How and When is Language How and When is Language Possible?Possible?

HowHow is Language Possible? is Language Possible?

• Theories…Theories…

• Defining language… Defining language…

• Primates…Primates…

• Humans…Humans…

• When is language possible?…When is language possible?…

• How is language possible?….How is language possible?….

Theories About BeginningsTheories About Beginnings

• Early speculative theoriesEarly speculative theories– philosophicalphilosophical

• 1700s: gestures, social contracts1700s: gestures, social contracts

• 1800s: imitations, emotions, natural sounds, group work1800s: imitations, emotions, natural sounds, group work– Bow wow, ouch, ding dong, yo-he-hoBow wow, ouch, ding dong, yo-he-ho

– 1866 Linguistic Society of Paris bans discussions1866 Linguistic Society of Paris bans discussions

• Contemporary data-based theoriesContemporary data-based theories– anthropological, holisticanthropological, holistic

• using all four subfields of anthropology.using all four subfields of anthropology.

Contemporary TheoriesContemporary Theories• Theoretical linguistics:Theoretical linguistics:

– Still speculativeStill speculative• Language too complicated to have evolved over timeLanguage too complicated to have evolved over time

• Language developed all at once and is Language developed all at once and is innateinnate feature in humans feature in humans

• Children born with universal grammarChildren born with universal grammar– Only need to acquire specificsOnly need to acquire specifics

• Linguistic anthropology:Linguistic anthropology:– Uses all four fields of anthropologyUses all four fields of anthropology

• Language too complicated to have developed all at onceLanguage too complicated to have developed all at once

• Language probably Language probably evolvedevolved slowly along with culture slowly along with culture

• Children born with ability to learn languageChildren born with ability to learn language– Learning takes place in social situations.Learning takes place in social situations.

Defining LanguageDefining Language

LanguageLanguage CommunicationCommunication

SendingSending YesYes YesYes

ReceivingReceiving YesYes PossiblePossible

RespondingResponding YesYes PossiblePossible

Socially learnedSocially learned YesYes NoNo

Complex grammarComplex grammar YesYes NoNo

Lies, games, etc.Lies, games, etc. YesYes NoNo

Defining LanguageDefining Language

• HockettHockett’’s Design Features of languages Design Features of language– 1960s1960s

– Defining what is unique to humansDefining what is unique to humans

– Thirteen featuresThirteen features• Four are unique to human language.Four are unique to human language.

Design Features of LanguageDesign Features of LanguageNotNot Unique to Humans Unique to Humans

• Vocal/auditory channelVocal/auditory channel

• Broadcast transmission / directional receptionBroadcast transmission / directional reception

• Rapid fadingRapid fading

• InterchangeabilityInterchangeability

• Total feedbackTotal feedback

• SpecializationSpecialization

• SemanticitySemanticity

• ArbitrarinessArbitrariness

• DiscretenessDiscreteness

Design Features of Design Features of LanguageLanguage

Unique to HumansUnique to Humans

(according to Hockett)(according to Hockett)• DisplacementDisplacement• ProductivityProductivity• Traditional transmissionTraditional transmission• Duality of patterningDuality of patterning

– / k + æ + t + s /./ k + æ + t + s /.

Design Features and the Design Features and the Emergence of Human Emergence of Human

LanguageLanguage• The idea of blendingThe idea of blending

– Combining calls to establish productivityCombining calls to establish productivity– Starting from closed calls (limited, specific)Starting from closed calls (limited, specific)

• A + B = A + BA + B = A + B– danger + food = danger + fooddanger + food = danger + food

– Moving to blended calls (prelanguage)Moving to blended calls (prelanguage)• A + B = ABA + B = AB

– danger + food = dangerous food danger + food = dangerous food – breakfast + lunch = brunchbreakfast + lunch = brunch

– Making duality of patterning possibleMaking duality of patterning possible• Isolation of units for recombiningIsolation of units for recombining

– A + B + C = ABC, CBA, BAC, ACBA + B + C = ABC, CBA, BAC, ACB– /kæts, ækts, skæt, tæks, æskt/./kæts, ækts, skæt, tæks, æskt/.

Primate CommunicationPrimate Communication

• Experiments:Experiments:– Chimpanzees– Gorillas– Bonobos (video) (video)

• What this tells us about languageWhat this tells us about language– Duality of patterning is uniquely humanDuality of patterning is uniquely human

• What it tells us about language originsWhat it tells us about language origins– Pre-language abilities of humans and other primates Pre-language abilities of humans and other primates

probably similar.probably similar.

Children and LanguageChildren and Language

• 3 days – recognizing parents3 days – recognizing parents’’ sounds sounds

• 3 months – cooing, playing with intonation3 months – cooing, playing with intonation

• 6 months – babbling, playing with sounds6 months – babbling, playing with sounds– 9 months – beginning signs9 months – beginning signs

• 1 year – recognizable spoken words1 year – recognizable spoken words

• 15 months – naming 15 months – naming ““explosionexplosion””

• 2 years – simple sentences, displacement2 years – simple sentences, displacement

• Then – negatives, questions, clauses.Then – negatives, questions, clauses.

Theories about Language in ChildrenTheories about Language in Children• Innatist theoriesInnatist theories

– Language hard-wired in brainLanguage hard-wired in brain• Language acquisition device helps w adjustmentsLanguage acquisition device helps w adjustments

• Behaviorist theoriesBehaviorist theories– Stimulus and rewardStimulus and reward

• DoesnDoesn’’t explain t explain ““mousesmouses””

• Cognitivist theoriesCognitivist theories– Concepts come firstConcepts come first

• Research suggests simultaneityResearch suggests simultaneity

• The theory theory (active construction of a grammar The theory theory (active construction of a grammar theory)theory)– Children observe and build theoriesChildren observe and build theories

• Different languages - different theories?Different languages - different theories?– Korean vs English, verbs vs nouns.Korean vs English, verbs vs nouns.

Anthropological Anthropological ObservationsObservations

• Ochs and SchieffelinOchs and Schieffelin• Stress ethnographic field studies of childrenStress ethnographic field studies of children• Language learned in social settings.Language learned in social settings.

– Encouragement by adults is not universalEncouragement by adults is not universal– Baby talk is not universalBaby talk is not universal

• Becoming part of a speech communityBecoming part of a speech community– Learning how and when to use languageLearning how and when to use language

• Ideas about language learningIdeas about language learning– Bilingualism vs monolingualismBilingualism vs monolingualism– Can adults learn more languages?Can adults learn more languages?

• Adult impatienceAdult impatience• Classwork vs fieldwork.Classwork vs fieldwork.

WHENWHEN is Language Possible? is Language Possible?

• Connected to HOWConnected to HOW

• Involves research into brain…Involves research into brain…

• And vocal tract…And vocal tract…

• And origins of culture….And origins of culture….

The Human BrainThe Human Brain• CortexCortex

– The convoluted surface of the The convoluted surface of the brainbrain

– Two millimeters thickTwo millimeters thick

– Surface area 1.5 square yardsSurface area 1.5 square yards

– Contains 100 million neuronsContains 100 million neurons

• Oldest part of cortexOldest part of cortex– Controls long term memoryControls long term memory

– And emotionAnd emotion

• Newer part of cortexNewer part of cortex– ““NeocortexNeocortex””

– Controls languageControls language

– 80% of human brain80% of human brain

– Divided (by sulci) into lobesDivided (by sulci) into lobes• FrontalFrontal

• TemporalTemporal

• ParietalParietal

• OccipitalOccipital..

Lateralization & Lateralization & LanguageLanguage

• Left hemisphereLeft hemisphere– associationassociation

– calculationcalculation

– analysisanalysis

– languagelanguage

• Right hemisphereRight hemisphere– touchtouch

– spacespace

– musicmusic

– contexts for language contexts for language useuse

• Two cerebral hemispheres• Connected by corpus callosum

Language Areas of the Language Areas of the BrainBrain

• BrocaBroca’’s areas area– Clarity of speechClarity of speech

– Function wordsFunction words

– Some word orderSome word order

• WernickeWernicke’’s areas area– Understanding Understanding

wordswords

– Producing Producing sentences. sentences.

The Fossil RecordThe Fossil Record

• Koobi Fora, Kenya Koobi Fora, Kenya – BrocaBroca’’s & Wernickes & Wernicke’’s areas presents areas present

• In Homo habilis 1.8-2 myaIn Homo habilis 1.8-2 mya

• But not in Australopithecus (Paranthropus)But not in Australopithecus (Paranthropus)

1.26-1.8 mya1.26-1.8 mya

The Human Vocal TractThe Human Vocal Tract• Lowering of the larynxLowering of the larynx

– Where vocal cords are locatedWhere vocal cords are located

• Lengthening of the pharynxLengthening of the pharynx– More space for tongue More space for tongue – Increased vowel resonanceIncreased vowel resonance

• Differentiation of vowels: [i] [a] [u]Differentiation of vowels: [i] [a] [u]

• Human infants born with high larynxHuman infants born with high larynx– Begins to lower at three monthsBegins to lower at three months– Reaches adult location by 3-4 yearsReaches adult location by 3-4 years

• Except in adult males: further descent at adolescence.Except in adult males: further descent at adolescence.

The Fossil RecordThe Fossil Record

• Evidence from basicraniumEvidence from basicranium– Where muscles attachWhere muscles attach– More curved = lower larynxMore curved = lower larynx

• Australopithecus (1.5 mya) not curvedAustralopithecus (1.5 mya) not curved• Homo habilis (2 mya) no dataHomo habilis (2 mya) no data• Homo erectus (1.6 mya) some curveHomo erectus (1.6 mya) some curve• Premodern Humans (400,000 ya) definite curvePremodern Humans (400,000 ya) definite curve• Modern Homo sapiens (125,000 ya) dittoModern Homo sapiens (125,000 ya) ditto• BUT Neanderthal (130,000 ya) somewhat BUT Neanderthal (130,000 ya) somewhat

different.different.

Origins of CultureOrigins of Culture

• Associating language with complex toolsAssociating language with complex tools– evolution of tool design provides cluesevolution of tool design provides clues

• complexity of Upper Paleolithic toolscomplexity of Upper Paleolithic tools– requires description (vs imitation)requires description (vs imitation)

• Associating language with cultural Associating language with cultural complexitycomplexity– art, music, ritual, art, music, ritual,

cooperative hunting/childcare.cooperative hunting/childcare.

Archaeology and The Fossil Archaeology and The Fossil RecordRecord

• Robust forms of Australopithecus (1.5 mya) tool use?Robust forms of Australopithecus (1.5 mya) tool use?

• Homo habilis (2 mya) Stone ToolsHomo habilis (2 mya) Stone Tools

• Homo erectus (1.8 mya) bifacial tools, organized hunting?Homo erectus (1.8 mya) bifacial tools, organized hunting?

• Premodern Humans (400,000 ya) sheltersPremodern Humans (400,000 ya) shelters

• Modern Homo sapiens (200,000 ya) increased tool complexityModern Homo sapiens (200,000 ya) increased tool complexity

• Neanderthal (130,000 ya) burials, music.Neanderthal (130,000 ya) burials, music.

Tools and Language?Tools and Language?

• Language and complex behaviorsLanguage and complex behaviors– Remembering stepsRemembering steps

– Transmitting instructions (teaching and learning)Transmitting instructions (teaching and learning)

• Mirror NeuronsMirror Neurons• Italian researchers were studying motor neurons in F5 area Italian researchers were studying motor neurons in F5 area

of macaque brains – seemed to find motor activity almost of macaque brains – seemed to find motor activity almost formed a kind of formed a kind of ““vocabularyvocabulary”” when - when -

• They found, by accident, that certain neurons not only They found, by accident, that certain neurons not only ““firfiree”” when the animal engages in motor action, but fire when when the animal engages in motor action, but fire when observing others engage in the same action. F5 area is in observing others engage in the same action. F5 area is in same location as Brocasame location as Broca’’s area in humans!s area in humans!

• So, learning and observing tool making may be similar to So, learning and observing tool making may be similar to learning language.learning language.

Putting it all Putting it all TogetherTogether

• Using all four fields of anthropology:Using all four fields of anthropology:– Culture (tools) possible 2.5 mya, early H. habilis Culture (tools) possible 2.5 mya, early H. habilis

– Signed language possible 2mya, H. habilisSigned language possible 2mya, H. habilis

– Spoken language possible 125,000 ya, H. sapiens; Spoken language possible 125,000 ya, H. sapiens; perhaps much earlier.perhaps much earlier.

Somehow, Closed Somehow, Closed Systems Became Open Systems Became Open

SystemsSystems• How do you open a closed call/sign system?How do you open a closed call/sign system?

– Through blending (Hockett) Through blending (Hockett) • Situations requiring communicating two ideas [dangerous food]Situations requiring communicating two ideas [dangerous food]

– Through play? (Ottenheimer)Through play? (Ottenheimer)• Mimicking, pretending, discovering symbolismMimicking, pretending, discovering symbolism

• How do you discover/use duality of patterning?How do you discover/use duality of patterning?– Through identifying discrete recombinable unitsThrough identifying discrete recombinable units

• Also through play?Also through play?– Playing with symbolsPlaying with symbols

– Playing with languagePlaying with language Shintiri, other Pig Latins.Shintiri, other Pig Latins.