombs

    violated

    n

    the

    course

    of

    construction.

    So

    killfully was this narrow gallery

    directed

    hat

    t

    ends

    exactly

    under

    he

    middle

    of

    ower

    4.

    At

    this

    point

    the

    mine

    comes

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    THE

    SIEGEOF

    DURA

    2s7

    nearer o the

    surface nd

    widensout in ap

    proachinghe

    foundationsf the

    tower.The

    widening

    llowed he constructionf

    a mud

    brickwall to

    helpsupport he timbers

    f the

    wooden scaffolding.

    Here a little gallery

    branchesffand eadsdirectly o theravine,

    probablyo furnisha

    draft or the fire.To

    provide or a sufficient

    urrentof air and

    perhapsn the hope of

    setting fire

    to the

    tower, the minersat the

    moment f with

    drawal eem

    also to have openeda

    window

    toward he

    interior.Clearly hese

    Sassanian

    engineers ere

    expert n

    theirprofession.

    The effectproduced

    y the firingof the

    mine is

    clearly shown in the

    photograph

    (FIGURE).

    The gallery

    analong he west,

    northandeastwallsof the tower,andunder

    partof the

    northcurtain. f it ranalso

    under

    thesouthwall, t didnot

    at anyrate

    cause he

    wall to slip

    downat that point.From

    he re

    mains f the

    gallery

    eneath hesunkenwall

    was recovered

    largequantity f

    stakes nd

    of planks,

    many f them

    ontainingarge ron

    nails.Near

    the east side of the

    tower some

    stakes utting

    oward he outsideof

    the wall

    were ound n

    place.All werepartly

    burned.

    It seems lear, ere, hat

    hisminewassuc

    cessfully ugand ired,with greatdamageo

    thefortificationsf Dura;

    but hereagain he

    Sassanian

    uccess was short of

    complete.

    Buttressed y

    the massive

    mbankmentsf

    earth ndmudbrick

    withinandwithoutXhe

    towerdid not

    entirely ol]apse,

    tribute o

    its

    firstbuilder nd o the

    manwho

    designed

    its

    reinforcement. ut

    this time the Sas

    sanians ad not

    dependedwholly

    upon the

    collapse f thetower.

    AssaultbyRamp

    STARTINGgain rom

    heplain,

    littlemore

    thana

    hundred eet west of Tower

    I4, the

    Sassanians egan o

    build an earthen amp

    slopingup to

    the wall.With the

    defenders

    manning

    very nchof the ramparts,

    ndwell

    suppliedwith

    fresh

    arrows, he danger o

    unprotected

    aborersmust have

    been in

    tolerab]e.We

    must hereforeuppose

    hat he

    Sassanian

    ngineersprovided ome

    kind of

    testudo, a huge shieldon rollersso that

    it couldbe

    moved

    orward s theworkpro

    gressed, ehindwhich the

    menwho carried

    andpiled he atal arth

    ouldmove nrelative

    safety.

    The

    situation f the defenders as

    thence

    forthdesperate, ut in

    the hourof

    theirapS

    pointment

    with destiny hey did not

    falter.

    Slowly the testudo

    moved orward nd up;

    inexorablyhe wide

    sloping mound grew

    nearer o the

    doomedbattlements.

    he gar

    rison,however, aised he

    heightof the wall

    by piling

    mudbrick n the top of the

    stone

    battlements.

    heyrefusedo

    surrender.

    In the meantimehe

    besiegerswere plot

    ting still

    anothermenace.Begun n

    the open

    plain but

    continueddirectly

    beneath the

    FIGURE TOWER4

    (SOUTHWEST

    OWER)

    FROM HE

    EMBANKMENT,FTER

    XCAVATION,

    SHOWING

    ETTLINGND PARTIAL

    OLLAPSE

    CAUSEDYPERSIANINE.

    (DuraReport

    VI,Plate It)

    ramp, hey

    were digging third

    mine,aimed

    to come to the surfacewithin the city im

    mediatelybehind the

    point at which the

    rampwas

    aimed.Here hey could

    workwith

    almost ofear

    f

    detection, iththedefenders

    giving heirwho]e

    attention o the workers

    on the ramp, ndthe

    noiseand

    confusion f

    the ramp

    constructiondrowning

    out the

    faint

    reverberationsf the men

    at work

    below.

    This minewas the

    biggestof all;

    ten feet

    wide and almost high

    enoughfor men to

    march rect, t could asilypermithepassage

    of infantry unningour

    abreast.t passesust

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    9/10

    CLARK

    HOPKINS

    ts8

    beneath he

    foundations

    f the

    curtain

    wall,

    and hen

    rises o

    the

    surface f

    the desert

    ock

    within the

    embankment.

    ere it

    was sup

    ported

    by

    planksand

    posts,

    as the mass

    of

    ashes

    and bits

    of wood

    testify.

    It turns

    slightly

    outh,

    proceedshrough

    doorofone

    of the

    houses

    buriedby

    the

    embankment,

    turns

    slightly

    north

    again, and

    ends

    some

    distance

    rom he

    bottom

    f the

    embankment

    _ .

    SlS 1l

    ,,

    I .

    1

    ;

    g

    X

    FIGURE. TOWER4 (SOUTHM

    MINES

    ND

    face.

    At

    this point

    it must

    havemounted

    straight

    p to the

    sloping

    aceof the

    embank

    ment. A

    skeleton ound

    at the end

    tells of

    either

    a fightat

    themouth

    of

    the mine

    or an

    accidentn

    itsconstruction.

    ssailants

    each

    ingthe

    interior

    f the

    city through

    his

    mine

    could ake

    hedefenders

    n

    therear

    ustwhere

    the chiefattackof the Persians n theramp

    was

    concentratedFIGURE

    ).

    When

    these

    earthworks

    were completed

    Dura's

    inal

    day had

    dawned.

    It was

    soon

    over.

    At a

    signal he

    shoring nder

    Tower

    4

    was fired;

    he

    big tunnel

    was

    packed

    with

    shock

    roops,

    ullyarmed

    nd

    eager

    or the

    booty

    before hem;

    other fighters

    rowded

    behind

    heir

    hieldat

    the crest

    of theramp,

    few short

    feet from

    the walls.

    Tower

    I4

    tottered

    and began

    to crumble

    nd

    its

    de

    MESTOWER):LANOFPERSIAN

    ASSAULT

    AMP.

    (Dura

    Report

    VI,

    PlateI3)

    fenders

    an

    or their

    ives;and

    the Sassanian

    throng

    rushed

    over and

    under he

    wallsto

    overwhelm

    he city.

    Racing

    through

    the

    streets

    o be Srst

    o reacll

    he loot,they

    slew

    all

    who resisted;

    he

    restwere

    reserved

    or

    slavery.

    Dura

    was no

    small own;

    the

    sack

    mayhavelasted

    several

    days. When

    it was

    overDurawas nomore, nd hedesertedite

    was eft

    to the vultures

    nd he

    scorpions.

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    THE SIEGEOF DURAHE SIEGEOF DURA

    zS9S9

    Unique in the annals of uoar.... Why

    shouldhisbesaidof Dura? n thegrimhistory

    of armies ountless itieshavebeen akenby

    siege, heirwomen ndchildrennslaved,heir

    grownmenmurdered,heir hildrenaken nto

    slavery.Countless appers avedriven ount

    lessminesbeneathhewallsof settlementshat

    dared esist,and havediedmiserablyn the

    dart,xncave ns or theviciousnfightingf the

    countermines.

    But hesiege f Dura s unique ecausehere

    is no ancient ecord f it, no author, o texton

    stoneor bronze r papyrus o describeor us

    theBattle f theSapor hewild uryof thatday

    Unique in the annals of uoar.... Why

    shouldhisbesaidof Dura? n thegrimhistory

    of armies ountless itieshavebeen akenby

    siege, heirwomen ndchildrennslaved,heir

    grownmenmurdered,heir hildrenaken nto

    slavery.Countless appers avedriven ount

    lessminesbeneathhewallsof settlementshat

    dared esist,and havediedmiserablyn the

    dart,xncave ns or theviciousnfightingf the

    countermines.

    But hesiege f Dura s unique ecausehere

    is no ancient ecord f it, no author, o texton

    stoneor bronze r papyrus o describeor us

    theBattle f theSapor hewild uryof thatday

    when he Sassanian orde wovrmedcross he

    wallsand nto hestreets. or hestorywehave

    no evidencexcept hovturned p bythespade

    of the archaeologist;nd that is the storywe

    lzave etold ere.t

    * Details f the mines re alen almost erbatim

    from the formalreportsof M. Du Mesnil du

    Buisson,vicezdirectorf the excavations,with

    whom had he pleasure f collaboratingn three

    campaignst Dura.Both he reportand he illus

    trations re n largepartcontainedn Excavations

    at DuraEuropos, reliminary eport f tlzeSixtlz

    Seasonof workYaleniversity Press, New

    Haven,936), pages 88-zoSand platest andz8.

    when he Sassanian orde wovrmedcross he

    wallsand nto hestreets. or hestorywehave

    no evidencexcept hovturned p bythespade

    of the archaeologist;nd that is the storywe

    lzave etold ere.t

    * Details f the mines re alen almost erbatim

    from the formalreportsof M. Du Mesnil du

    Buisson,vicezdirectorf the excavations,with

    whom had he pleasure f collaboratingn three

    campaignst Dura.Both he reportand he illus

    trations re n largepartcontainedn Excavations

    at DuraEuropos, reliminary eport f tlzeSixtlz

    Seasonof workYaleniversity Press, New

    Haven,936), pages 88-zoSand platest andz8.

    Note

    THE RISE f the principatet Rome, t is

    well known,was attendedby the de

    cline of forensic oratory, and in an en

    vironmentunfriendly o free speech the

    declamationupplanted enuinepleading e

    forethe publicassembliesr senate.Yet not

    everyone uccumbedo the allurements r

    pretensions f these rhetorical xercises; n

    amusing ale which shows how Cicerowas

    still venerated s the master f eloquence n

    livens the preface o the third book of the

    elderSeneca's ontroversiae.lassius everus,

    a prominentawyer, eemed o Seneca n in

    efectual declaimern spite of greatnatural

    gifts. Pressed or an explanation, assiusde

    nounced he unrealityof declamation nd

    declaredts practitionersncompetentt con

    fronting ctual egalsituations.As an exam

    ple, he recountedhis joust with Lucius

    CestiusPius, one of the best knownof the

    rhetoricians.

    The quarrel eganwhenCestiusundertook

    to deliver a speech in Milonem, hereby

    setting himselfup as Cicero'shypothetical

    adversary. ompously e beganby proclaim

    ing, "If I werea Thraciani.e.,a gladiator),

    would be Fusius; f a mime,Bathyllus;f a

    horse,Melissio."Not brookinguchconceit,

    Note

    THE RISE f the principatet Rome, t is

    well known,was attendedby the de

    cline of forensic oratory, and in an en

    vironmentunfriendly o free speech the

    declamationupplanted enuinepleading e

    forethe publicassembliesr senate.Yet not

    everyone uccumbedo the allurements r

    pretensions f these rhetorical xercises; n

    amusing ale which shows how Cicerowas

    still venerated s the master f eloquence n

    livens the preface o the third book of the

    elderSeneca's ontroversiae.lassius everus,

    a prominentawyer, eemed o Seneca n in

    efectual declaimern spite of greatnatural

    gifts. Pressed or an explanation, assiusde

    nounced he unrealityof declamation nd

    declaredts practitionersncompetentt con

    fronting ctual egalsituations.As an exam

    ple, he recountedhis joust with Lucius

    CestiusPius, one of the best knownof the

    rhetoricians.

    The quarrel eganwhenCestiusundertook

    to deliver a speech in Milonem, hereby

    setting himselfup as Cicero'shypothetical

    adversary. ompously e beganby proclaim

    ing, "If I werea Thraciani.e.,a gladiator),

    would be Fusius; f a mime,Bathyllus;f a

    horse,Melissio."Not brookinguchconceit,

    Cassius nterruptedwith "If you were a

    sewer cloaca), ou would be the greatest f

    those,too (maxima)" Consternationn the

    part of Cestius'sadmirers, ibald aughter

    from he others.The manwho was about o

    reply o braxenlyo Cicero, ays he narrator,

    hadno wordswith which o silence heckler,

    and merelyasserted hat he wouldnot con

    tinue until Cassius eft the house.To this

    demandCassius ejoined hat he would not

    quit the publicbath,wherethe speechwas

    beingdelivered, ntil he had washed.

    Subsequently, e continues, t was his

    pleasureo seek egalredressor Cicero rom

    the declaimer.He hailed Cestius beforea

    praetor, nd afterabusing nd mocking he

    poor fellow, demandedhat the magistrate

    inscribehim as defendantunder the law

    dealingwith inscriptummaZefiicium;estius

    was so distraughthat he asked o be per

    mitted to procure egal counsel.Then Cas

    sius, dragging im beforea secondpraetor,

    charged im on a count of ingratum.As a

    thirdaction, orappointmentf a curator, as

    beingsought rom he praetor rbanus,Ces

    tius's riends ntreatedhe merciless ersecuS

    torto desist romharassingisvictim urther.

    Cassiusagreed,on condition hat Cestius

    Cassius nterruptedwith "If you were a

    sewer cloaca), ou would be the greatest f

    those,too (maxima)" Consternationn the

    part of Cestius'sadmirers, ibald aughter

    from he others.The manwho was about o

    reply o braxenlyo Cicero, ays he narrator,

    hadno wordswith which o silence heckler,

    and merelyasserted hat he wouldnot con

    tinue until Cassius eft the house.To this

    demandCassius ejoined hat he would not

    quit the publicbath,wherethe speechwas

    beingdelivered, ntil he had washed.

    Subsequently, e continues, t was his

    pleasureo seek egalredressor Cicero rom

    the declaimer.He hailed Cestius beforea

    praetor, nd afterabusing nd mocking he

    poor fellow, demandedhat the magistrate

    inscribehim as defendantunder the law

    dealingwith inscriptummaZefiicium;estius

    was so distraughthat he asked o be per

    mitted to procure egal counsel.Then Cas

    sius, dragging im beforea secondpraetor,

    charged im on a count of ingratum.As a

    thirdaction, orappointmentf a curator, as

    beingsought rom he praetor rbanus,Ces

    tius's riends ntreatedhe merciless ersecuS

    torto desist romharassingisvictim urther.

    Cassiusagreed,on condition hat Cestius

    PRESUMPTIONREBUKEDRESUMPTIONREBUKED