how to design solar pv system

7/25/2019 How to Design Solar PV System

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How to Design Solar PV System

What is solar PV system?

Solar photovoltaic systemor Solar power systemis one of renewable energy systemwhich uses PV modules toconvert sunlight into electricity. The electricity generated can be either stored or used directly, fed back into grid line orcombined with one or more other electricity generators or more renewable energy source. Solar PV system is very reliable

and clean source of electricity that can suit a wide range of applications such as residence, industry, agriculture, livestock,etc.

Major system components

Solar PV system includes different components that should be selected according to your system type, site location andapplications. The major components for solar PV system are solar charge controller, inverter, battery bank, auxiliaryenergy sources and loads appliances!. " PV module# converts sunlight into $% electricity. " Solar charge controller# regulates the voltage and current coming from the PV panels going to

battery and prevents battery overcharging and prolongs the battery life. " Inverter# converts $% output of PV panels or wind turbine into a clean &% current for &%

appliances or fed back into grid line. " attery# stores energy for supplying to electrical appliances when there is a demand. " !oad# is electrical appliances that connected to solar PV system such as lights, radio, TV, computer,

refrigerator, etc." "u#iliary energy sources' is diesel generator or other renewable energy sources.

Solar PV system si$ing

%& Determine power consumption demandsThe first step in designing a solar PV system is to find out the total power and energy consumption of all loads that

need to be supplied by the solar PV system as follows(

%&% 'alculate total Watt(hours per day )or each appliance used& &dd the )att'hours needed for all appliances together to get the total )att'hours per day which

must be delivered to the appliances.

%&* 'alculate total Watt(hours per day needed )rom the PV modules&

*ultiply the total appliances )att'hours per day times +. the energy lost in the system! to getthe total )att'hours per day which must be provided by the panels.

*& Si$e the PV modules$ifferent si-e of PV modules will produce different amount of power. To find out the si-ing of PV module, the total peak

watt produced needs. The peak watt )p! produced depends on si-e of the PV module and climate of site location. )ehave to consider panel generation factor/ which is different in each site location. 0or Thailand, the panel generation factoris .1. To determine the si-ing of PV modules, calculate as follows(

*&% 'alculate the total Watt(pea+ rating needed )or PV modules $ivide the total )att'hours per day needed from the PV modules from item +.2! by .1 to get

the total )att'peak rating needed for the PV panels needed to operate the appliances.

*&* 'alculate the number o) PV panels )or the system $ivide the answer obtained in item 2.+ by the rated output )att'peak of the PV modules available

to you. 3ncrease any fractional part of result to the next highest full number and that will be thenumber of PV modules re4uired.

5esult of the calculation is the minimum number of PV panels. 3f more PV modules are installed, the system will performbetter and battery life will be improved. 3f fewer PV modules are used, the system may not work at all during cloudyperiods and battery life will be shortened.,& Inverter si$ing

&n inverter is used in the system where &% power output is needed. The input rating of the inverter should never belower than the total watt of appliances. The inverter must have the same nominal voltage as your battery.

0or stand'alone systems, the inverter must be large enough to handle the total amount of )atts you will be using at one
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time. The inverter si-e should be 26'78 bigger than total )atts of appliances. 3n case of appliance type is motor orcompressor then inverter si-e should be minimum times the capacity of those appliances and must be added to theinverter capacity to handle surge current during starting.

0or grid tie systems or grid connected systems, the input rating of the inverter should be same as PV array rating toallow for safe and efficient operation.

-& attery si$ingThe battery type recommended for using in solar PV system is deep cycle battery. $eep cycle battery is specifically

designed for to be discharged to low energy level and rapid recharged or cycle charged and discharged day after day foryears. The battery should be large enough to store sufficient energy to operate the appliances at night and cloudy days.To find out the si-e of battery, calculate as follows(

1.+ %alculate total )att'hours per day used by appliances. 1.2 $ivide the total )att'hours per day used by 7.96 for battery loss. 1. $ivide the answer obtained in item 1.2 by 7.: for depth of discharge. 1.1 $ivide the answer obtained in item 1. by the nominal battery voltage. 1.6 *ultiply the answer obtained in item 1.1 with days of autonomy the number of days that you

need the system to operate when there is no power produced by PV panels! to get the re4uired&mpere'hour capacity of deep'cycle battery.

;attery %apacity &h! < Total )att'hours per day used by appliances x $ays of autonomy7.96 x 7.: x nominal battery voltage!

.& Solar charge controller si$ingThe solar charge controller is typically rated against &mperage and Voltage capacities. Select the solar charge

controller to match the voltage of PV array and batteries and then identify which type of solar charge controller is right foryour application. *ake sure that solar charge controller has enough capacity to handle the current from PV array.

0or the series charge controllertype, the si-ing of controller depends on the total PV input current which is delivered tothe controller and also depends on PV panel configuration series or parallel configuration!.

&ccording to standard practice, the si-ing of solar charge controller is to take the short circuit current 3sc! of the PVarray, and multiply it by +.Solar charge controller rating < Total short circuit current of PV array x +.

/emar+( 0or*PPT charge controllersi-ing will be different. See;asics of *PPT %harge %ontroller!

0#ample1& house has the following electrical appliance usage(

=ne +9 )att fluorescent lamp with electronic ballast used 1 hours per day.

=ne :7 )att fan used for 2 hours per day.

=ne >6 )att refrigerator that runs 21 hours per day with compressor run +2 hours and off +2 hours.

The system will be powered by +2 Vdc, ++7 )p PV module.

%& Determine power consumption demands

Total appliance use < +9 ) x 1 hours! ? :7 ) x 2 hours! ? >6 ) x 21 x 7.6 hours! < +,7@2 )hAdayTotal PV panels energy needed < +,7@2 x +. < +,1+@.: )hAday.

*& Si$e the PV panel

2.+ Total )p of PV panel capacityneeded

< +,1+@.: A .1

< 1+.@ )p2.2 Bumber of PV panels needed < 1+.@ A ++7 < .>: modules
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&ctual re4uirement < 1 modules

So this system should be powered by at least - modules o) %%2 Wp PV module&

,& Inverter si$ing Total )att of all appliances < +9 ? :7 ? >6 < +6 )

0or safety, the inverter should be considered 26'78 bigger si-e.3he inverter si$e should be about %42 W or greater&

-& attery si$ing Total appliances use < +9 ) x 1 hours! ? :7 ) x 2 hours! ? >6 ) x +2 hours! Bominal battery voltage < +2 V $ays of autonomy < days

;attery capacity < C+9 ) x 1 hours! ? :7 ) x 2 hours! ? >6 ) x +2 hours!D x 7.96 x 7.: x +2!

Total &mpere'hours re4uired 66.2@ &h So the battery should be rated %* V 522 "h )or , day autonomy&

.& Solar charge controller si$ing

PV module specification Pm < ++7 )p Vm < +:.> Vdc 3m < :.: & Voc < 27.> & 3sc < >.6 & Solar charge controller rating < 1 strings x >.6 &! x +. < @ & So the solar charge controller should be rated -2 " at %* V or greater&


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asics o) Solar 'ell

Solar energyis the ultimate source of energy, which is naturally replenished in a short period of time, for this reason it iscalled Erenewable energyE or Esustainable energyE source. To take advantages of solar energy, the variety oftechnologies is used to covert solar energy to heat and electricity. The use of solar energy involves Fenergy conservationFbecause it is the way to use energy source that comes from the nature and uses it more wisely and efficiently. That wayincludes Solar %ell, which is described as follows(

What is Solar 'ell?

Solar 'ell or Photovoltaic 6PV7cell is a device that is made up of semiconductor materialssuch as silicon, gallium arsenide and cadmium telluride, etc. that converts sunlight directly intoelectricity. )hen solar cellsabsorb sunlight, free electrons and holes are created atpositiveAnegative junctions. 3f the positive and negative junctions of solar cellare connectedto $% electrical e4uipment, current is delivered to operate the electrical e4uipment.

Solar cell typesThere are three major cell types that classified by its manufacturing technology and the semiconductor.

Single %rystalline SiliconPV *odule

Polycrystalline SiliconPV *odule

&morphous SiliconPV *odule

+. 'rystalline Silicon PV Module1Two types of crystalline silicon c'Si! are used to produce PV moduleG singlecrystalline silicon or known as monocrystalline silicon and multi'crystalline silicon, also called polycrystalline silicon.The polycrystalline silicon PV module has lower conversion efficiency than single crystalline silicon PV module butboth of them have high conversion efficiencies that average about +7'+28.

2. "morphous Silicon PV Module1&morphous silicon a'Si! PV module or thin'film silicon PV module absorbs lightmore effectively than crystalline silicon PV module, so it can be made thinner. 3t suits for any applications that highefficiency is not re4uired and low cost is important. The typical efficiency of amorphous silicon PV module is around:8.

. Hybrid Silicon PV Module1& combination of single crystalline silicon surrounded by thin layers of amorphous siliconprovides excellent sensitivity to lower light levels or indirect light. The Hybrid silicon PV module has highest level ofconversion efficiency about +>8.

Solar cell structureThe most semiconductor material currently use for solar cell production is silicon, which has some advantages asG it canbe easily found in nature, does not pollute, does not harm the environment and it can be easily melted, handled andformed into monocrystalline silicon form, etc. The commonly solar cell is configured as a large'area p'n junction madefrom silicon.

How solar cell wor+s?


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)hen sunlight strikes solar cellsurface, the cell creates charge carrier as electrons and holes. The internal fieldproduced by junction separates some of positive charges holes! from negative charges electrons!. Holes are swept into

positive or p'layer and electrons are swept into negative or n'layer. )hen a circuit is made, free electrons have to passthrough the load to recombine with positive holesG current can be produced from the cells under illumination.

The individual solar cellsare connected together to make a module called Fsolar moduleF or FPV moduleF! to increasecurrent and the modules are connected in an array called Fsolar arrayF or FPV arrayF!. $epending on current or voltagere4uirement, solar arrays are connected in a variety of ways(

" 3f the solar arrays are connected in parallel, the output current will increase." 3f the solar arrays are connected in series, the output voltage will increase.

Solar PV systemSolar cellsproduce direct current $%!, therefore they are only used for $% e4uipments. 3f alternating current &%! isneeded for &% e4uipments or backup energy is needed, solar photovoltaicsystems re4uire other components inaddition to solar modules. These components are specially designed to integrate into solar PV system, that is to say theyare renewable energyproducts or energy conservation products and one or more of components may be includeddepending on type of application.The components of solar photovoltaic systemare
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+. Solar Moduleis the essential component of any solar PV system that converts sunlight directly into $% electricity.2. Solar 'harge 'ontrollerregulates voltage and current from solar arrays, charges the battery, prevents battery from

overcharging and also performs controlled over discharges.. atterystores current electricity that produces from solar arrays for using when sunlight is not visible, nighttime or

other purposes.1. Inverteris a critical component of any solar PV system that converts $% power output of solar arrays into &% for &%

appliances.6. !ightning protectionprevents electrical e4uipments from damages caused by lightning or induction of high voltage

surge. 3t is re4uired for the large si-e and critical solar PV systems, which include the efficient grounding.

Solar cell advantages

Solar cell or PV cellproduces clean with non'polluting energy source of electricity that is environmental'friendly. Since ituses no fuel other than sunlight, gives off no waste, no burning, and no moving part when it operates. 3t reduces collectionof gases such as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbon and nitrogen, etc., which generated from fuel, coal andfossil fuel burning power plants. &ll decrease the impacts of energy on the environment like greenhouse effect, globalwarming, acid rain and air pollution, etc. 3t is easy to install and transportable. )ith the modular characteristic, it can beconstructed any si-es as re4uired. *oreover, it re4uires minimal maintenance and has long life span more than 7 years!and stable efficiency.

Solar cell applications

Home 3ndoor and outdoor lighting system, electrical e4uipment, electric gate opener,

security system, ventilator, water pump, water filter and emergency light, etc.

!ighting system ;us stop lighting, telephone booth lighting, billboard lighting, parking lot lighting,indoor and outdoor lighting and street lighting, etc.

Water pumping %onsumption, public utility, livestock watering, agriculture, gardening and farming,

mining and irrigation, etc. attery charging system Imergency power system, battery charging center for rural village and power

supply for household use and lighting in remote area, etc.

"griculture )ater pumping, agricultural products fumigator, thrashing machines and watersprayer, etc.

'attle )ater pumping, oxygen filling system for fish'farming and insect trapped lighting,etc.

Health center 5efrigerator and cool box for keeping medicines and vaccines and medicale4uipment, etc.

'ommunication &ir navigational aid, air warning light, lighthouse, beacon navigation aid, illuminatedroad sign, railway crossing sign, street lighting and emergency telephone, etc.


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3elecommunication *icrowave repeater station, telecommunication e4uipment, portable communication

e4uipment e.g. communication radio for service and military exercise! and weathermonitoring station, etc.

/emote area Hill, island, forest and remote area that the utility grids are not available, etc.Space Satellite, international space station and spacecraft, etc.

asics o) MPP3 Solar 'harge 'ontroller

)hat is *PPTJ
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How *PPT worksJ

*ain features of *PPT solar charge controller

How to choose *PPT solar charge controller for PV modules

How to set system configuration of *PPT solar charge controller

How to choose *PPT solar charge controller for PV module and battery

What is MPP3?MPP3 orMa#imum Power Point 3rac+ingis algorithm that included in charge controllers used for extracting maximumavailable power from PV module under certain conditions. The voltage at which PV module can produce maximum poweris called Kmaximum power pointL or peak power voltage!. *aximum power varies with solar radiation, ambienttemperature andsolar celltemperature.

Typical PV module produces power with maximum power voltage of around +> V when measured at a cell temperature of26M%, it can drop to around +6 V on a very hot day and it can also rise to +9 V on a very cold day.

8igure % 3he I(V curves show ma#imum power )rom PV modules when e#posedto irradiance %222 W9m*

Source( The parameters are measured by the 3VTracer program by Sandia Bational Naboratories
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8igure * 3he I(V curves show ma#imum power )rom PV modules when e#posed to irradiance %22 W9m*

Source( The parameters are measured by the 3VTracer program by Sandia Bational Naboratories.

&s the graphs in figure + and 2, we see that at the different solar radiations, PV modules deliver the variations inparameters as follows(

+! *aximum powerG Pm2! *aximum power voltageG Vpm! =pen circuit voltageG Voc1! *aximum power currentG 3pm6! Short circuit currentG 3sc

How MPP3 wor+s?The major principle of *PPT is to extract the maximum available power from PV module by making them operate at themost efficient voltage maximum power point!. That is to say(*PPT checks output of PV module, compares it to battery voltage then fixes what is the best power that PV module canproduce to charge the battery and converts it to the best voltage to get maximum current into battery. 3t can also supplypower to a $% load, which is connected directly to the battery.

*PPT is most effective under these conditions(

" %old weather, cloudy or ha-y days( Bormally, PV module works better at cold temperatures and *PPT is utili-ed toextract maximum power available from them.

" )hen battery is deeply discharged( *PPT can extract more current and charge the battery if the state of charge inthe battery is lowers.

MPP3 solar charge controller

& *PPT solar charge controller is the charge controller embedded with*PPT algorithm to maximi-e the amount of current going into the batteryfrom PV module.

*PPT is $% to $% converter which operates by taking $% input from PVmodule, changing it to &% and converting it back to a different $% voltageand current to exactly match the PV module to the battery.


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Ixamples of $% to $% converter are

" oost converteris power converter which $% input voltage is less than $% output voltage. That means PV inputvoltage is less than the battery voltage in system.

" uc+ converteris power converter which $% input voltage is greater than $% output voltage. That means PV inputvoltage is greater than the battery voltage in system.

*PPT algorithm can be applied to both of them depending on system design. Bormally, for battery system voltage ise4ual or less than 19 V, buck converter is useful. =n the other hand, if battery system voltage is greater than 19 V, boostconverter should be chosen.

*PPT solar charge controllersare useful for off'grid solar power systems such as stand'alone solar powersystem, solar home systemand solar water pump system, etc.

Main )eatures o) MPP3 solar charge controller

" 3n any applications which PV module is energy source, *PPT solar charge controlleris used to correct for detectingthe variations in the current'voltage characteristics of solar celland shown by 3'V curve.

" *PPT solar charge controlleris necessary for any solar power systems need to extract maximum power from PVmoduleG it forces PV module to operate at voltage close to maximum power point to draw maximum available power.

" *PPT solar charge controllerallows users to use PV module with a higher voltage output than operating voltage ofbattery system.

8or e#ample:if PV module has to be placed far away from charge controller and battery, its wire si-e must be verylarge to reduce voltage drop. )ith a *PPT solar charge controller, users can wire PV module for 21 or 19 Vdepending on charge controller and PV modules! and bring power into +2 or 21 V battery system. This means itreduces the wire si-e needed while retaining full output of PV module.

" *PPT solar charge controllerreduces complexity of system while output of system is high efficiency. &dditionally, itcan be applied to use with more energy sources. Since PV output power is used to control $%'$% converter directly.

" *PPT solar charge controllercan be applied to other renewable energy sources such as small water turbines,wind'power turbines, etc.

How to choose MPP3 solar charge controller )or PV module

3able % Speci)ications o) PV modules separated by manu)acturers

PV Manu)actures Model Wp Vpm Ipm Isc Voc

SH"/PCView SpecificationsD

BI'>9T+ >9 +>.+ 1.6> 6.79 2+.1

B$'+7T+ +7 +>.1 >.19 9.7@ 22

;ane+aCView SpecificationsD

OP& :1 :9 7.@1 +.+> @2

S"C View SpecificationsD

H3P'+97;2 +@7 61 . .+6 ::.1

ang+o+ SolarCView SpecificationsD

;S 17 17 11.9 7.@ +.+: :2.2

Standard Test %ondition( 3rradiance < +777 )Am2, %ell temperature < 26M%, &ir mass < +.6

How to set system con)iguration o) MPP3 solar charge controller
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8igure , eneral con)iguration o) the MPP3 solar charge controller

S>!"/ 'H"/0 '>!!0/WI3H MPP3 " modes timer control =BA=00 $% load! selectable

3able * Speci)ications o) the S>!"/'>< SP3(series MPP3 solar charge controller


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click to enlarge

How to choose MPP3 solar charge controller )or PV module and battery Steps to consider )or choosing MPP3 solar charge controller

" SP3(@@==@@is nominal battery voltage,==is maximum charge current!" 0ind out what is nominal battery voltage that charge controller will charge and select @@" 0ind out what is )p of PV module and

" Select the suitable charge current ''! < )p! A @@" 0ind out==by multiply '' by safety factor BI% re4uirement! < ''! x +.2" Select S>!"/'>< SP3(seriesmodel that covers==

" %heck that Vpm6system7is in range that SP3(@@==can handle *PPT voltage range!" 3f PV modules are in series, need to check that Vpm6system7A Vpm6module7x *odule in series" 3f PV modules are in parallel, need to check that Vpm6system7A Vpm6module7

" %heck that Voc6system7is not more than SP3(@@==range *aximum open circuit voltage!

" 3f PV modules are in series, need to check that Voc6system7< Voc6module7x *odule in series " 3f PV modules are in parallel, need to check that Voc6system7< Voc6module70#amples o) MPP3 solar charge controller selection and calculation

0#ample %1 )hen ;ane+a P" PV modules are used for a +29 )p solar home system0#ample *1 )hen SH"/P


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"dvantage o) Solar Power

The increasing demand of electricity, the high price of oil and the growing concerns for our environment are some ofseveral factors that forcing us to enhance the uses of alternative energy sources. &mong a variety of renewable energysources, solar energy is a sustainable alternative option that can be utili-ed in various ways and can be used for manyapplications.

Solar poweris produced by collecting sunlight and converting into electricity, heat and lighting. This is done by usingsolar panels to convert sunlight into electricity, and using solar thermal collectors to absorb solar energy for heatingwater.

"dvantages o) solar power

" The energy and heat from the sun is free and unlimited." Solar power is non'polluting. Solar power usage does not emit any greenhouse gases or harmful waste." Solar power is perfect and saving for power generation in remote areas or where the cost of expansion utility grid is

high." Solar power is versatile. 3t can be used for low'power purpose as well as larger ones ' from hand'held calculators,

watches, and solar powered garden lights to water heaters, cars, buildings and satellites.

" Solar power system re4uires very little maintenance and last for many years.

"pplications o) solar energy

" DaylightingThe oldest solar application is daylighting. $aylighting system collects and distributes sunlight to provide effectiveinternal illumination inside buildings. $aylighting design implies careful selection of window types, si-es andorientation may be considered as well. There are also other architectural features such as light shelves and evenactive sun tracking system which combine with fiber optics or mirrors to provide light to interior of large buildings.


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" Solar 3hermalSolar thermal technologiescan be used for water heating in homes or commercial and space heating or spacecooling for buildings. Solar water heating systems use different type of collectors to gather and store the solarenergyfor heating water used in residential, commercial and industrial applications. 0or space heating and coolingin warm temperature region, the thermal mass materials is needed to keep building cool by absorbing solar energyduring a day and radiate stored heat to cooler atmosphere at night. However they can be used in cold temperatureareas to maintain warmth as well.

" Solar 0lectric Power enerationSolar energycan be directly converted to electricity by photovoltaic cells. Solar photovoltaic PV! systems provideelectricity to home or business for lighting, TV, fan, computer, stereo, refrigerator, water pump or livestock feeders,without connection to utility grid. They are also used to power watches, calculators and sign lights.


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Enderstanding 0lectricity

)hat is IlectricityJ

%urrent, Voltage and 5esistance

How to measure %urrent, Voltage and 5esistance

How Ilectricity worksJ

What is 0lectricity?

&ny appliances that we use in our daily lives such ashousehold appliances, office e4uipments andindustrial e4uipments, almost all of those things takeelectricity. Therefore, we should understandelectricity.

The first 4uestion that we will find out the answer isEwhere does electricity come )rom?E

&ll matters are made up of atoms. Then ask the next 4uestion, EWhat are atoms?E&toms are the smallest part of an element. They are composed of nucleus and electrons, electrons surround nucleus.

Ilements are identified by the number of electrons in orbit around nucleus of atoms and by the number of protons innucleus.

Bucleus is made up of protons and neutrons, and the number of protons and neutrons are balanced. Beutrons have noelectric charge, protons have positive charges ?! and electrons have negative charges '!. & positive charge of protone4uals a negative charge of electron.

Ilectrons are bound in their orbit by attraction of protons, but electrons in the outer band can become free of their orbit bysome external forces. These are referred to as free electrons, which move from one atom to the next, electron flows areproduced. These are the basis of electricity. *aterials that allow many electrons to move freely are called conductorsandmaterials that allow few free electrons to move are called insulators.

&ll matters are made up of atoms that have electric charges. Therefore, they have electric charges. 0or the matter thathas a balanced the number of protons and electrons, positive charge force and negative charge force are balanced. 3t iscalled neutral state of an atom. The number of protons and electrons remains e4ual.!
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EStatic electricityE represents a situation that all things are madeup of electric charges. 0or example, the rubbing of materialagainst another can cause the static electricity. 0ree electrons ofone material move forcefully till they are freed of their orbitsaround nucleus and move to another. Ilectrons of one materialdecrease, it presents positive charges. &t the same time,electrons of another increase, it has negative charges.

3n general, charge producing of the matter means the matter haselectric charges. 3t has positive and negative charges, which isexpressed in coulomb.

'urrent: Voltage and /esistance

What is 'urrent?&n electrical phenomenon iscaused by flow of freeelectrons from one atom toanother. The characteristicsof current electricityareopposite to those of staticelectricity.

)ires are made up ofconductors such as copperor aluminum. &toms of metalare made up of freeelectrons, which freely move

from one atom to the next. 3fan electron is added in wire,a free electron is attracted toa proton to be neutral.0orcing electrons out of theirorbits can cause a lack ofelectrons. Ilectrons, whichcontinuously move in wire,are called0lectric 'urrent.


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8or solid conductors, electric current refersto directional negative'to'positive electronsfrom one atom to the next. Ni4uid conductorsand gas conductors, electric current refers toelectrons and protons flow in the oppositedirection.

%urrent is flow of electrons, but current andelectron flow in the opposite direction.%urrent flows from positive to negative andelectron flows from negative to positive.

%urrent is determined by the number of electrons passing through a cross'sectionof a conductor in one second. %urrent is measured in amperes, which isabbreviated EampsE. The symbol for amps is a letter E"E.

& current of one amp means that current pass through a cross'section of twoconductors, which are placed in parallel + meter apart with 2x+7'>Bewton permeter force occur in each conductor. 3t can also mean charges of one coulomb or:.21x+7+9electrons! passing through a cross'section of a conductor in one second.

What is voltage?Ilectric current is flow of electrons ina conductor. The force re4uired tomake current flow through aconductor iscalledvoltageand potentialis theother term of voltage. 0or example,the first element has more positivecharges, so it has higher potential.=n the other hand, the secondelement has charges that are morenegative so it has lower potential.The difference between two points iscalled potential di))erence.

0lectromotive )orcemeans theforce which makes currentcontinuously flows through aconductor. This force can begenerated from power generator,battery, flashlight battery and fuelcell, etc.

Volt, abbreviated EVE, is the unit ofmeasurement used interchangeablyfor voltage, potential, andelectromotive force. =ne volt meansa force which makes current of oneamp move through a resistance ofone ohm.

What is resistance?Ilectrons move through a conductor when electric current flows. &ll materialsimpede flow of electric current to some extent. This characteristic iscalled resistance. 5esistance increases with an increase of length or decrease ofcross'section of a material.

The unit of measurement for resistance is ohmsand its symbol is the Oreek letteromega F!. The resistance of one ohm means a conductor allows a current of one


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amp to flow with a voltage of one volt.

&ll materials are difference in allowing electrons flow. *aterials that allow many electrons to flow freely arecalled conductorssuch as copper, silver, aluminium, hydrochloric solution, sulphuric acid and saltwater. 3n contrast,materials which allow few electrons to flow are called insulatorssuch as plastic, rubber, glass and dry paper. &nothertype of materials,semiconductorshave characteristics of both conductors and insulators. They allow electrons to move

while being able to control flow of electrons and examples are carbon, silicon and germanium, etc.

The resistance of conductor depends on two main factors as the followings(

+. Types of material 2. Temperature of material

How to measure current

The instrument used to measure current is called ampere meteror ammeter." Steps for current measurement %onnect a small light bulb to a dry cell. *easure

current that passes through light bulb by connecting positive terminal ?! of ammeterto negative terminal '! of a dry cell see figure!

" Safety instructions for current measurementG

+. Istimate current that re4uired measuring then choose a suitable ammeter, sinceeach ammeter has different limit of current measurement.

2. ;e sure that the connection to positive terminal ?! and negative terminal '! ofammeter are correct.

. $o not directly connect ammeter terminals to dry cell terminals. Since it candamage the meter.

How to measure voltageThe instrument used to measure voltage, difference potential or electromotive force is called voltmeter.

" Steps for voltage measurement%onnect a small light bulb to a dry cell. & voltmeter is wired in parallel with the lightbulb to measure voltage across the light bulb. %onnect positive terminal ?! ofvoltmeter to positive terminal ?! of a dry cell and connect negative terminal '! of

voltmeter to negative terminal '! of a dry cell see figure!." Safety instructions for measuring voltageG

+. Istimate voltage that re4uired measuring then choosea suitable voltmeter, since each voltmeter is designed withthe limit of voltage measurement.

2. ;e sure that the connecting of positive terminal ?! and negative terminal '! ofvoltmeter are correct.

How to measure resistanceThe instrument used to measure resistance is called test meteror multimeter. The multimeter or test meter is used tomake various electrical measurements such as current, voltage and resistance. 3t combines the functions of ammeter,

voltmeter and ohmmeter.

" Steps for resistance measurementTurn the face dial to a position for re4uired measuring, resistance, then

touch both of terminals of multimeter see figure +! and adjust the meterrange to 7 . Touch both of terminals of meter to a resistance and take thereading see figure 2!.


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How 0lectricity wor+s?

Ilectric current is the ability to do work. Ilectric current can be converted to heat, power and magnetism, to name a few.

Ilectric current is classified by its functions and three primary types are(

+. Heat and power2. Ilectrochemistry. *agnetism

+. Heat and poweris used to make heat and power.

0or example, current'carrying nichrom wire that nichrom wire has a high resistance and creates heat. This is appliedto be component of electric ovens, toasters, electric irons and light bulbs, etc.

Ixperiment is made by measuring heat 4uantity of water by calorimeter. 3ncrease voltage across wire by the variacand connect ammeter and voltmeter to measure current and voltage.Set the variac scale to adjust voltage and current value of nichrom wire and current is passed through periodicallyand measure heat 4uantity from nichrom wire. There are any indications of voltage and current. 3f voltage, current andtime increase, heat 4uantity will also increase. They are expressed by the relation as below.

This is called ouleGs law. Heat 4uantity depends on voltage time current and interval of time. 0rom =hmFs law, VVoltage! < 3 %urrent! x 5 5esistance! therefore

Heat 4uantity depends on current s4uared times resistance and interval of time.

)hen current is passed through nichrom wire in water, current is converted to heat and temperature rises. )ork isdone by heat generated in an electrical circuit, which is called 0lectric power.

Ilectric power is measured in )atts'hour )h! and heat 4uantity is measured in calories %al!.


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)ork is done by heat generated in an electrical circuit is written in power, which it means that the rate work is done in

a circuit when + &mp flows with + Volt applied and its unit of measurement is )att.

'onclusion

2. 0lectrochemistry

0or example, when current is passed through sodium chloride Ba%l! solution, a chemical reaction called electrolysisoccurs. This is applied to produce electrolysis, galvani-ing and battery, etc.

Ixperiment is made by soaking two platinum Pt! plates inmolten salt. %onnect batteries to two platinum plates,current is passed through molten salt and produceschlorine bubbles around positive plate ?! and hydrogenbubbles around negative plate '! since sodium chloridecomposes of sodium Ba! and chloride %l!. )hen sodium

chloride melts in water, the elements are separated.Sodium has positive charges ?!, while chlorine hasnegative charges '! and these charges are called ions.The molten salt has both positive charges, called anodes,and negative charges called cathodes. The state ofseparated elements is called ioni$ation. 3f salt is meltedby water, solution is available ions, called electrolytesolution. &nd if current is passed through electrolytesolution, a chemical reaction known as electrolysis occurs.

. Magnetism

The example of this electric work is a current'carrying wire, magnetic lines of flux occur. This is applied to produceelectric motors, electric transformers and tape recorders, etc.

Enderstanding meaning o) magnetism1What is magnetism?

The compound formula of magnet is 0e=1. &ll magnets have two characteristics.0irst, they attract and hold iron. Secondary, if free to move like the compass needle,they will assume a north'south position. &ny materials have these characteristics, theyare calledmagnet.

The characteristics of magnet are


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" Ivery magnet has two poles, one north pole and one south pole." =pposite poles attract each other, while like poles repel each other.

0lectricity and magnetic )ield)hen magnetic needle is placed near electric wire, which currentis passed through, magnetic needle turns on the direction ofcurrent flow see figure + and 2!. Therefore, electric current flowalso produces an associated magnetic force or it is said thatelectricity is able to produce magnetic field.

)hen magnetic needle is placed in wire coil with one loop seefigure! and current is passed through wire coil, magnetic needleturns on the direction as shown in above figure. &nd the directionsof magnetic lines of flux are shown by the arrows.

)hen magnetic needle is placed in wire coil with many loops asshown in right figure, then current is passed through coil. Thedirection of magnetic lines of flux parallels wire coil. Thecharacteristics of magnetic lines of flux like the characteristics ofmagnet, but no magnetic pole.

)hen a current'carrying wire coil is placed near iron bar, the iron

bar move slightly see figure +!. 3f core is placed in a wire coil, theiron bar is attracted strongly see figure 2!. ;ecause core is a softiron, which conducts magnetic lines of force, when current ispassed through wire coil around core, the core becomesmagneti-ed with high power that is called electromagnets. Thisfunction is widely applied for using in industries.


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asics o) 'urrent

%urrent is classified into two types(

" $irect %urrent $%!( $% is unidirectional flow of electric charge thatmeans its direction remains constant.

Ixamples of $% power source are battery and solar cell, etc.

$irect %urrent or $% is suitable for using with $% appliances not toreverse polarity.

" &lternative %urrent &%!( &% is an electric current which directionreverses cyclically. The usual waveform of &% power is sine wavewith fre4uency 67 or :7 H-.

Ixamples of &% power sources are utility power supplies toresidences and businesses, audio and radio signals, etc.

0lectrical power consumptionIlectrical power consumed by $% electrical appliances can be determined by voltage that they work on and current thatthey consumed.

D' power consumption A Voltage 6Volts7 @ !oad 'urrent 6"mps7 A Watts

Ilectrical power consumed by &% electrical appliances is more complicated than $% electrical appliances because thedirection of current is changed periodically then the value of voltage and current should be measured in term of 5*S5oot *ean S4uare! to eliminate changing of current direction.

&% electrical appliances or &% loads are classified into two types as the followingsG

" !inear loadis electrical load consuming &% power both real power and apparent power with a power factor of +.Ixample of linear load is incandescent lamp.

"


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of linear load and non'linear load with same input voltage at same power rating of load.

%urrent characteristic ofincandescent lamp,

which power factor < +

%urrent characteristic ofa set of P%,

which power factor < 7.62

What are Watt and V"?Watt is unit of power. 3ts measures a rate of energy use or production and its symbol is W.V"or volt'ampere is unit of electrical power consumed by non'linear load. 3t measures apparent power.

0#ample" 'omputeris consumed power as a non'linear load then V& should be the measuring unit that indicates powerconsumed by P%." EPSis used to supply power to P% once the utility power is failed then a QPS should be declared its power in V& aswell.

" "' power 6Watt7 measuringTo measure real &% power of electrical appliances, the measuring e4uipment called EPower meterE is re4uested. Thise4uipment will measure voltage and current at the same time and make calculation to get power in E)attE.The following figures show measuring of a P% with +>E monitor power consumption by using power meter.

" "' apparent power 6V"7 calculating)e can measure the power of the same set of a P% with +>E monitor by measuring voltage 5*S! and current 5*S!after calculation power by multiply working voltage with consumed current.

"' apparent power A Voltage 6/MS7 @ !oad 'urrent 6/MS7 A V"< 22@. R +.+7 < 262.2 V&

" 3he relation o) "' power and "' apparent power


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"' power)atts!

< &% apparent power R Power factor< V&! R Power factor

Power )actor 6p)7of an &% electrical power system is defined as ratio of real power to the apparent power and is anumber between 7 and +.

Power factor of linear load e4uals one


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M>V 6Metal >#ide Varistor7composes of -inc oxide material, which is semiconductor with a variable resistance.

3n normal condition, M>Vpresents itself as a high impedance device but when voltage is too high, the resistanceofM>Vdrops rapidly to provide a low impedance path of flow. M>Vshave finite life expectancy and degrade whenexposed to a few large transients, or many smaller transients. M>Vis the most common component in &% surgeprotector.

as Discharge 3ube 6D37can divert the excess current from line to ground by using inert gas as conductor from

hot line to ground line. 3n normal condition, the inert gas acts as poor conductor, but when voltage is above the

acceptable level, the inert gas is ioni-ed to be effective conductor to pass on current to ground until voltage returnsto normal level. D3will conduct at a voltage less than the high voltage that ioni-ed the gas and able to conductmore current for their si-e than other components. D3has a finite life expectancy, and can take a few verylargetransientsor a greater number of smaller transients.

Silicon "valanche Diode 6S"D7provides the perfect limiting action of protective component, but has a lower

current capability. )hen voltage increases above the limit level, S"Dwill tolerate avalanche breakdown resultingvoltage is conducted to ground.

>ther important components, such as resistors, capacitors andAor inductors, are used in conjunction with these

protector components above.

Why do you need surge protector?Bowadays a lot of electronic components in modern electrical devices are much smaller, delicate and more sensitive tocurrent increases. *icroprocessor which is an integral part of all computers and many modern electrical e4uipments, are

particularly sensitive to surge. our electrical e4uipments can be exposed to damaging surgesfrom &% power line andtelephone or signal lines.Surge protectoris suitable to use in every applications that connect to electricity the utility power supplies or the locallygenerated!, telephone lines such as modem, fax, data, etc.!, computer data lines and communication lines, etc. as follows(

%omputers and peripherals such as printer, monitor, speaker, fax machine and modem, etc.

P&;R and communication e4uipments, etc.

Intertainment components

*edical e4uipments, surgical e4uipments and scientific e4uipments, etc.

)eighting bridges and measuring e4uipments, etc.

Ilectrical e4uipments

Security systems

Surge protector locationSurge Protectoris typically applied at several points throughout a facility. &BS3A3III %:2.1+'+@@+ standards define threecategories of surgelevel, based on strategic location within a facilities wiring network, where power problem may beencountered. They classify the surge protectortype, the potential impact of transient surgeor spi+es, and location asfollows(

'ategory "1 $efined as any outlets and long branch circuits extending more than +7 meters 7 ft.! from category

; location or 27 meters :7 ft.! from category %. Surge protector for this location category is applied at the outletsor individual circuit level for individual protection of a specific piece of e4uipment such as computers, weightingbridges, measuring e4uipments, process control e4uipments and $% power supplies, etc.

'ategory ( $efined as all major sub'feeders, bus systems, and short branch circuits such as distribution panels,industrial busses and feeder systems, heavy appliance circuits, lighting systems in large building. The protection atthis location is very effective in suppressing the much more fre4uent internally generated transients, ever'changingtransientconditions, especially, sensitive e4uipments and e4uipments which are fed from thesubstations.

'ategory '( $efined as outside and main service entrance which includes main supply lines, transformer, service

connections, and feeder line to main service entrance panels, any overhead or sub'feeders lines, undergroundlines to well pump. This surge protector type is applied to protect against externally caused power disruptions.This installation will help guard against lightning stri+eentering a facility via the power line.


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These three categories &, ; and % determine which surge protectoror 3VSS should be used at which location.


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Surge protectoror3VSS3ransient voltage surge suppressor! is the e4uipment designed to protect your electricale4uipments loads! and &% electrical circuits from power surgeor voltage spike. Surge protectordiverts the excess

voltage and current into grounding wire.

our electrical e4uipments can be exposed to damaging surgesfrom &% power line and telephone or signal lines. Surgeprotectorhelps to protect e4uipments from lightning surges, switching surgesand voltage spikes. *any factorsinfluence the selection of the right surge protectoras follows(

Surge protector location

&BS3A3III %:2.1+'+@@+ standards provide the location categories for the correct selection of surge protector. 3t definesthree categories of surgelevel, based on strategic location within a facilities wiring network, where power problem may beencountered.

'ategory "

=utlet and long branch circuit panels &ll outlets at more than +7 metres 7 feets! from category ; location. &ll outlets at more than 27 metres :7 feets! from category % location.

'ategory

0eeders and short branch circuits. $istribution panel devices. ;us and feeder industrial plants. Heavy appliance outlets with short/ connections to service entrance. Nighting systems in large building.

'ategory ' =utside and service entrance. Service drop from pole to building

5un between meter and panel. =verhead line to detached building Qnderground line to well pump. Ixposed or critically important sites.

These three categoriesG &, ; and %, determine that what level of surge protectioneach location need as shown in thefigure below.
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'lamping voltage

'lamping voltageis the voltage at which a surgebegins to work by conducting electricity to the ground line. &lowerclamping voltageindicates better protection, but a shorter life expectancy. 'lamping voltageis also often calledNet'through voltage/, but the two are not actually the same thing. The let'through voltage is the voltage that is allowed topass on to your e4uipments by the surge protector.

0nergy absorption9dissipation 6oule rating7

oule ratingindicates the amount of energy that surge protectorcan absorb without failure. & higherjouleratingindicates the better protection because surge protectorwill divert more energy elsewhere and absorb less energyresulting in a lower voltage spike.

/esponse time

This rating indicates how fast a surge protectorcan react. The longer response time tells you that the connectede4uipments will be exposed to surge for a greater amount of time. %hoose a surge protectorthat responds in


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nanosecond.

Indicator lights

Surge protectorwith indicator lights let you know the surge protectoris functioning properly whether or not.

Surge protector connectivity

%hoosing a surge protectordepends on what sort of e4uipment you are connecting to power supply. Some surgeprotectorscan protect your e4uipments fromsurgedamage on wall outlets connection and from telephone or signallines connection, too. Some surge protectorscan protect only surgedamage on signal lines connection.

Surge protection on all electrical wires( *ake sure that surge protection is on all electrical wires. Surge

protectorshould indicate protection for Nine to Beutral N'B!, Nine to Oround N'O! and Beutral to Oround B'O!

Telephone line protection( Nook for a surge protectorwith telephone jack for protecting telephone, computer,

fax and modem from power surge on telephone lines.

%oaxial line protection( Nook for a surge protectorwith coaxial jack for protecting TV or V%5 from power surge

on coaxial lines.

Proper grounding imperative

)ithout proper grounding, surge protectorLs ability to protect against power surgewill be diminished.


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0nergy 'onservation SystemsU)hat are the components of solar PV systemJUHow much does a PV system costJUHow much electricity does a PV system generateJUHow much maintenance does a PV system re4uireJU)hat type of battery should 3 use in solar PV systemJU)hat kind of load can 3 run on PV systemJUHow long do solar photovoltaic PV! systems lastJU)hat is the payback for solar PV systemJUHow big a solar PV system do 3 needJU)hat is the difference between solar thermal and solar electricJU)hat is solar thermal or solar water heating systemJUHow do solar water heating system workJUHow long do solar thermal panels lastJU)hat is the average payback for a solar thermal systemJU%an business benefit from a solar thermal systemJ

0nergy 'onservation SystemsWhat are the components o) solar PV system?Solar PV systemincludes different components that should be selected according to your system type, site location andapplications. The major components for solar PV system arePV modules,solar charge controller, inverterfor utility gridconnected system and when alternating current &%! rather than direct current $%! is re4uired, battery bank, auxiliaryenergy sources and loads appliances!. 3n addition, an assortment of balance of system ;=S! hardware, including wiring,mounting systems, protection and disconnect devices and other power processing e4uipment.

How much does a PV system cost?The total cost for purchasing and installing asolar PV systemdepends on your application, si-e of system you re4uire andyour e4uipment options. 5esidential and commercial PV systems are different cost. These are variables affecting systemcost.

" Site orientation" %limate and other geographical factors" Site preparation needs e.g. tree or other shading at installation site, condition of roof or ground, etc.!" Shipping costs for e4uipments and parts

" %ontractor and professional services cost" =ptional energy usage, management or monitoring services

How much electricity does a PV system generate?The amount of power produced will depend on how large the PV system is. The greater area of PV panels, the moreelectricity is generated. 0or example, a +.6 k) grid tied system produces about 2,+@7 k)h a year. =ver 26 year lifespan,this comes out to be 61,>67 k)h.

How much maintenance does a PV system reuire?Stand'alone systems need maintenance on other system components such as batteries. 3f you have a flooded lead acidbattery, you should check the distilled water levels once a month. 3f you have a sealed lead acid battery, it will never needmaintenance.Orid tie systems re4uire very little maintenance, generally limited to ensuring that the solar panels are keptrelatively clean and that shade from trees has not become a problem. The wiring and other components should be checkedregularly by a 4ualified technician.

What type o) battery should I use in solar PV system?The battery type recommended for using insolar PV systemis deep cycle battery. $eep cycle battery is specificallydesigned for a deep discharge and rapid recharge or cycle day after day for years. )hile the car battery is designed toprovide high starting current for short periods of time and is not appropriate for solar PV system.The next decision is whether the battery is flooded or sealed.

" 0looded lead acid battery, also called wet cells, is commonly used in renewable energy systems, and re4uires periodicmaintenance consisting mainly of adding distilled water to the cells. 0looded batteries are often the least expensive typeof deep'cycle battery and can last longest. They are an excellent choice for systems which re4uire a lot of energystorage.

" Sealed lead acid battery includes Oell cell and &bsorbed Olass *at &O*! battery that are sealed and do not re4uire the
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addition of distilled water. The advantages of sealed batteries are that they can be placed in any orientation, easy totransport and better performing in very cold temperatures or in very deep'discharge applications. 3n a remote area whereregular maintenance is not possible, sealed battery will be a better option.

What +ind o) load can I run on PV system?)ith a correctly designed PV system you can power almost any electrical load. However, as the load si-e increases theexpense also increases. &ir conditioning and electric heating e4uipments hot water heaters, electric stoves! should be

avoided. ;ecause of these loads use large amount of electricity. Propane or natural gas is a popular alternative to electricitycooking which is less expensive than solar energy.

How long do solar photovoltaic 6PV7 systems last?& well'designed, installed and maintainedsolar PV system will operate for more than 27 years. The PV module, with nomoving parts, can last 26'7 years. The best way to ensure and extend the life and effectiveness of your PV system is byhaving it installed and maintained properly.The most common cause of system problems is the poor installation and failure of electronic parts include in the ;alance ofSystem ;=S! ' the charge controller, inverter and protection components. 3n many PV systems, the batteries aredischarged and recharged slowly, maybe over a period of days or weeks. ;atteries will fail 4uickly under these conditions.;e sure the batteries specified for your system are appropriate for the application.

What is the paybac+ )or solar PV system?Solar photovoltaic systemcan pay for themselves between >'+1 years. *uch depends on the overall cost of the system,which is the type and si-e of the installation.

How big a solar PV system do I need?The si-e of a solar PV system depends on the amount of power that is re4uired watts!, the amount of time it is usedhours!, the amount of solar energy available where you are, and how much youFre willing to invest. To get an idea of solarPV system si-ing, see How to $esign Solar PV System or you can contact our system engineer to determine what type ofsystem would suit you needs.

What is the di))erence between solar thermal and solar electric?These are two most economical, technically advanced and easy to use. Solar thermal is an old technology but has efficiencyof >78'978 where as PV or solar electric has efficiency in the range of +1'+98. Solar thermal is the best way to own asystem and appreciate the benefits of a solar energy system because it is cheaper than a PV system.

What is solar thermal or solar water heating system?Solar thermal or solar water heating systemis one of most cost'effective renewable energy systems.Solar thermalsystemsare designed to collect or absorb solar energy for heating water used in residential, commercial and industrialapplications. Solar thermal systems use different type of collector to gather and store the solar energy. The systems canreduce the amount of electricity, gas or fuel re4uired to heat water.

How do solar water heating systems wor+?Solar water heating systemswork very similar to solar electric systems, except they do not produce electricity. Solar waterheating systems include solar collectors and storage tanks. The solar collectors collect solar energy and transfer heat to thestorage tank via heat exchanger. The storage tank in hot water system is like the batteries in a solar electric system, storingenergy to provide hot water for your home and business.

How long do solar thermal systems last?& well'designed and installed solar thermal system may last +6 years or more.

What is the average paybac+ )or a solar thermal system?Solar thermal systemscan save the home owner or business amount of money and can reduce the amount of electricity,

gas or fuel re4uired to heat water. &t current energy prices, these systems can pay for themselves in 1': years dependingon the application.

'an business bene)it )rom a solar thermal system?;usinesses that use large 4uantities of hot water or use hot water to supplement a convention heating system can costsaving by using solar.Solar thermal system can reduce the amount of electricity, gas or fuel re4uired to heat water.Hospitals, hotels, resorts, apartment buildings and restaurants are examples of some of most satisfied customers. ou willalso be directly reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
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0nergy 'onservation ProductsU)hat is the difference between PV panel, PV module and PV arrayJU)hat is the energy payback of PVJUHow long do PV panels lastJU)ill PVLs efficiency reduce in warm temperatureJU)hy do 3 need a solar charge controllerJU)hat is 'step chargingJUHow does overcharging damage the batteryJ

U)hat type of inverter do 3 needJU)hat is grid tie or grid connected inverterJUHow Nighting Inergy Saver can help you save the moneyJU)hat kind of lamp that NIS is applicable toJ How much it can saveJ

0nergy 'onservation ProductsWhat is the di))erence between PV panel: PV module and PV array?

" PV module or solar module is a smallest complete environmentally protected assembly of interconnected solar cells." PV panel is a group of modules fastened together, pre'assembled and wired, designed to serve as an installable unit in

an array." PV arrayis a mechanically integrated assembly of modules or panels and its support structure. &n array does not include

its foundation, tracking apparatus, thermal control, and other such components.

What is the energy paybac+ o) PV?Inergy payback estimates for both rooftop and ground'mounted PV systems are roughly the same depending on thetechnology and type of framing used. Paybacks formulti'crystalline modules are 2 ' 1 years. 0oramorphous modules,paybacks are + ' years.

How long do PV panels last?3n photovoltaic electrification, the interaction of sunlight with certain semiconductor materials makes the electrons free andbecomes electricity. There is no moving parts, therefore, no vibration in photovoltaic. The lifetime of photovoltaic will typicallylast for 27'26 years.

Will PVJs e))iciency reduce in warm temperature?es, a PV works better and more efficient at cooler temperature. ;ecause of its efficiency is varied by temperature. PVgenerates less energy in winter than summer because of the shorter daytime, lower sun angles and greater cloud cover.

Why do I need a solar charge controller?& solar charge controlleris an essential part of anyPV systemscontaining batteries. 3t regulates the voltage and currentcoming from the solar panels going to the batteries. & charge controller prevents batteries from being overcharged, preventsbatteries from discharging through the solar panel at night, helps you maximi-e your energy harvesting and prolongs thebattery life.

What is ,(step charging?The 'step charging provides optimal and safe battery charging to ensure that battery is properly and fully charged resultingin enhanced battery performance.Solar charge controllerregulates the voltage and current delivered to battery in threeautomatic steps(

" ul+ 'harge( ;attery is being charged up with maximum current, the voltage of the battery increases gradually. )henthe battery voltage reaches the ;oost charging voltage the charge controller goes to next step.

" oost 'harge( ;attery continues to be charged at constant voltage. The charging voltage is held constant at ;oost

charging voltage providing the battery to nearly full charge at a slow and safe rate, then goes to next step." 8loat 'harge( Voltage is reduced and held constant at 0loat charging voltage level in order to prevent damage and keep

battery at a full charge until the end of day.

How does overcharging damage the battery?)hen the battery reaches full charge, it can no longer store incoming energy. 3f energy continues to be applied at the fullrate, the battery voltage gets too high. )ater separates into hydrogen and oxygen and bubbles out rapidly. There isexcessive of water and a chance that gasses can ignite and cause a small explosion. The battery will also degrade rapidlyand may possibly overheat. Ixcessive voltage can also stress your loads or cause your inverter to shut off.
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What type o) inverter do I need?3nvertersare used in any solar PV systems where &% power output is needed. The type and si-e of inverter necessarydepends on your application. There are two entirely different types of inverter that based on whether or not utility grid isavailable at your location # stand'alone off'grid! inverter andgrid tie on'grid! inverter.The stand'alone inverters are common used for homes or business applications. 3t covers a wide range of power capacity.To determine this you must first calculate the maximum amount of load you will be running on the inverter at one time. Theother is the type of wave form. Sine wave inverter is good for the sensitive electronic e4uipments. 3t generally producespower that is similar to the 4uality of utility power. *odified sine wave inverter is fine for loads that are not supersensitive to

clean power. 3t is good choice for smaller si-ed PV system.

What is grid tie or grid connected inverter?Orid tie inverter or grid connected inverteris used insolar PV systemthat is connected to the utility grid. 3t converts $%power generated by solar panels or wind generator into &% power used by &% electrical devices and the surplus power willsell back to the grid. The grid tie inverter can use withAwithout battery bank. 0or the grid'tie without battery backup is thesimplest and least expensive option for home energy systems. The grid tie inverter also can be configured with a batterybackup system. There will be some loss in overall efficiency for feeding the grid which depends on the inverter and the si-eand type of batteries.

How !ighting 0nergy Saver can help you save the money?Nighting Inergy Saver reduces electricity supplied to your lighting system and provides high energy efficiency energy saving.our lamps will prolong life and generate less heat resulting in less air conditioning bills.

What +ind o) lamp that !ighting 0nergy Saver is applicable to? How much it can save? Nighting Inergy Saver is applicable to fluorescent lamps and gas'discharged lamps, such as high'pressure sodium lamps,low'pressure sodium lamps, metal halide lamps, etc. The rate of energy saving of each lamp type shows below." High'pressure sodium lamp # save 168 ' 678" Now'pressure sodium lamp # save 68" *etal halide lamp # save 178" 0luorescent lamp with choke ballast # save 268 ' 78" 0luorescent lamp with electronic ballast # save 78 ' 178" %ompact fluorescent lamp # save 78 ' 178

!eonics Support
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U 0&

U Inergy %onservationProducts

U Inergy %onservationSystems

U Inergy %onservation Ouide

U How to $esign Solar PVSystem

U ;asics of Solar %ell

U ;asics of *PPT Solar%harge %ontroller

U &dvantages of SolarPower

U Power uality Ouide

U Qnderstanding Ilectricity

U ;asics of %urrent

U ;asics of Surge Protector

U %hoosing a SurgeProtector

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Solar Photovoltaic System or Solar Power Systemis a system which uses PV modulesto convert sunlight intoelectricity. The electricity generated can be either stored or used directly, fed back into grid line or combined with one ormore other electricity generators or more renewable energysource. Solar PV systemsare very reliable and clean source

of electricity that can suit a wide range of applications such as residence, industry, agriculture, livestock, etc.

Solar Island Hybrid Power System or Hybrid Solar System combines PV systems with diesel generator or

otherrenewable energy supplye.g. wind turbine to supply continuous electric power. The Hybrid systemissuitable for the remote areas or islands where the cost of expansion utility grid is high.

Solar 8armalso known asPV power )arm: IPV and /oo) top PV systemis typically called for the large scale

centrali-ed PV grid tie system that can produce large scale of electricity from sun and sell electricity back to theutility grid, simulated by government incentives different campaign in each country!.

Stand(alone Solar Power Systemoperates independent of the electric utility grid and most often use in remote

areas where the utility grid is not available. Stand'alone system is used to power remote home, school or village.

Solar rid 3ie System or rid connected Systemis connected to utility grid and feeds power back into the grid.

Orid tie system varies in si-e from residential to solar power stations.

Solar Home Systemis a stand'alone system, suitable for residential applications such as home appliances,

lighting, computer and water pump. Solar home systemis generally designed and si-ed to supply $% andAor &%electrical appliances.
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ASK THE EXPERTS: Voltage DropShare

0mailPrint

;y(

ustine Sanche$

Published In13ssue W+6, 0ebruary A *arch 27+

Inside this Article

/esistance 3able )or Stranded Encoated 'opper Wire

Voltage drop is a function of voltage regardless of $% or &%!, amperage, distance, and the resistance of

the wire.

Is there a di))erent voltage drop calculation )or direct current 6D'7 as opposed to alternating

current 6"'7? I have a project that will ta+e my solar(electric module string wires about ,22 to -22

)eet: carrying 4 amps at -C2 volts D'& What si$e o) wire do you recommend: and how do I

calculate that?

/ance Macdonald K Denver: 'olorado

There is not a different calculation for &% versus $% voltage drop. Voltage drop is a function of voltage

regardless of $% or &%!, amperage, distance, and the resistance of the wire.

This e4uation calculates voltage drop by percentage(
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how to design solar pv system

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