How do parents and otherHow do parents and other influential adults consciouslyinfluential adults consciously

try to shape children’s try to shape children’s behavior and attitudes by behavior and attitudes by

rewarding good behavior andrewarding good behavior and punishing bad behavior?punishing bad behavior?

Can parental behavior alsoCan parental behavior also unconsciously shape children’s unconsciously shape children’s behavior? If so, how?behavior? If so, how?

Form into groups of 3-4.Form into groups of 3-4.

Appoint a recorder per group.Appoint a recorder per group.

Write a series of 4 or more Write a series of 4 or more statements that explain cause-statements that explain cause- and-effect relationships between and-effect relationships between types of stimuli and responses.types of stimuli and responses.

Recall a situation in Recall a situation in which which you taught another you taught another person person a skill or how to do a a skill or how to do a task.task. Write a brief account Write a brief account about it (1-page.) Make sure to about it (1-page.) Make sure to include a description of the include a description of the strategy you used in teaching—strategy you used in teaching—modeling, rewards, punishments, modeling, rewards, punishments, etc.—and whether or not you were etc.—and whether or not you were successful.successful.

Here is your homework Here is your homework assignment.assignment.

Let’s begin by reviewing a Let’s begin by reviewing a 1982 experiment about 1982 experiment about

learning. Turn to p. 241 of learning. Turn to p. 241 of the textbook and read the textbook and read “Which Pen Would You “Which Pen Would You

Choose?” at the top of the Choose?” at the top of the page.page.

Behaviorists: reject Behaviorists: reject mental mental processes and focus only processes and focus only on on what can be observed.what can be observed. Cognitive psychologists: Cognitive psychologists: inin addition to behavior, addition to behavior, learning requires that we make inferences learning requires that we make inferences about hidden mental processesabout hidden mental processes

OK—so how does our OK—so how does our textbook define learning?textbook define learning?

An experience which producesAn experience which producesa lasting change in behavior a lasting change in behavior or mental processesor mental processes

So how do the behaviorists So how do the behaviorists and the cognitive and the cognitive

psychologists differ on the psychologists differ on the topic of learning?topic of learning?

Hello Mustang AP Hello Mustang AP psych students. I’m psych students. I’m Winnie, Simoncini’s Winnie, Simoncini’s

dog. dog. How does How does learning differ from learning differ from

instincts?instincts?Instinctive (species-typicalInstinctive (species-typicalbehavior) is heavily influ-behavior) is heavily influ-enced by genetic program-enced by genetic program-ming. Most of what my ming. Most of what my fellow animals and I do is fellow animals and I do is instinctive, because our instinctive, because our actions tend be influenced actions tend be influenced very little by experience. very little by experience. Your (human) behavior is Your (human) behavior is more influenced by learning more influenced by learning based on experience.based on experience.

Can YOU give tell me the Can YOU give tell me the definitions ofdefinitions of habituation and habituation and

mere exposure effect?mere exposure effect?

Habituation: involves learning Habituation: involves learning NOT TO RESPOND to stimulation NOT TO RESPOND to stimulation (ignoring the sound of traffic on (ignoring the sound of traffic on a busy street—sensory adaptation)a busy street—sensory adaptation)

The heck with The heck with the noise—I’ve the noise—I’ve

learned to sleep learned to sleep like a baby.like a baby.

Mere exposure effect: a preferenceMere exposure effect: a preferencefor stimuli to which we have beenfor stimuli to which we have beenpreviously exposed—accounts for previously exposed—accounts for the effectiveness of advertising.the effectiveness of advertising.““The few; the The few; the

proud; theproud; theMarines”Marines”

Pavlov’s Pavlov’s experimentexperiment::

Classical conditioningClassical conditioningControlling a response suchControlling a response suchthat an old response becomesthat an old response becomesattached to a new stimulus.attached to a new stimulus.Example in your lives:Example in your lives:Bells at school:Bells at school:begin/end passing begin/end passing periods or fireperiods or firedrills drills

Pavlov’s experimentPavlov’s experimentPavlov’s experiment: the tuning Pavlov’s experiment: the tuning fork was a fork was a neutral stimulusneutral stimulus (nothing that had to do with the (nothing that had to do with the response to meatresponse to meatprior to conditioning)prior to conditioning)

Unconditioned stimulus:Unconditioned stimulus:Event that leads to certainEvent that leads to certain predictable response withoutpredictable response without previous training.previous training.

Unconditioned response:Unconditioned response:The salivation—the reaction occurs The salivation—the reaction occurs naturally & automatically given naturally & automatically given unconditioned stimulus (a reflex)unconditioned stimulus (a reflex)

AcquisitionAcquisition—the conditioned, or —the conditioned, or learned, responselearned, responseNS/UCS = CS and leads to CRNS/UCS = CS and leads to CR

++

==

Conditioned stimulus (CS)Conditioned stimulus (CS)Neutral event which, Neutral event which, afterafter conditioning, leads to conditioning, leads to a a response.response.Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned response (CR)

The salivation caused by The salivation caused by the conditioned stimulus—the conditioned stimulus—the neutral event that would the neutral event that would not normally lead to not normally lead to salivationsalivation

stop presenting food stop presenting food after sound of tuning after sound of tuning fork, sound gradually fork, sound gradually loses effect.loses effect.

ExtinctionExtinction

After time After time

Spontaneous recovery: Spontaneous recovery: Spontaneous recovery: conditioned Spontaneous recovery: conditioned responses may appear following responses may appear following extinction, after time, but generally extinction, after time, but generally at a lower intensity. at a lower intensity.

After After lengthylengthytime time

GeneralizationGeneralizationAnimal responds to a secondAnimal responds to a second stimulus similar to the stimulus similar to the original CS, without prior original CS, without prior training in second stimulus.training in second stimulus.

Discrimination--Discrimination--Respond differently to Respond differently to different stimulidifferent stimuli

John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner and the Little Albert Experiment and the Little Albert Experiment

Conditioned Albert to react fearfully to a white lab rat.Conditioned Albert to react fearfully to a white lab rat.Created the fear by repeatedly presenting the rat Created the fear by repeatedly presenting the rat paired with an aversive UCS—loud sound.paired with an aversive UCS—loud sound.Took only 7 trials for Little Albert to react with fear at Took only 7 trials for Little Albert to react with fear at the appearance of the rat (CS) alone.the appearance of the rat (CS) alone.The fear—extinguished rapidly. The fear—extinguished rapidly.

Other applications of classical conditioning Other applications of classical conditioning

Sailors and battle stationsSailors and battle stationsduring World War II—still during World War II—still a strong reaction 15 yearsa strong reaction 15 yearslaterlater

Counter-conditioning Counter-conditioning

Here is a scene fromHere is a scene fromthe 1995 movie,the 1995 movie,French KissFrench Kiss, in which, in whichthe character Kate the character Kate undergoes a form of undergoes a form of counter-conditioning counter-conditioning

Classical conditioning in Classical conditioning in humanshumansHobart & Mollie Mowrer (1938) Hobart & Mollie Mowrer (1938) Bed-wetting:Bed-wetting: the the bell and pad bell and pad Alarm = UCS Alarm = UCS Waking = URWaking = URFull bladder = CSFull bladder = CSUCS + CS= UCS + CS= Child wakes (CR) Child wakes (CR)

Sickness after Sickness after eating something for the first timeeating something for the first time or or after not eating for some time—tend to after not eating for some time—tend to blame the new food.blame the new food.

Taste aversionsTaste aversions

Classical conditioning in Classical conditioning in humanshumans

John Garcia and Robert Koelling (1966)John Garcia and Robert Koelling (1966)

Garcia and Koelling found that Garcia and Koelling found that rats readily learned an association rats readily learned an association between flavored water and illness, between flavored water and illness, yet the rats could not be conditioned yet the rats could not be conditioned to associate flavored water with an to associate flavored water with an electric shock delivered through a electric shock delivered through a grid on the floor of the test chamber grid on the floor of the test chamber

Taste aversions: a challenge to PavlovTaste aversions: a challenge to PavlovThe tendency to develop taste aversions The tendency to develop taste aversions appears to be part of our biological nature;appears to be part of our biological nature;therefore, taste aversions are not a simpletherefore, taste aversions are not a simpleclassically conditioned responseclassically conditioned response

Garcia et al used classical (aversive) Garcia et al used classical (aversive) conditioning to dissuade wild coyotes from conditioning to dissuade wild coyotes from attacking sheep.attacking sheep.Wrapped toxic lamb burgers in sheepskins and Wrapped toxic lamb burgers in sheepskins and stashed them on sheep ranches—30-50% stashed them on sheep ranches—30-50% reduction in sheep attacksreduction in sheep attacks

Oh boy! Now it’s time for Oh boy! Now it’s time for an experiment. We an experiment. We

science teachers just love science teachers just love experiments. To begin, I experiments. To begin, I

need a volunteer.need a volunteer.The Lamp ExperimentThe Lamp Experiment

Materials needed:Materials needed:lamp, table, glass of water &lamp, table, glass of water &a spoon; plus a volunteer a spoon; plus a volunteer

Learning from the consequencesLearning from the consequences of behavior.of behavior.Subject causes some change Subject causes some change in the environmentin the environmentRepeat or eliminate behaviorsRepeat or eliminate behaviors to get reward or avoidto get reward or avoid punishmentpunishment

GreaGreat t

job! job!

Edward Thorndike (1898) Edward Thorndike (1898) The ThorndikeThe ThorndikePuzzle Box Puzzle Box (1898)(1898)

Law of effect: a change in behavior Law of effect: a change in behavior based on the outcome of previous based on the outcome of previous trials trials

Reinforcement Reinforcement stimulus or event that affects stimulus or event that affects the likelihood that an the likelihood that an immediately precedingimmediately preceding behavior will be repeated.behavior will be repeated.

Positive Conditioning vs. Negative ConditioningPositive Conditioning vs. Negative ConditioningPositive: strengthens a response by occurring Positive: strengthens a response by occurring after the response and making the behavior more after the response and making the behavior more likely to occur againlikely to occur again

Negative: the removal of an unpleasant or Negative: the removal of an unpleasant or aversive stimulus (using an umbrella during the aversive stimulus (using an umbrella during the rain)rain)

Differ: They mean add or apply vs. subtract Differ: They mean add or apply vs. subtract or remove; not good vs. bador remove; not good vs. bad

B. F. Skinner and the B. F. Skinner and the Operant chamber or Operant chamber or ““Skinner Box.”Skinner Box.”

Could be set to control the timing and Could be set to control the timing and frequency of reinforcementfrequency of reinforcement(Contingencies of Reinforcement)(Contingencies of Reinforcement)

The “Skinner Box”: Skinner’s Hypothesis, Methodology, and Results

The “Skinner Box”: Skinner’s Hypothesis, Methodology, and Results Rats placed in Rats placed in

“Operant chambers” “Operant chambers” Shaped to get closer Shaped to get closer

and closer to the bar and closer to the bar in order to receive in order to receive foodfood

Eventually required Eventually required to press the bar to to press the bar to receive foodreceive food

Food is a reinforcerFood is a reinforcer

Schedules of Reinforcement Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous schedule Continuous schedule

Operant conditioning is not limited to Operant conditioning is not limited to simple behaviors—it is used to create simple behaviors—it is used to create new knowledge by building on old new knowledge by building on old knowledge.knowledge.

Shaping—the process in which Shaping—the process in which reinforcement is used to sculpt new reinforcement is used to sculpt new responses out of old ones.responses out of old ones.My My

assistant assistant coaches coaches and I use and I use shaping shaping when we when we teach our teach our

team team new new

plays or plays or variationvariation

s on s on existing existing plays.plays.

We do that by developing We do that by developing response chainsresponse chains: :

combinations of responses combinations of responses that follow one another in a that follow one another in a

sequencesequence..

That’s right, Coach Merzon. We start That’s right, Coach Merzon. We start by reviewing the basics, like blocking by reviewing the basics, like blocking

and the numbering of the various and the numbering of the various holes. Then we teach the blockers holes. Then we teach the blockers more advanced blocking schemes, more advanced blocking schemes, then how to run a play with all 11 then how to run a play with all 11

players and then maybe some options. players and then maybe some options. That’s a That’s a responseresponse chain—everything chain—everything builds on something taught before itbuilds on something taught before it..

Uh, sure, Joey! Many teachers Uh, sure, Joey! Many teachers and coaches of all sports and and coaches of all sports and activities use response chains activities use response chains and reinforcements: aversive and reinforcements: aversive

control, negative control, negative reinforcement, escape reinforcement, escape

conditioning, avoidance conditioning, avoidance conditioning, and other conditioning, and other

techniques.techniques.

Say Coach, don’t the Say Coach, don’t the cheerleading coaches also cheerleading coaches also

use response chains in use response chains in teaching us new routines?teaching us new routines?

That is so cool—That is so cool—now I now I

understand all understand all the things that the things that

happen at happen at practice!practice!

I hope I’ll I hope I’ll never have to never have to wear one of wear one of these prison these prison suits for real.suits for real.

Schedules of Reinforcement Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous schedule Continuous schedule

Partial schedule Partial schedule

Fixed-ratio schedule Fixed-ratio schedule Reinforcement depends on a Reinforcement depends on a specified schedule of specified schedule of responses.responses.

Variable-ratio schedule Variable-ratio schedule Number of responses needed Number of responses needed for reinforcement changesfor reinforcement changes from one time to the next.from one time to the next.

Fixed-interval scheduleFixed-interval schedule Reinforce first response afterReinforce first response after a predetermined amount ofa predetermined amount of time has elapsed. Timetime has elapsed. Time interval always same.interval always same.

Variable-interval scheduleVariable-interval scheduleThe time at which the The time at which the reinforcement becomesreinforcement becomes available available changeschanges through- through- out the conditioning out the conditioning procedure.procedure.

More activityMore activity than fixed-than fixed- intervalinterval

Primary reinforcersPrimary reinforcers. . . satisfy or reduce a basic,. . . satisfy or reduce a basic,natural need, such as hunger.natural need, such as hunger.

Secondary (conditioned) reinforcers Secondary (conditioned) reinforcers conditioned reinforcers conditioned reinforcers because without the condition-because without the condition-ing process, it would be a ing process, it would be a neutral stimulus having noneutral stimulus having nopositive or negative value.positive or negative value.

Contingency Management Contingency Management Behavior therapy Behavior therapy

Used in mental hospitals and Used in mental hospitals and prisons—miniature system of prisons—miniature system of rewards called rewards called token economiestoken economies

Successive approximations: start with an Successive approximations: start with an easy task and making it more difficult to easy task and making it more difficult to get the same reinforcement get the same reinforcement

Today I got to go pose Today I got to go pose on the beach after on the beach after working out for 2 working out for 2

hours. Tomorrow I’ll hours. Tomorrow I’ll have to work out for 2 have to work out for 2

hours, 30 minutes hours, 30 minutes before posing for the before posing for the ladies on the beach.ladies on the beach.

Sigh. Simoncini is so buff!! Sigh. Simoncini is so buff!! What a totally HOT older What a totally HOT older

man!!! Miss Becky is soooo man!!! Miss Becky is soooo lucky!!!lucky!!!

Use of the Premack Use of the Premack Principle in education: Principle in education: Dr. Fred JonesDr. Fred Jones

From book: From book: Positive Positive Classroom DisciplineClassroom Discipline

Preferred Activity Time

Aversive control Aversive control Unpleasant consequences Unpleasant consequences or punishers.or punishers.

Negative reinforcement Negative reinforcement Takes away an aversive stimulus;Takes away an aversive stimulus;removes unpleasant consequences.removes unpleasant consequences.

I won’t let go I won’t let go until you until you

promise to promise to do my math do my math homework homework for a week.for a week.

OK, I’ll do OK, I’ll do your stupid your stupid homework, homework,

David.David.

Anything to get Anything to get his grubby his grubby

hands off me.hands off me.All right! If All right! If I squeeze I squeeze

long long enough, I enough, I can get can get what I what I want.want.

Negative Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement

Escape conditioning Escape conditioning causes an unpleasant event to stop.causes an unpleasant event to stop.

Avoidance conditioning Avoidance conditioning preventing an unpleasantpreventing an unpleasantsituation from happening.situation from happening.

Oh boy! It’s time for Oh boy! It’s time for another experiment. another experiment.

Everyone partner Everyone partner up—one only.up—one only.

And take out And take out the rulers you the rulers you were supposed were supposed

to bring to to bring to class today.class today.

Next, between Next, between you and your you and your

partner decide partner decide who is the A who is the A person and person and who is the B who is the B

person.person.OK. A people stay put; B OK. A people stay put; B people outside, away from people outside, away from

the door.the door.

Positive punishment vs. negative punishment Positive punishment vs. negative punishment

Positive punishment requires the application of Positive punishment requires the application of an aversive stimulus—painful consequences an aversive stimulus—painful consequences reduce the likelihood of a person repeating that reduce the likelihood of a person repeating that behavior.behavior.Omission training (negative punishment) Omission training (negative punishment) removal of a reinforcer—parents taking removal of a reinforcer—parents taking away a misbehaving teen’s car keysaway a misbehaving teen’s car keys

Unlike reinforcement, punishment must be administeredUnlike reinforcement, punishment must be administeredconsistently; intermittent punishment is far less consistently; intermittent punishment is far less effective than punishment delivered after every effective than punishment delivered after every undesired responseundesired response

Punishment vs. negative reinforcement Punishment vs. negative reinforcement

Punishment is used to Punishment is used to decreasedecrease a a behavior or reduce its probability of behavior or reduce its probability of recurring.recurring.Negative reinforcement—like positive Negative reinforcement—like positive reinforcement—reinforcement—always increasesalways increases a a response’s probability of occurring againresponse’s probability of occurring again

Remember: positive and negative in this Remember: positive and negative in this context means add and remove. context means add and remove.

Tierney, you are tardy Tierney, you are tardy for the 21for the 21stst time. time.

You’re going down! You’re going down! Detention!!!Detention!!!

Who does punishment Who does punishment reinforce?reinforce?

Punishment often produces an immediate Punishment often produces an immediate change in behavior, which, ironically, is reinforcingchange in behavior, which, ironically, is reinforcingto the punisher and a major reason why the to the punisher and a major reason why the use use of punishment is so widespread.of punishment is so widespread.Punishers may feel good while delivering Punishers may feel good while delivering the punishmentthe punishment

1.1. The power of punishment to The power of punishment to suppress behavior disappears whensuppress behavior disappears when the threat of punishment disappearsthe threat of punishment disappears2.2. Punishment triggers escape or Punishment triggers escape or aggressionaggression3. Punishment is often ineffective 3. Punishment is often ineffective 4. Punishment is often applied unequally 4. Punishment is often applied unequally

Wow! This is heavy stuff. So, Wow! This is heavy stuff. So, why is punishment so difficult why is punishment so difficult

to use effectively?to use effectively?

It says here that there are It says here that there are seven different conditions seven different conditions needed for punishment to needed for punishment to

work.work.

Should be swift--immediateShould be swift--immediateShould be certain—administered every time unwanted Should be certain—administered every time unwanted response occursresponse occursShould be limited in duration and intensityShould be limited in duration and intensityShould clearly target the behavior, not the character Should clearly target the behavior, not the character of the personof the personShould be limited to the situation in which the Should be limited to the situation in which the response occurredresponse occurredShould not give mixed messages to the Should not give mixed messages to the punished person—you can’t hit others, but I can hit you punished person—you can’t hit others, but I can hit you Most effective is usually omission trainingMost effective is usually omission training

Philip Zimbardo and the Stanford Philip Zimbardo and the Stanford Prison Experiment Prison Experiment

Philip Zimbardo and Philip Zimbardo and the Stanford the Stanford

Prison Experiment Prison Experiment

Recruitment and Methodology Recruitment and Methodology Wanted to learn about behaviors and Wanted to learn about behaviors and

feelings of prisoners or guards feelings of prisoners or guards Set up a Set up a phony prisonphony prison in a university in a university

buildingbuilding Recruited male college students to Recruited male college students to

participateparticipate Randomly assigned 24 participants Randomly assigned 24 participants

to role of either prisoner or guardto role of either prisoner or guard

MethodologyMethodology

Guards instructed to make prisoners feel Guards instructed to make prisoners feel frustrated and not in controlfrustrated and not in control

Prisoners arrested and booked as real Prisoners arrested and booked as real prisonersprisoners

Guards bullied the prisonersGuards bullied the prisoners and began and began “counts”. Observe this “counts”. Observe this film clip about the experiment

Results Results Prisoners staged a rebellionPrisoners staged a rebellion on the on the

second daysecond day Guards stepped up their Guards stepped up their

harassmentharassment and treated rebellion and treated rebellion “ringleaders” differently than the “ringleaders” differently than the “good” prisoners“good” prisoners

Prisoners told they couldn’t leave; Prisoners told they couldn’t leave; many became anxiousmany became anxious

Guards increased bullying tacticsGuards increased bullying tactics as they perceived prisoners to be a as they perceived prisoners to be a real threatreal threat

Zimbardo and his colleagues Zimbardo and his colleagues adapted to their rolesadapted to their roles

ResultsResults Everyone took on the Everyone took on the

role to which they role to which they were assignedwere assigned——the the experiment became experiment became very realisticvery realistic

Experiment ended Experiment ended after six days instead after six days instead of two weeksof two weeks

Prisoners had lost Prisoners had lost their identitytheir identity

Conclusions Conclusions

Individual values and identities can break down Individual values and identities can break down under situational pressure where one group under situational pressure where one group has more power than other groups has more power than other groups

Zimbardo: “Prisons are evil places that demean Zimbardo: “Prisons are evil places that demean humanity. . . They are as bad for the guards as humanity. . . They are as bad for the guards as they are for the prisoners they are for the prisoners

Prisons have traditionally been considered Prisons have traditionally been considered places of punishment and rehabilitation. places of punishment and rehabilitation. Zimbardo concluded that rehabilitation may Zimbardo concluded that rehabilitation may be difficult.be difficult.

B. F. SkinnerB. F. Skinner

Written 1948; Written 1948; first printed in first printed in 19691969Walden Pond by H. D. ThoreauWalden Pond by H. D. Thoreau

Utopia: Thomas MoreUtopia: Thomas More

Behaviorism Behaviorism

Enclave in OhioEnclave in OhioWork 2-4 hours; remainderWork 2-4 hours; remainder follow own pursuitsfollow own pursuits

No possessions--communalNo possessions--communal

Planners, managers, andPlanners, managers, and scientists—menial tasks asscientists—menial tasks as wellwell

Self-contained communitySelf-contained community

No competitionNo competition

No “thank yous”No “thank yous”

A person’s work shall not taxA person’s work shall not tax his strength or threaten hishis strength or threaten his happinesshappiness

No personal freedom yet totalNo personal freedom yet total freedomfreedom

Children conditioned fromChildren conditioned from birth—communal rearingbirth—communal rearing

Behavioral engineering—Behavioral engineering— control physical and social control physical and social environmentenvironment

Imparting techniques of self- Imparting techniques of self- controlcontrol

Education—did not teach Education—did not teach subjects; taught techniquessubjects; taught techniques of thinking and learning.of thinking and learning.

Most people lived in separateMost people lived in separate quarters—even husbands quarters—even husbands and wives.and wives.

Miss Becky, after that Miss Becky, after that discussion and that earlier discussion and that earlier

nasty experiment, don’t you nasty experiment, don’t you think it’s time for another think it’s time for another

group activity. group activity.

I sure do, I sure do, Simone. You are Simone. You are

so much nicer so much nicer than your than your brother!brother!

In groups of 1-4, determine an In groups of 1-4, determine an inappropriate behavior that a inappropriate behavior that a teenager or young child has. Act as teenager or young child has. Act as if you were a team of psychologists if you were a team of psychologists hired by the young person’s parents hired by the young person’s parents to develop a strategy to stop the to develop a strategy to stop the inappropriate behavior. Take about inappropriate behavior. Take about 15 minutes to develop a strategy 15 minutes to develop a strategy employing the advice provided by employing the advice provided by Zimbardo, Zimbardo, et alet al, on pp. 217-218, , on pp. 217-218, drawing in what we have learned drawing in what we have learned about operant conditioning and about operant conditioning and behaviorist thought to this point. Be behaviorist thought to this point. Be certain to include correctcertain to include correctterminology.terminology.

Wolfgang Kohler and Chimp Wolfgang Kohler and Chimp ExperimentsExperiments

Suggested that animals were not mindlessly Suggested that animals were not mindlessly using conditioned behaviors, but were learning using conditioned behaviors, but were learning by recognizing their perceptions of problems.by recognizing their perceptions of problems.Kohler called it insight learning.Kohler called it insight learning.

Factors that affect learning Factors that affect learning

Feedback—Feedback—finding out the finding out the results of an action or results of an action or performanceperformance

Experiment time again! I Experiment time again! I need two volunteers.need two volunteers.

Materials: bucket, blindfold,Materials: bucket, blindfold,beanbags beanbags

Factors that affect learning Factors that affect learning

Feedback—finding out the Feedback—finding out the results of an action or results of an action or performanceperformance Transfer—transferring Transfer—transferring Skills you already have Skills you already have into appropriate responses into appropriate responses for another skillfor another skill

Factors that affect learning Factors that affect learning Transfer: Transfer: positive—transfer of a positive—transfer of a skill to help acquire another skillskill to help acquire another skillNegative transfer—a previously Negative transfer—a previously learned task hinders learning learned task hinders learning

I say, jolly, you I say, jolly, you are driving on are driving on the wrong side the wrong side of the street of the street

here in England.here in England.

Factors that affect learning Factors that affect learning

Practice—repetition of a taskPractice—repetition of a task—— binds responses together binds responses together

Physical & mental Physical & mental

Edward Tolman and cognitive mapsEdward Tolman and cognitive maps

Cognitive learning—a form of altering Cognitive learning—a form of altering behavior that involves mental behavior that involves mental processes processes and may result from and may result from observation or imitationobservation or imitation..

a. Cognitive maps—a mental picture of a. Cognitive maps—a mental picture of spatial relationships spatial relationships or relationships or relationships between events (only way to account for a between events (only way to account for a rat quickly selecting an alternative route in rat quickly selecting an alternative route in a maze when the preferred route to the goal is a maze when the preferred route to the goal is blocked.)blocked.)

1. Cognitive learning—a form of altering 1. Cognitive learning—a form of altering behavior that involves mental behavior that involves mental processes and may result from processes and may result from observation or imitation.observation or imitation.

b. Latent learning—alteration of a b. Latent learning—alteration of a behavioral tendency that is not behavioral tendency that is not demonstrated by an immediate, demonstrated by an immediate, observable change in behavior.observable change in behavior.

a. Cognitive maps a. Cognitive maps

I’m not sure if I can find the doctor’s I’m not sure if I can find the doctor’s office. Wait a minute. I’ve been office. Wait a minute. I’ve been here before, and I remember that here before, and I remember that

building. OK, now I think I know how building. OK, now I think I know how to get there.to get there.

Primary significance of Tolman’s workPrimary significance of Tolman’s work

Its challenge to the prevailing Its challenge to the prevailing behavioral views of Pavlov, Watson behavioral views of Pavlov, Watson and Skinner; he showed that simple and Skinner; he showed that simple associations between stimuli andassociations between stimuli andresponses could not explain the responses could not explain the behavior observed in his experimentsbehavior observed in his experiments

Recent brain imaging has supported Tolman’sRecent brain imaging has supported Tolman’swork; pointed to the hippocampus as the work; pointed to the hippocampus as the structure involved in drawing the cognitive map structure involved in drawing the cognitive map in the brain in the brain

Cingulate gyrus

Para-olfactoryarea

Hypothalamus

UncusAmygdala

Para-hippocampalgyrus

Hippocampus

Mamillary bodies ofhypothalamus

Fornix

Thalamus

Anterior nucleus of thalamusThe Limbic The Limbic

SystemSystem

Draws cognitive Draws cognitive Maps Maps

1. Cognitive learning—a form of altering 1. Cognitive learning—a form of altering behavior that involves mental behavior that involves mental processes and may result from processes and may result from observation or imitation.observation or imitation.

With this type of learning, With this type of learning, my fellow teachers and I my fellow teachers and I must be aware ofmust be aware of learned learned

helplessness:helplessness:too many rewards without too many rewards without effort, learned laziness; pain effort, learned laziness; pain no matter how much someoneno matter how much someonetries, that person gives up.tries, that person gives up.

1. Cognitive learning—a form of altering 1. Cognitive learning—a form of altering behavior that involves mental behavior that involves mental processes and may result from processes and may result from observation or imitation.observation or imitation.

2. Modeling: learning by imitating others 2. Modeling: learning by imitating others Much of teaching and coaching is Much of teaching and coaching is modeling. Here is another example. . .modeling. Here is another example. . .

Starring ME!Starring ME!

1. Cognitive learning—a form of altering 1. Cognitive learning—a form of altering behavior that involves mental behavior that involves mental processes and may result from processes and may result from observation or imitation.observation or imitation.

2. Modeling: learning by imitating others 2. Modeling: learning by imitating others Three types: Three types:

a. Behavior of others increases the chances a. Behavior of others increases the chances that we will do the same thing that we will do the same thing b. Observational learning, or imitation b. Observational learning, or imitation c. Disinhibition—watch someone else engage c. Disinhibition—watch someone else engage in a form of threatening activity without in a form of threatening activity without being punished, easier to engage in activity being punished, easier to engage in activity

I am I am Dr. Albert BanduraDr. Albert Bandura. In . In 1961 I performed an 1961 I performed an experiment about experiment about

social learning —the process of —the process of altering behavior by observing altering behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of and imitating the behavior of

othersothers..

Bobo doll Bobo doll

Children Children exhibited exhibited

aggressive aggressive behavior behavior

toward thetoward thebobo doll.bobo doll.

Albert Bandura: HypothesisAlbert Bandura: Hypothesis

Believed we learn through observation and Believed we learn through observation and imitationimitation

Hypothesized that children would imitate Hypothesized that children would imitate aggressive behavior they observedaggressive behavior they observed

=

Bandura’s MethodologyBandura’s Methodology

Children watched films of adults beating Bobo Children watched films of adults beating Bobo dollsdolls

Three groups: aggression-rewarded, Three groups: aggression-rewarded, aggression-punished, no consequencesaggression-punished, no consequences

Children went into rooms with toys that they Children went into rooms with toys that they were told not to play withwere told not to play with

Bandura’s Results Bandura’s Results

Children in the aggression-punished group expressed Children in the aggression-punished group expressed the fewest aggressive behaviors toward the Bobo dollsthe fewest aggressive behaviors toward the Bobo dolls

Children in the other two groups expressed an equal Children in the other two groups expressed an equal number of aggressive behaviors and were more number of aggressive behaviors and were more aggressive than children in the aggression-punished aggressive than children in the aggression-punished groupgroup

Bandura’s Experiment Bandura’s Experiment Bandura’s Experiment Bandura’s Experiment

Children promised rewards for imitating the adult in the filmChildren promised rewards for imitating the adult in the film Now, all three groups were equally aggressiveNow, all three groups were equally aggressive Children had learned the aggressive behavior from the filmChildren had learned the aggressive behavior from the film, ,

but but those who saw the adults being punished were less likely those who saw the adults being punished were less likely to act aggressivelyto act aggressively

Bandura’s Social Bandura’s Social Learning TheoryLearning TheoryBandura’s Social Bandura’s Social Learning TheoryLearning Theory

Relates to effects of violence and other images Relates to effects of violence and other images on TV and in the movieson TV and in the movies

Children imitate good and neutral behaviors as Children imitate good and neutral behaviors as well as bad oneswell as bad ones

After our discussion of my After our discussion of my BoBo doll experiment, and BoBo doll experiment, and after your preparation of after your preparation of

question 44 on the question 44 on the homework sheet, now it’s homework sheet, now it’s

time for another group time for another group activity.activity.

Divide into groups of 1-4 students and Divide into groups of 1-4 students and list examples of pro-social and anti-list examples of pro-social and anti-social behaviors people learn from social behaviors people learn from observing others. Take 10-minutes. observing others. Take 10-minutes. Be prepared to share with the class.Be prepared to share with the class.

Psychic NumbingPsychic Numbing

Viewers of media violence show a reductionViewers of media violence show a reduction in emotional arousal and distress when theyin emotional arousal and distress when they observe violent actsobserve violent acts

Robert Rescorla and the Robert Rescorla and the Adaptive Value of Adaptive Value of Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning for an Animal for an Animal

The crucial feature of the conditioned stimulus The crucial feature of the conditioned stimulus is its informativeness—its value in predicting theis its informativeness—its value in predicting theonset of the unconditioned stimulusonset of the unconditioned stimulus

Example: food aversions Example: food aversions

Eric Kandel and Robert Eric Kandel and Robert Hawkins Hawkins

Two types of learning circuits may divide the taskTwo types of learning circuits may divide the taskof learning along the same line that has long of learning along the same line that has long separated behavioral and cognitive psychologistsseparated behavioral and cognitive psychologists

Simpler circuit: mindless learning—slowly withSimpler circuit: mindless learning—slowly with repetition over many trials (classical and repetition over many trials (classical and operant conditioning) operant conditioning) More complex circuits: require conscious More complex circuits: require conscious processing (Cognitive psychologists)processing (Cognitive psychologists)

Robert Sternberg and Robert Sternberg and Elena L. Grigorenko Elena L. Grigorenko

Assessed students on abilities for logical, creativeAssessed students on abilities for logical, creative and practical thinkingand practical thinkingStudents did best when the teaching emphasisStudents did best when the teaching emphasis matched their intellectual stylematched their intellectual styleEveryone learns better when material can be Everyone learns better when material can be approached in more than one way approached in more than one way (visual, (visual, verbal and hands-on)verbal and hands-on)

Theory of Harvard Psychology Theory of Harvard Psychology Professor, Dr. Howard Gardner Professor, Dr. Howard Gardner

LinguisticLinguistic LearnerLearner The word player The word player

Logical/Mathematical Learner Logical/Mathematical Learner The Questioner The Questioner

The Spatial Learner The Spatial Learner The Visualizer The Visualizer

Musical Learner Musical Learner The Music Lover The Music Lover

Bodily/Kinesthetic Bodily/Kinesthetic The Mover The Mover

Interpersonal Learner Interpersonal Learner The Socializer The Socializer

Intra-personal LearnerIntra-personal LearnerThe Individual The Individual

The Naturalist Learner The Naturalist Learner Distinguish among and use Distinguish among and use features of the environment features of the environment