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The EDRi papersEDITION 03

A guide for policy-makers



How he i!er!e works

"A#E 3

This $ookle is i!e!ded o pro%ide policy-

makers wih a $asic o%er%iew of I!er!e a!d

I!er!e-relaed ech!ologies& The aim is o

pro%ide a user-frie!dly refere!ce guide o some

of he key ech!ologies ha are a he core of

he I!er!e& 'e hope ha his will pro%ide a

%alua$le refere!ce ool( cui!g hrough he

)argo! a!d demo!srai!g he fu!cio!i!g of he

ope! I!er!e( o! which so ma!y ci%il righs a!d

so much eco!omic aci%iy !ow rely&



CONTENTS:

PAGE 3 THE INTERNET A NET'OR* O+ ,O".TER NET'OR*/

PAGE 5 THE IP

ADDRESS A DI#ITA ADDRE//

PAGE 6 ENCRYPTION"RI1A,2 IN A ".I, NET'OR*

PAGE 7 THE DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM (DNS)THE INTERNET4/ "HONE OO*

PAGE 8 THE WORLD WIDE WEBIN*IN# THE IN+ORATION /O,IET2

PAGE 10 E-MAIL AND E-MAIL SECURITYAI IN THE DI#ITA 'ORD

PAGE 1 DEEP PAC!ET INSPECTIONTA*IN# A OO* AT 2O.R INTERNET TRA++I,

PAGE 1" PEER TO PEER+RO E TO 2O.( 'ITH NO ONE IN THE IDDE

PAGE 16 BEHA#IOURAL AD#ERTISINGET4/ #ET "ER/ONA

PAGE 18 THE SEARCH ENGINE AN INDE5 O+ THE INTERNET

PAGE 0 CLOUD COMPUTING

THE INTERNET E,OE/ 2O.R ,O".TER

PAGE 1 SOCIAL MEDIA'HERE 'E EET

PAGE INTERNET GO#ERNANCEDI#ITA DEO,RA,2

Booklet written by:

Joe McNamee, Advocacy CoordinatorKirsten Fiedler & Marie Humeau,

Advocacy Manaers and !o"#ie

Maisurad$e, %ntern

esin by: Ctrl!'A(%)

)uro"ean iital *i#ts +)*i isan association o- ./ "rivacy and

diital civil ri#ts associations

-rom 0/ Countries1

)uro"ean iital

*i#ts 23 *ue

Montoyer B40555Brussels

tel: 6 2. +5. 775

800.

brussels9edri1or



THE INTERNET

A NET'OR* O+ ,O".TER NET'OR*/

INTERNET NODE6raffic co!roller 7 I/"8

T$% I&'%&%' * + ,./+ **'% .2

&'%.&&%'%4 .'%

&%'.*9

'he! wo or more elecro!ic de%ices 6e&g&

compuers8 are co!!eced so ha hey ca!

commu!icae( hey $ecome par of a !ework&The I!er!e co!siss of a world-wide

i!erco!!ecio! of such !eworks( $elo!gi!g

o compa!ies( go%er!me!s a!d i!di%iduals(

allowi!g all of he de%ices co!!eced o hese

!eworks o commu!icae wih each oher&

I! order o commu!icae( compuers !eed o

$e a$le o u!dersa!d each oher& O! he

I!er!e( commu!icaio! is possi$le $ecause

all de%ices use he same 9la!guage: or

proocol( !amely he I!er!e "roocol

6I"8( a 9si!gle marke: wih !o physical(

ech!ical or !aio!al $arriers& I forms he

$asis for all oher sysems of

commu!icaio! o! he I!er!e&

/e!di!g a!y commu!icaio! o%er he

I!er!e usi!g he I!er!e "roocol is ;uie

like se!di!g he pages of a $ook $y pos i!

los of differe! e!%elopes& All of he

e!%elopes use he same se!der address a!d

he same desi!aio! address& E%e! if some

e!%elopes are ra!spored $y ship a!d ohers

$y air( he e!%elopes all e%e!ually arri%e a

heir



How he i!er!e works 3

i!e!ded desi!aio! a!d he $ook ca! $e

reassem$led& The fac ha page <= was

recei%ed $efore page > is of !o

impora!ce&

O! he I!er!e( he co!e!s of hee!%elope are also $ased o! co!%e!io!s7

proocols 6agreed formas8( o!e for each

ype of commu!icaio!& E?amples of such

co!%e!io!s o! op of I" are@

/T" for se!di!g emails

HTT" for accessi!g we$ sies a!d

iTorre! for peer-o-peer 6""8

file shari!g 6a way o e?cha!ge daafiles wih large groups of people8&

A!yo!e is free o i!%e! heir ow! co!%e!io!7

proocol a!d use i o! he I!er!e( as lo!g as

i works o! op of he I!er!e "roocol&

I! oher words@ he o!ly limi is he limi of

he huma! imagi!aio!( he o!ly rule is ha

he address o! he e!%elope is i! a

sa!dard forma& The ope!!ess of he

sysem is wha makes he I!er!e heglo$al phe!ome!o! i is& E%ery resricio!

o! he ope!!ess

of he I!er!e reduces is poe!ial for

fuure de%elopme!& The u!i%ersal use of a

si!gle proocol for all commu!icaio!s has

a !um$er of impora! ad%a!ages& The

de%ices ha are respo!si$le for

ra!spori!g I!er!e daa 6called rouers8

do !o !eedo $e programmed differe!ly o deal wih

differe! ypes of daa B hey do!4 e%e!

!eed a!y i!formaio! a$ou he daa hey

are ra!spori!g as lo!g as i is all usi!g

he

I!er!e "roocol& ike he posma! deli%eri!g

radiio!al mail( hey o!ly ha%e o look a he

ouside of he e!%elopes o $e a$le o deli%er

he message& I does!4 maer if he e!%elope

co!ai!s a $ill or a lo%e leer 6e?cep o

he recipie! of course8&

This leads o @

.!limied i!!o%aio! possi$iliies i!

erms of !ew proocols a!d applicaio!sC

:"ri%acy $y desig!:@ here is !o

!eed o k!ow a!yhi!g a$ou he

co!e!s of a!y commu!icaio!C

+le?i$le( fas daa flowC

A is core( he I!er!e offers o!ly o!e

fle?i$le ser%ice@ gei!g daa from o!e

de%ice o a!oher regardless of he !aure

of he de%ices( regardless of how a!dwhere he de%ices are co!!eced o he

I!er!e a!d regardless of he !aure or

co!e! of he daa&

I is his ope!!ess a!d fle?i$iliy ha is

he primary reaso! for he i!!o%aio! a!d

democraic a!d eco!omic successes of

he I!er!e&

I' * '$* .%&&%**

+&4 2%;/' '$+' *

'$% + %+*.&

2. '$% &&.<+'.&

+&4 4%.+' +&4%.&.

*%**%* .2 '$%

I&'%&%'9=



How he i!er!e works "



THE I"- ADDRE//

A DI#ITA ADDRE//

A! I" address is a !umerical address ha

is assig!ed o e%ery de%ice co!!eced o

he I!er!e& 01

I! ma!y cases( I" addresses may $e used

o ide!ify a! orga!isaio! or i!di%idual ha

has ac;uired he ser%ices of a! I!er!e

/er%ice "ro%ider i! order o co!!ec o!e or

more de%ices o he I!er!e&

I! oher cases( paricularly o! corporae

!eworks( pu$lic or u!proeced wirelessco!!ecio!s a!d mo$ile I!er!e co!!ecio!s(

he I" address does !o always ide!ify he

perso! $ehi!d some digially racea$le ac&

As he commo! household a!d $usi!ess

rouer will ofe! display )us o!e I" address for

all of he people co!!eced o i( he I"

address will ide!ify a group of people raher

ha! )us o!e i!di%idual& As a resul( i is ofe!

hard( if !o impossi$le( o $e sure who e?aclydid wha( purely o! he $asis of a! I" address&

O! he oher ha!d( I" addresses are %ery

ofe! perso!ally ide!ifia$le( a!d so(

followi!g a $asic precauio!ary pri!ciple(

mus $e reaed as such u!less hey ca!

defi!ii%ely pro%e! !o o $e&

'$% IP +44%** 4.%*

&.' ++* 4%&'2

'$% %*.& /%$&4

*.% 4,'+

'+%+/% +'=

> Due o shorages i! he curre! ge!eraio! of I" addresses( i is

i!creasi!gly commo!( paricularly i! $usi!ess !eworks( for I"

addresses o $e shared B $y all of he compuers i! o!e office(

for e?ample& The curre! shorages are $ei!g addressed $y

he roll-ou of I"% addresses&



EN,R2"TION

"RI1A,2 IN A ".I, NET'OR*

>& se!der re;uesspu$lic key from recipie!

HELLO> & se!der e!cr

wih pu$lic ke

3& e!cryped daa is se!do%er he i!er!e

decryps

daa wih his7her pri%ae key

H. +& + *% *%&4 + *%&*'<%

%**+,% *. '$+' ' %+&* *%% 2.&, %%*? I2 . *%&4 + %''%@ '

.4 /% &'%%'%4@ .%&%4@ %+4 +&4

'$%& .*%4 '$.' %+<&, + '+%9 A

'%%$.&% + +& /% %'+%49

Rapid de%elopme! of crypography

sared i! 0h ce!ury ogeher wih

de%elopme! of compui!g ech!ologies&

,ompuers allowed !o o!ly much faser

e!crypio! of elecro!ic messages( $u

also much faser cracki!g of e!crypio!

keys used so far&

E!crypio! is !o a sil%er $ulle a!d does!4

guara!ee oal co!fide!ialiy& A fre;ue!

ech!i;ue o $ypass e!crypio! is o

capure he message $efore i e%e! ges

e!cryped

B for e?ample $y a sealh Tro)a! horse

program i!salled o! se!der4s compuer ha

will mo!ior all keys pressed o! he key$oard

or e%e! i! he %icim4s mo$ile elepho!e&

A!oher ari$ue you almos always !eed



o proec whe! e!crypi!g a message is

is i!egriy 6i&e& he complee!ess of he

file8 B oherwise he message ca! $e

ma!ipulaed( wihou e%e! k!owi!g he

e!crypio! key& os respeced

e!crypio! ools will do ha for youauomaically&

The followi!g image demo!sraes he

sages of pu$lic key e!crypio! B his

works o! he $asis of a pair of keys B o!e

pu$lic a!d o!e pri%ae@

>&The se!der re;uess a copy of his

pu$lic key&

&.si!g he appropriae sofware( he

se!der e!cryps he message usi!g he

recipie!4s pu$lic key&

3&The message is se!&

<&The recipie! decryps he message

$y usi!g he pu$lic key a!d he

pri%ae key ogeher&




THE DOAIN NAE/2/TE 6DN/8

THE INTERNET4/ "HONE OO*

'he! you pu a we$sie o! he I!er!e(

i will $e reacha$le %ia he !umerical I"

address of he we$ ser%er hosi!g i 6a ime of

wrii!g( EDRi&org4s address is >=&=&>=&=(for e?ample8& I" addresses are( howe%er( !o

easy o remem$er for huma!s& .si!g hem o

ide!ify o!li!e resources is also !o pracical

as ser%ices o! he I!er!e occasio!ally ha%e

o mo%e o a !ew I" address 6if hey cha!ge

ser%ice pro%iders( for e?ample8&

As he use of I" addresses for we$sies is

!eiher pracical !or user frie!dly( 9domai!

!ames: 6such as edri&org8 were creaed&The glo$al Domai! Name /ysem works a

lile like a pho!e$ook for he I!er!e&

If you k!ow he domai! !ame of he we$sie you

wa! o %isi( he Domai! Name /ysem is used B

i!%isi$ly a!d auomaically B o fi!d he

correspo!di!g I" address of he we$ ser%er

where he we$sie ca! $e fou!d& /o( whe! you

ype hp@77edri&org( your compuer ide!ifies his

as $ei!g >=&=&>=&= a!d se!ds a re;ues

If your compuer has accessed he hp@77edri&org rece!ly(

he! i already k!ows he I" address a!d does !o !eed o

check i wih he ser%ice pro%ider&



specifically for our we$sie o rerie%e i&

The sysem for looki!g up a domai! !ame

works o! he $asis of a hierarchy& 'he!

you ype hp@77edri&org( your compuer firs

co!!ecs wih a ser%er o ask for he

address& 0 The defaul DN/ ser%er is usually

ru! $y your I!er!e pro%ider( $u i is

possi$le o use a differe! o!e&

If some$ody has rece!ly accessed hp@77

edri&org( he DN/ ser%er will 9remem$er: he

deails a!d pro%ide you wih he correc I"

address& If !o( i will refer he ;uery o a

higher le%el of auhoriy( where he same

process is followed& A he highes le%el of

auhoriy are >3 9roo ser%ers: ha ulimaely

collec ogeher DN/ ser%ers& The >3 roo

ser%ers are %ery ro$us a!d ha%e huge

capaciy& They ha%e so much capaciy ha

hey co!i!ued o work efficie!ly e%e! whe!

u!der ma)or aacks 6so-called 9disri$ued

de!ial of ser%ice: aacks8&




THE'ORD 'IDE 'E

IN*IN# THE IN+ORATION /O,IET2

This page is about dogs.

We spotted a website

about catshere. There

is a site on thelife of

mice too.

HTTP

WEBSER#ER WEBSER#ER WEBSER#ER

The 'orld-'ide 'e$ is $uil o! HTT"( a

relai%ely you!g proocol 6la!guage8 ha is

$uil o! op of he I!er!e "roocol 6I"8&

HTT" sa!ds for HyperTe? Tra!sfer

"roocol( a!d was desig!ed o dow!load so-

called hypere? docume!s 6wha are !ow

k!ow! as 9we$ pages:8 a!d o se!d some$asic i!formaio! $ack o he we$ ser%er&

'e$ pages are creaed usi!g he formai!g

la!guage HT( 6HyperTe? arkup

a!guage8& The rules of his la!guage are

se $y he 'orld 'ide 'e$ ,o!sorium

6'3,8( a!d specify special markers o

i!dicae ypograhy a!d layou properies& +or

e?ample( e? i! $old will ha%e F$G /%2.% '

+&4 F7$G afer i&

'hile here are se%eral %ersio!s of he

specificaio! 6HT $ei!g he mos rece!8(

he HT de%elopme! process is co!i!uous

a!d ope! o paricipaio!& O!ce he sa!dards

ha%e $ee! se( here is !o lice!ce or fee

for usi!g HT& The ad%a!age is ha all

a%aila$le compuer sysems u!dersa!d he

i!srucio!s i! HT i! he same way B so

a!yo!e ca! use he la!guage 6for free8 a!d$e sure ha e%ery de%ice will display he

we$ page i! he same way& The 'e$ 6a!d

he world8 would $e far poorer if people had

o pay o de%elop pages i! he la!guages of

differe! ypes of compuer&

This ope! a!d free characer of HT is

esse!ial o e!sure compai$iliy of we$

pages across all sors of de%ices@ deskop

compuers( mo$ile pho!es( a$les( lapops




a!d more& "roper applicaio! of he HT

specificaio! o forma we$pages also

e!sures accessi$iliy for people who are

%isually impaired B oherwise e? readi!g

sysems will !o $e a$le o u!dersa!d he

pages $ei!g accessed&

'e$pages are pu$lished o! machi!es k!ow!

as 9we$ ser%ers:& A we$ ser%er is a compuer

ha ca! $e fou!d $y is u!i;ue I" address 6as

descri$ed o! page 8& .sually ma!y domai!

!ames 6such as www&edri&org a!d

www&$isoffreedom&!l8 ca! $e fou!d a he

same I" address $ecause hey are sored

6a!d( herefore( uploaded a!d dow!loaded

i!formaio!8 are !o e!cryped( a!d a!yo!e

wih access o he !ework ca$les or

e;uipme! $ewee! he compuer of he e!d-

user a!d he we$ ser%er ca! gai! access o all

i!formaio! goi!g $ack a!d forh&

HTT"/ adds e!crypio! o his co!!ecio!( so

ha 6i! heory8 o!ly he e!d-user a!d he we$

ser%er ca! decipher he i!formaio! ha is

goi!g $ack-a!d-forh& This is $ased o! rus@

he we$ page pu$lisher asks a rused pary o

gi%e hem a sricly perso!al cerificae( digially

sig!ed o co!firm he ide!iy of

<b>This is a bold TEXT</b>This is a bold TEXT

LANGUAGE DE#ELOPED BY THE HOW

WORLD WIDE WEB CONSORTIUM DE#ELOPERS WHAT YOU SEE

USE IT

69hosed:8 o! he same ser%er& Thus( a si!gle

we$ ser%er wih a u!i;ue I" address ca!

hos !umerous we$sies& I! he case of

commercial we$ hosi!g compa!ies( here

ca! $e hu!dreds of u!relaed we$sies o!

o!e si!gle we$ ser%er& Aemps o 9$lock:i!di%idual we$sies o! he $asis of heir I"

address ha%e herefore always had

disasrous co!se;ue!ces for he u!relaed

pages o! he same ser%er&

I! addiio! o HTT"( here is also a secure

%aria! called HTT"/& HTT" co!!ecio!s

he pu$lisherC much like a wa? seal used i!

pre%ious ce!uries o seal docume!s&

'he! a user $uys a !ew compuer or i!salls a

!ew we$ $rowser( i comes wih a sa!dard se

of rused cerificae auhoriies( a secure lis of

e!iies from which he user willrus he cerificaes gi%e! ou o we$ page

pu$lishers& The weak!ess i! his sysem is a

resul of his defaul lis@ here are doe!s o!

his lis& If )us o!e of hese e!iies ur!s ou

!o o $e rusworhy( users will $e pui!g

heir rus i! a! u!relia$le ser%ice&

How he i!er!e works



E-AI

ANDE-AI

/E,.RIT2

AI IN THE DI#ITA 'ORD

DN/resolver

R

e

;

u

e

s

lo

c

a

i

o

!

&

e

u

HELLO>

INTERN

ET

Elecro!ic mails( or e-mails( are messages

se! $y o!e se!der o o!e or more

recipie!s& The ra!sfer of hese messages

is ha!dled usi!g /T" 6/imple ail

Tra!sfer "roocol8 which( like HTT"( is also

$uil o! he I!er!e "roocol&

Afer composi!g a! e-mail o! a we$mail sie

or i! a! e-mail program( i is ra!sferred o

a! ougoi!g e-mail ser%er usi!g /T"& I willhe! $e ra!sferred from o!e e-mail ser%er o

a!oher( agai! usi!g /T"( u!il i reaches

is fi!al desi!aio! mail ser%er&

E-mail ser%ers figure ou where o se!d he



e-mails $y ;ueryi!g he earlier descri$ed

Domai! Name /ysem 6DN/8 i!formaio!& This

sysem also i!cludes i!formaio! a$ou which

ser%ers are respo!si$le for ha!dli!g emails for

each domai!& The domai! ca! $e e?raced

from he par of he recipie!4s email address

ha comes afer he J-sig!&

O!ce he message arri%es a he e-mail ser%er

ha ha!dles all e-mails for he recipie!( i will

remai! here u!il he recipie! delees i&

/ome e-mail sofware will do his auomaically

as messages are dow!loaded o he user4s ",

or smarpho!e&




E-+ *%' E-mails ca! $e i!erceped

$y hird paries as hey are $ei!g se! from

o!e e-mail ser%er o a!oher& There are wo

ways o pre%e! his from happe!i!g@ securehe commu!icaio! $ewee! he e-mail

ser%ers( or e!cryp he co!e!s of he e-

mails& /ecuri!g he commu!icaio!

$ewee! e-mail ser%ers happe!s i! he

same way as he HTT"/ proocol secures

HTT" commu!icaio! 6descri$ed a$o%e8&

A weak!ess i! he case of e-mail is ha your

compuer does !o commu!icae direcly wih

he fi!al desi!aio! e-mail ser%er& Asa resul( if o!e si!gle i!ermediae e-mail

ser%er does !o use e!crypio! o se!d o!

your message( i could sill $e i!erceped

a ha poi!&

ecause of his weak!ess( i may $e a $eer

idea o e!cryp he message iself& A popular

a!d freely a%aila$le e!crypio! mehod for e-

mail is "#" 6"rey #ood "ri%acy8( also

a%aila$le as Ope!"#" a!d #"#&




DEE" "A,*ETIN/"E,TION

TA*IN# A OO* AT 2O.R INTERNET TRA++I,

D+'+ .& '$% I&'%&%' * *%&' &

+%'*=@ $$ +% /+*+

*+ /.* .2 4+'+9 E+$ +%'

$+* + $%+4% '$+' 4%*/%* '*

.,& +&4 4%*'&+'.& (% +&

%&<%.% '$ + *%&4% +&4

%%&' +44%**)9 T$*

&2.+'.& +.* '$% &%'.

%%&' '. 4%'%&% '$% /%*'

+'$ '. *%&4 + +%' +' ,<%&

.%&'9

Hisorically( !ework e;uipme! o!ly

looked a origi! a!d desi!aio!

i!formaio!& u wih rapid i!crease

of malicious aci%iy !ework ow!ers

decided ha hey !eed o look a

more deails of each packe o

disi!guish 9safe: packes from hose$ei!g par of hacki!g or de!ial of

ser%ice aacks&

+or e?ample( !ework securiy

programs 69firewalls:8 could i!iially

o!ly $lock a packe ra%elli!g from a

specific origi!( o a specific

desi!aio! a!d o a specific ser%ice&

.si!g hese crieria you could $lock

all i!comi!g ser%ice re;uess o youroffice4s !ework( $ecause you make

!o ser%ices a%aila$le

for ge!eral pu$lic& A!d you could

sill e!)oy all oher ser%ices

a%aila$le o! I!er!e $y allowi!g

ser%ice re;uess origi!ai!g from

your office !ework&



A some poi! you migh decide o

sar a we$ ser%er a your !ework o

pu$lish docume!s& 2ou would !eed o

modify your firewall sei!gs o allow

i!comi!g ser%ice re;ues( $u o!ly for

he we$ ser%ice& u he!( here are

!umerous aacks agai!s we$ ser%ers

ha look ;uie i!!oce! from firewall4s

poi! of %iew& I is impossi$le o

disi!guish legiimae packes from

malicious o!es $ased )us o! origi!

a!d desi!aio! deails&

Nework e!gi!eers soo! realised

ha i would $e easier o deec

aacks if he !ework e;uipme!

sared looki!g a $i deeper i!o he

packes& I! heory i is easy

B he headers i! packe are !o

9separaed: i! a!y oher way ha!

logical defi!iio! of $ou!daries& I4s

)us a maer of a!alysi!g a few !e?

$yes ha! we were a!alysi!g so far

e&g& for roui!g purposes& Or go e%e!

deeper a!d look i!side he $lock of

daa i! he packe&

De%ices ha sared doi!g ha were

i!iially called I!rusio! "re%e!io!

/ysems 6I"/8 a!d soo! hese

feaures were i!roduced i!o mos

!ework e;uipme!& 'he! i was

used o $lock hacki!g aacks( his

caused !o co!ro%ersy&




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pro%iders a!d !ework operaors sared o

realise ha he ech!i;ue B i! ge!eral use

called deep packe i!specio! 6D"I8 B gi%eshem much more co!rol o%er he !ework

users4 daa ha! i was possi$le $efore& D"I

ech!i;ues are already i! use for

law e!forceme! 6sur%eilla!ce( $locki!g(

ec8( marke profili!g( a!d ad%eriseme!

argei!g( ser%ice le%el agreeme!

e!forceme! a!d is $ei!g proposed for

copyrigh e!forceme!&

+rom a user4s poi! of %iew D"I ech!i;uesca! $e $locked $y usi!g e!crypio! B he

9deep: co!e!s of a! e!cryped packe is

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peer-o-peer

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paricipai!g users

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a peer-o-peer

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orga!ise he

!ework a!d

locae resources

i! he !ework&

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e-mail ser%ers are

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he /T" proocol(a!y ser%er ca!

se!d a! email o

a!y oher ser%er&

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/ysem ca! also

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e-mail for a

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i!creasi!g he

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sysem&

"eers i! file

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do !o

immediaely k!ow

he I" addressesof oher peers

paricipai!g i! he

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do !o k!ow

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which files 6or

pars of hese

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ypically ha!dled

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peers share

i!formaio! a$ou

oher peers

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co!e! ha hey

ha%e& +iles are

ide!ified usi!g9hash: keys(

which are

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allow i!di%idual

files o $e

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allow 9peers: o

disco%er which

oher peers are

a%aila$le o

dow!load all or

par of a paricular

file&



.sers of he peer-

o-peer !ework

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o$ai! hash

fi!gerpri!s for hefiles hey wa! o

o$ai!& /ome are

pu$lished o!

we$sies( e&g& o

dow!load %ersio!s

of he .$u!u

operai!g sysem(

for e?ample& There

are dicio!aries ha

map huma!

reada$le

descripio!s of files

o hash fi!gerpri!s

so ha i is possi$le

o search for files i!

he peer-o-peer

!ework&

'e$sies such as

hepirae$ay&org

a!d mi!i!o%a&org

pro%ide such

dicio!aries&

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fi!gerpri!s ca!

also $e disri$ued

hrough e-mail( cha

a!d social !eworks

B mea!i!g ha

here is !o

ce!ralised sysem&

There are also

peer-o-peer

!eworks ha

pro%ide

a!o!ymiy o

paricipai!g

peers&




EHA1IO.RA AD1ERTI/IN#

ET4/ #ET "ER/ONA

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user firs %isis a we$ sie o! e&g&

foo$all( a lile file 6a so-called

cookie8 will $e sored i! heir we$

$rowser 6such as I!er!e E?plorer(

+irefo? or ,hrome8& A we$ sie

usually co!siss of co!e! from

se%eral sources(

for e?ample he e? a!d picures

come from he sie you e!ered i! your

$rowser( $u addiio!al co!e! such

as ad%eriseme!s is dow!loaded from

oher sources 6e%e!

sources u!relaed o he we$sie iself8&

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re;ues migh also se!d cookie daa

$ack from your compuer&

+or $eha%ioural ad%erisi!g( cookies

usually i!clude a! ide!ificaio!

!um$er& If he

user he! reads a !ews aricle o!

cars( he $eha%ioural ad%erisi!g

compa!ies



will $e a$le o make assumpio!s

a$ou some$ody who reads aricles

a$ou $oh cars a!d foo$all& I! our

e?ample( a primii%e assumpio! migh

$e made ha he user is someo!e

who would reac fa%oura$ly o $eer

ad%erisi!g& The assumpio! migh

also $e made ha i is !o a good idea

o show special offers o! car

i!sura!ce o he user( $ecause i is

pro$a$ly a you!g ma!&

The more we$sies he user

%isis ha are par of he

racki!g !ework of he

$eha%ioural ad%erisi!g ser%ices( like

mos !ewspaper we$ sies a!d

ma!y ohers( he more daa is

colleced o! heir profile& 'ihi! a

relai%ely shor period of ime of

readi!g some$ody4s o!li!e ha$is( a

%ery

deailed profile ca! $e de%eloped K

a!d he 9ide!ifia$iliy: of he daa

grows( e%e! hough i! heory i is

9a!o!ymous:&

arge amou!s of $eha%ioural daa ca!

reduce he sie of he group ha a!

i!di%idual $elo!gs o a %ery small

!um$er of i!di%iduals ha migh fi o

his paer!& /e%eral years ago( o!e

search e!gi!e pu$lished a large

se of 9a!o!ymous: daa o! searches

do!e horough is ser%ice& As a resul

of a!alysi!g


his 9a!o!ymous: daa( )our!aliss were

a$le o ide!ify i!di%iduals(

demo!srai!g ha 9a!o!ymous: daa

is !o a!o!ymous afer all&

'heher addiio!al daa from oher

sources is also used for $eha%ioural

ad%erisi!g is !o k!ow!& a!y

compa!ies ha are aci%e i! he

$eha%ioural argei!g $usi!ess( such

as #oogle a!d 2ahooL( pro%ide ohero!li!e ser%ices as well( i!cludi!g

search& The mergi!g of daa$ases

would creae %as amou!s of

comparai%ely easily ide!ifia$le

perso!al daa&

eha%ioural ad%erisi!g is

claimed o $e o!e of he dri%ers

$ehi!d he o!li!e

ad%eriseme! i!dusry4s eco!omicsuccess o%er he pas years& The

ech!i;ue is also used o! a!

e?perime!al $asis for deli%eri!g oher

co!e!( such as !ews o I!er!e users&

.sers are !o promped for heir

co!se! for his processi!g of heirperso!al daa& The ad%eriseme!

$usi!ess argues ha his ki!d of

racki!g is i! he i!eres of he user(

$ecause his helps o e!sure ha

hey o!ly recei%e Mrele%a!4

ad%eriseme!& They also

propose a! op-ou-procedure ha is

claimed $y some o fulfil he

re;uireme!s of he e-"ri%acy

direci%e&

The key issue i! ;uesio! is( wheher

he cookies sei!gs 6ha are rarely

se o 9pri%acy $y defaul:8 i! he

user4s $rowser already co!siue a

mea!i!gful e?pressio! of co!se! $y

he user& The Europea!

Daa "roecio! /uper%isor 03 says

ha i is !o& a!y I!er!e users!eiher k!ow a$ou cookies !or e%er

cha!ge heir cookie

accepa!ce sei!gs& Tech!ically heproposed



soluio! also faces difficulies( si!ce

he op-ou regime does !o i!clude

all ad%erisers& +urhermore( he

curre! 9op-ou: sysem iself uses

cookies( so delei!g cookies also

delees he op-ou&

Addiio!ally( moder! $rowsers a!d

$rowser e?e!sio!s 6so-calledplug-:i!s:( such as +lash8 offer ma!y

more ways o sore a!d rerie%e daa

i! addiio! o he radiio!al cookies&

This addiio!al daa is hard o ma!age

for he a%erage user a!d !o always

co%ered $y cookie prefere!ces i!

$rowsers&

,urre!ly Europea! ciie!s ha%e a

Europea! law o proec hem( $uremai! de faco u!proeced due o a

lack of will o impleme! he law&

3 hp@77www&edps&europa&eu7ED"/'E7we$da%7sie7my/ie7 shared7Docume!s7,o!sulaio!7Opi!io!s70070-0>-0

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THE /EAR,HEN#INE

AN INDE5 O+ THE INTERNET

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A!y 'e$ auhor ca! li!k o a!y

oher o!li!e co!e!& Through he

pracice of li!ki!g

all I!er!e users help wih

orga!isi!g he i!formaio!

o!li!e i!o a 'e$ ofi!erco!!eced resources&

Impora!ly( he 'e$ does !o

pro%ide for a ce!ralised i!de? ha

keeps rack of wha is a%aila$le o!

he !ework& /earch e!gi!es are

herefore he mos impora!

ser%ices o help mee he !eed of

I!er!e users o !a%igae he

I!er!e more effeci%ely&

There are differe! ki!ds of search

e!gi!e ser%ices& The mos

impora! search e!gi!e model is

he crawler-$ased search e!gi!e&

This uses sofware 6referred o as

9crawlers: or 9spiders:8 o look for

wha is a%aila$le o!li!e a!d

sysemaically i!de?es his co!e!&The sophisicaio! a!d effeci%e!ess

of he crawler deermi!es he sie

a!d

he fresh!ess of he i!de?( which

are $oh impora! measures of

a search e!gi!e4s ;ualiy& I!

simple erms( he spider7crawler



follows e%ery li!k o! e%ery page(

i!de?es he li!ked pages a!d

he! follows he li!ks o! hose

pages( i!de?es hem( a!d so o!&

The mos impora! operaio! hesearch e!gi!e performs is maki!g

he mach $ewee! a user4s search

;uery a!d he i!formaio! i! he

i!de?& Typically( he oupu of his

machi!g process is a ra!ked lis of

refere!ces & These his !ormally

co!sis of a ile( s!ippes of

i!formaio! a!d hyperli!ks o he

pages ha he search e!gi!e4s

ech!ology has deermi!ed as

possi$ly rele%a!&

Alo!gside he Morga!ic resuls4 6i&e&

he pages fou!d $y he search

e!gi!e8( commercial search

e!gi!es place spo!sored resuls

deermi!ed $y a $iddi!g process

o! keywords $y markeeers& The

machi!g process for orga!ic

resuls is comple? a!d commercial

search e!gi!es proec heir

precise ra!ki!g algorihms as rade

secres& The "ageRa!k algorihm

of #oogle is o!e of he mos

famous 'e$ search ra!ki!g

algorihms& I predics he rele%a!ce

of we$sies i! he i!de? $y

a!alysi!g he li!ki!g srucure o!

he 'e$ 6i&e& he ypes of pages

ha li!k o ha page8&

Oher impora! ech!i;ues for$eer




machi!g he user4s i!formaio! !eeds wih

he i!de? i!clude he a!alysis of he co!e!

of he we$sies a!d he a!alysis of user daa&

,ommercial search e!gi!es use cookies osore users4 search ;ueries( clicks o! he li!ks

a!d more i! i!di%idualised form i! heir

daa$ases for lo!g periods of ime&

A 9%erical: or specialised search e!gi!e

focuses o! search for a specific ype of

su$)ec( such as ra%el( shoppi!g( academic

aricles( !ews( or music& The large crawler-

$ased search e!gi!es i!clude specialised

search e!gi!es i! heir ser%ice as e?rafeaures& A 9mea-search e!gi!e: is a search

e!gi!e ha does !o produce is ow! i!de?

a!d search resuls( $u i!sead uses he

resuls from o!e or more oher search

e!gi!es& A 9direcory: is a reposiory of li!ks

classified i!o differe! caegories& The

2ahooL direcory a!d he Ope! Direcory

"ro)ec are famous e?amples&




,O.D,O".TIN#

THE INTERNET E,OE/ 2O.R ,O".TER

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&%+*% & ++'.&* +4%

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I! diagrams represe!i!g a

commu!icaio!s !ework( a cloud

is used o demo!srae he

!ework ha is ouside he!ework of a user& ,loud

compui!g( herefore refers o a!y

compui!g ser%ice which is

performed i!side he !ework

raher ha! i!side he e!d-user4s

compuer&

O!e of he firs e?amples of cloud

compui!g is we$-$ased e-mail

69we$mail:8& .sers of we$mail ca!

access heir e-mail from a!y

I!er!e-co!!eced de%ice( raher

ha! o! )us o!e machi!e& ,ommo!

we$mail ser%ices i!clude 2ahooL

ail( Homail a!d #mail&

'ih e%er-i!creasi!g I!er!e

co!!ecio! speeds( he ra!ge of

ser%ices which ca! $e offered $y

cloud compui!g ser%ices has

grow! e?po!e!ially i! rece! years&

Now( for e?ample( i is possi$le o

sore %as amou!s of daa i! he

9cloud: usi!g %irual hard disks(

such as he o!e pro%ided $y

icrosof i%e&

/imilarly( o!li!e office sofwares

such as word processi!g a!d

daa$ase ech!ologies



are i!creasi!gly $ei!g offered&

#oogle4s ,hrome Operai!g

/ysem pro)ec is a furher sep i!

he mo%e owards cloud-$ased

compui!g& .si!g he #oogle

,hrome we$ $rowser as is $ase(

i aims o auomaically

i!corporae cloud ech!ologies $y

defaul( mea!i!g ha he amou!of sofware used o! he compuer

is mi!imal( wih a hea%y relia!ce

o! ser%ices a%aila$le o!li!e B i!

ma!y ways opposie o he

approach used i! radiio!al

compui!g( where almos all

sofware is $uil i!o

he compuer wih lile or !o

relia!ce o! sofware i! he

cloud&




/O,IA EDIA

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/ocial media are

fu!dame!ally differe!

from regular media as hey

do !o )us gi%e i!formaio!(

$u i!erac wih you while

gi%i!g you ha i!formaio!&

The i!eracio! ca!

$e as simple as aski!g for

your comme!s( lei!g you

%oe o! a! aricle or 9like:

or 9u!like: a!y acio! of

oher users& Each user is

!o )us a specaor $u par

of he media( as oher

users ca! also read heircomme!s or re%iews&

"eople are gei!g used

o ha%i!g he a$iliy o

reac o wha ohers wrie

a!d o e?press a!d show

heir ow! poi! of %iew&

This e!larges he

commu!iy i!%ol%eme! i!

o!goi!g de$aes& E%eryyear he !um$er of social

media users is i!creasi!g(

so is

i!flue!ce is i!creasi!g a!d

is $ecomi!g more a!d

more powerful&

A!y we$sie ha i!%ies%isiors o i!erac wih he

sie a!d wih oher %isiors

ca! $e co!sidered as par

of social media& They ca!

$e di%ided $roadly i!o si?

differe! ypes@



>& ,olla$orai%e pro)ecs

6e&g& 'ikipedia8(

where users i!erac

$y addi!g aricles a!d

edii!g e?isi!g

ariclesC

& logs a!d micro$logs6e&g& Twier8C

3& ,o!e! commu!iies

6e&g& 2ouTu$e( +lickr8(

where users i!erac

$y shari!g a!d

comme!i!g o!

phoos or %ideosC

<& /ocial !eworki!g

sies 6e&g& +ace$ook(

yspace( Hi(

google8( where users

i!erac $y addi!g

frie!ds( comme!i!g

o! profiles( )oi!i!g

groups a!d ha%i!g

discussio!sC

& 1irual gameworlds 6e&g&

'orld of

'arcraf8C

& 1irual social world 6e&g&/eco!d ife8&

"roecio!( i! paricular

pri%acy proecio!( of

social media users is a!

impora! opic& 'hile

users ca! usually choose

o share perso!al

i!formaio! or hide i( he

defaul sei!gs a!d

addiio!al proecio! for

childre! are su$)ecs of

co!sidera$le

co!ro%ersy& +urhermore(

cerai! sies( such as+ace$ook( ha%e u!ilaerally

cha!ged heir users4

pri%acy sei!gs already

se%eral imes i! he pas&




INTERNET#O1ERNAN,E

DI#ITA DEO,RA,2

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(IG) %% +4% 4&,

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N+'.&* W.4 S'

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S.%'9

A firs commo!-

acceped defi!iio! was

de%eloped wihi! he

'orki!g #roup o!

I!er!e #o%er!a!ce( a

muli-sakeholder group

creaed $y he .N

/ecreary #e!eral a!d

was i!cluded i! he

Tu!is Age!da for

I!formaio! /ociey@

9de%elopme! a!d

applicaio! $y

go%er!me!s( he pri%ae

secor a!d ci%il sociey( i!

heir respeci%e roles( of

shared pri!ciples( !orms(

rules( decisio!-maki!gprocedures( a!d

programmes ha shape

he e%oluio! a!d use of

he I!er!e&:

This defi!iio! emphasises

he muli-sakeholder

approach i! discussi!g

I!er!e-relaed policies@

he paricipaio! of all

acors( i! a! ope!(

ra!spare! a!d

accou!a$le ma!!er&

To achie%e his goal( he

I!er!e #o%er!a!ce

+orum was creaed as a

muli-sakeholder forum for

discussio!s of pu$lic policy

issues relaed o key

eleme!s of I!er!e



#o%er!a!ce& The forum(

which already had

ediio!s 6$ewee! 00

a!d 0>>8 riggered he

orga!isaio! of similar

!aio!al a!d

regio!al fora 6e&g EuroDI#

Bhe pa!-Europea!

dialogue o! I!er!e

go%er!a!ce8& I is impora!

o ouli!e ha hese fora do

!o fu!cio! as decisio!-

maki!g $odies( $u hey

i!flue!ce policies&

W$+' 4.%* IG .<%?

I!frasrucure a!dsa!dardisaio!C

Tech!ical issues

relaed o he ru!!i!g of

he I!er!e@

elecommu!icaio!s

i!frasrucure( I!er!e

sa!dards a!d ser%ices

6e&g& I!er!e "roocol(

Domai! Name /ysem8(

co!e! a!d applicaio!

sa!dards 6e&g& HyperTe?

arkup a!guage8C

Issues relaed o

safeguardi!g he secure

a!d sa$le operaio! of

he I!er!e@

cy$ersecuriy(

e!crypio!( spamC

egal issues@

!aio!al a!di!er!aio!al legislaio!

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