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How to protect your home against ember attack

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EMBER ATTACK PROTECTION + A Blue Mountain Mesh Information Guide + + 2013

SAFEGUARDING HOMES AGAINST BUSHFIRE

Extreme weather and dangerous fire conditions across southern Australia each summer serve a painful reminder of our ongoing need to safeguard our homes against bushfire. As more and more Australians build homes adjacent to bushland areas each year, the number of people affected by the danger grows.

The reality check for thousands of Australians living along regional and urban fringes are the statistics that show the high number of homes destroyed by ember attack. This is where houses ignite and burn due to wind borne embers as opposed to direct flame contact by the bushfire front. Ember attack is in fact the main cause of house fire during a bushfire.

This issue was highlighted after the devastating Victorian bushfires in 2009, which prompted new building regulations for homes built or renovated in bushfire-prone areas (AS3959-2009). The regulations were amended again in 2011 after the Victorian Bushfire Commission decided that homes built in bushfire prone areas needed to further increase their ability to resist ember attack.

This paper will look at:

+ Why ember attack is a serious issue for home owners in bushfire-prone areas.

+ What you need to do to comply with the Australian Standard for building in bushfire-prone areas.

+ How Blue Mountain Mesh meets all the Standards and offers the highest level of protection against ember attack.

Photo : BERT KNOTTENBELD, May 2007

+ Australia is considered

the most bushfire prone

country in the world.

+ Ember attack (not direct

contact with the bushfire

front) is the main cause of

house fire during bushfire.

+ Houses in regional and

urban fringe towns and

cities; in and around

bushfire-prone areas are

susceptible to ember

attack.

+ Building standards have

changed in 2011 to help

increase homes’ ability to

resist ember attack.

+ Having gutters that are

clear of leaves and debris

is an important precaution

to safeguard your home

against the spread of fire.

+ Choosing an ember guard

that meets the Standards

and can also act as a gutter

guard offers the best

protection against ember

attack.



The areas facing the most severe bushfires are usually in the south-eastern corner of Australia, south of a line from Sydney to Adelaide, where hot, dry, strong winds are most common. This area has the tallest forests and heavy fuel loads which produce some of the most intense and devastating fires. Large parts of Victoria, the ACT, South Australia (Adelaide Hills), Tasmania, WA (Perth Hills) and NSW (Blue Mountains, Southern Highlands, Gosford/Hunter Valley and Wollongong) are key bushfire affected areas.

In terms of the total area burnt, the largest fires are in the Northern Territory and northern areas of Western Australia and Queensland. However, the closer fires get to regional towns and urban centres anywhere, the potential for significant loss increases. Sadly, this often includes loss of homes, businesses and, tragically loss of life.

Australia’s recent history has been marked by many terrible bushfire events. In February 2009, Victoria was devastated by the worst bushfires in Australian history. 173 people lost their lives, 2,000 homes were lost in 78 communities. Entire towns were left unrecognisable as the fire burnt 411,000 hectares of land.

BUSHFIRE IN AUSTRALIA: A REAL AND CONSTANT DANGER

Australia is considered the most fire prone country in the world. As such, bushfires are an intrinsic part of Australia’s environment. Natural ecosystems and landscapes are shaped by, and rely on, patterns of fire. But as human settlements encroach further into bushland and fire prone areas, fire poses a threat to people in nearly all parts of the country at different times of year as seasonal weather patterns come into play.

When are the bushfire seasons?

+ Most of southern Australia: Summer and Autumn

+ NSW and Southern Queensland: Spring and early Summer

+ Northern Australia: Winter and Spring

The impact of extreme fire weather varies greatly within these regions, depending on the proximity to built-up areas, and in some cases the type of fire that occurs.

Winter and SpringSpringSpring and SummerSummerSummer and Autumn

Darwin

Brisbane

Sydney

Canberra

Melbourne

Hobart

Perth

Adelaide

Australia’s bushfire seasons (BOM)

Where are the worst fires?

Raging bushfire through the Lake Repulse / Meadowbank area, as seen from the village of Hamilton, Tasmania Photo : TONI FISH, 4 Jan 2013



UNDERSTANDING FIRE: WHY HOUSES BURN

Research has shown that the main cause of house fire during a bushfire is from ember attack. Over 85% of fires that destroy homes are started this way, despite the long held view that house fires start by direct flame contact by the bush fire front (CFA 2010). One of Australia’s leaders in bushfire urban design research, Justin Leonard from CSIRO’s Ecosystem Science team explains:

“The reasons why a house is burnt to the ground and looks like it’s been impacted by a devastating fire isn’t really because the fire was so intense... The fuel loads within the house and the fuel load that the house structure itself represents is responsible for all that intense heat.

“Usually a house is actually ignited by a fairly small insidious ember... And then the internal fire within that structure develops into quite a ferocious fire which causes all that devastation and damage.” (CSIRO 2011)

This type of fire commonly starts from what is known as an ‘ember attack’.

WHAT IS AN EMBER ATTACK?

Ember attack occurs when burning parts of trees (e.g. twigs, branches, leaves) are carried by winds in a cluster. Embers can range from tiny sub millimetre sparks to large inch sized chunks, which lodge in gutters, get under doorways, enter roof spaces or windows and start internal fires. The movements of embers from a bushfire are the primary cause of spot fires, which contribute to the continued spread of a bushfire. Ember attack can occur for up to 30 minutes before the bushfire front passes a given house and over distances greater than 100 metres from the fire front.

+ Embers are burning twigs, leaves and pieces of debris

+ Ember attack occurs when twigs and leaves are carried by the wind and land on or around houses

+ Ember attack is the most common way houses catch fire during bushfires

+ Embers can land on top of debris in your gutters and set fire to your house

+ Ember attack can happen before, during and after the bushfire.

(CFA 2013)

500 meters 100 meters House



WHAT DOES EMBER ATTACK LOOK LIKE?

Fire destroys historic Victorian homestead A small spot fire sparked by ember attack took about 15 minutes to burn through the roof of an 100-year-old homestead on Carngham Station near Ballarat on 9 January 2013.

Carngham Station’s live-in gardener, Ron Bolton, said the embers that started raining on the property late into the night quickly started an inferno as fire swept through central Victoria.

“The CFA was actually on the grounds at the time, but they couldn’t do anything to save it (the homestead). It was just too hot,” Mr Bolton said.

Mr Bolton said he was amazed at how quickly the house went up after what started as a small fire on the corner of the house.

(The fire had) pretty much calmed down and we thought it was pretty safe, then we just happened to see a little fire start in the corner of the house.

Before the guys could get enough water on there the whole roof of the property was alight. It’s a pretty substantial house too. The actual house lit up about an hour or so after the worse of the fire had gone through.”

(Herald Sun 2013)

Live-in-gardener Ron Bolton said he was surprised at how quickly the fire engulfed the main house. Picture: Nicole Garmston

A simulated ember attack by a University of California fire scientist has been used to test what sparks up first in a house under threat from bushfire. In this case, embers caused the wooden decking and dried leaves in the gutters to catch fire before anything else.

“Embers like those shown in the picture are the main cause of houses catching fire during wildfires. Often flying through open windows or attic vents, the embers set furniture and carpets ablaze and burn the house from the inside out.” Steve Quarles, University of California

(New Scientist 2013)

The results can be devastating, with even the most sturdy, stately homes unable to escape the dangers. Fires can also start long after the fire front has passed, as was the

case with this historic Victorian property, which was completely destroyed by fire sparked from an ember attack:



PROTECTING HOMES FROM EMBER ATTACK

“The greatest protection homes can have from burning down in a bushfire is to ensure they are intrinsically ember proof, so they don’t have any gaps where embers can get under doorways or through vents or into roof spaces and start internal fires.”

Justin Leonard, CSIRO, 2011

Do you live in a bushfire-prone area?

A bushfire-prone area is an area of land that can support a bush fire or is likely to be subject to a bush fire attack (NSW Rural Fire Service 2013). Designated bushfire-prone areas are declared by local governments and certified by state fire services. Land maps have been prepared to identify these areas within council zones.

Check with your local council to find out whether your property is in a designated bushfire-prone area.

Even if you live in a leafy suburb, you should consider taking steps to mitigate the risk of ember attack to protect your home from spread of fire.

BUILDING IN BUSHFIRE-PRONE AREAS: WHAT THE CHANGES MEAN FOR YOU

All new homes built in bushfire-prone areas must comply with the Australian Standard AS3959-2009 and AS3959-2009/Amdt2011 Construction of buildings in bushfire prone areas. This Standard is primarily concerned with improving the ability of buildings in designated bushfire-prone areas to better withstand attack from bushfire, giving a measure of protection to the people inside as well as to the building itself. AS3959-2009 uses Bushfire Attack Levels (BALs) to determine construction requirements for each site

Many thousands of Australians enjoy living in rural communities. Many more are choosing to build homes on the fringes of towns and cities, close to bushland areas. As a result of this, many areas in regional and urban fringe towns and cities in Australia are susceptible to ember attack and subsequent house fires because of their proximity to bushland and fire-prone areas.

Researchers have estimated that, in addition to homes in rural areas, there are some 340,000 homes around major capital cities in Australia at risk due to their location near bushland boundaries. As urban expansion continues, this number is set to rise (Australian Journal of Emergency Management 2007).

Issues arise not only where homes are located, but also in how they are built and maintained. Any gaps, cracks or areas where embers and fuel can lodge significantly reduce a home’s resistance to fire. This is true of many of the bushfires that have raged in Australia over the years. This was all too true in the Black Saturday bushfires in Victoria in 2009.

After the Royal Commission to the Black Saturday bushfires, several recommendations about house design were offered down. Specifically, it was recommended that houses be designed and built in such a way that embers have less chance of settling on or inside a house – and subsequently setting it on fire.

BUSHFIRE ATTACK

LEVEL (BAL)

BAL – LOW

BAL – 12.5

BAL – 19

BAL – 29

BAL – 40

BAL – FZ

RADIANT HEAT EXPOSURE

(AS3959)

Insignificant

0 to 12.5 kW/m2

12.5 to 19 kW/m2

19 to 29 kW/m2

29 to 40 kW/m2

40 kW/m2 plus (Flame Contact)

DESCRIPTION OF PREDICTED BUSHFIRE ATTACK

AND LEVELS OF EXPOSURE

The risk is very low, radiant heat on the building is insignificant to warrant specific construction requirements, however, ember attack may still occur

Primarily risk of ember attack; risk of radiant heat is considered low

Risk is considered moderate with increasing levels of ember attack and burning debris ignited by wind borne embers; increasing likelihood of exposure to radiant heat

Risk is considered to be high. Increasing levels of ember attack and burning debris ignited by wind borne embers; increasing likelihood of exposure to radiant heat

Risk is considered to be very high. Increasing levels of ember attack and burning debris ignited by wind borne embers; increasing likelihood of exposure to radiant heat and some direct exposure to flames possible

Risk is considered to be extreme. Direct exposure to flames from fire front is likely in addition to high levels of radiant heat exposure and ember attack



With the new standards requiring all new homes and buildings constructed in bushfire-prone areas to be guarded by using an ember guard, many gutter guard manufacturers are claiming their products can be used as both an ember guard and a gutter guard.

An ember guard is a cover inserted in or over an opening or cavity to prevent the entry of burning embers. An ember guard is not specifically designed to act as a gutter guard, but some gutter guards – e.g. Blue Mountain Mesh 2mm Superfine Mesh, is not only a high quality steel gutter guard, but also meets the requirements to act as an ember guard for your gutters stopping access of embers to the roof cavity. Blue Mountain Mesh 2mm Superfine Mesh can be used in other ember guard applications around the home (e.g. sealing between roof components, at the wall line or in roof valleys and ridges) as it conveniently comes as a roll or sheet of mesh, which can be made into the other applications as required.

While there are many benefits of using a gutter guard as an ember guard; it’s important to understand that ember guards and gutter guards are two different things and are not interchangeable terms. Their reference is in regard to different applications and should not be confused in determining compliance with the Australian Standards and Building Code of Australia.

+ A Gutter Guard is designed to minimize the access of debris and leaf litter to the gutters of your home. In a bushfire-prone area zone, it is not mandatory, but if you are installing one it must :

• be non-combustible

What is an ember guard?

An ember guard is a cover inserted in or over an opening or cavity to prevent the entry of burning embers.

After the 2009 Victorian bushfires, AS3959 was updated to

the current version – AS3959-2009. The standard contains six

bushfire risk categories and prescribes minimum construction

requirements based on the Bushfire Attack Level (BAL) of a site.

There are six BALs which describe different risk categories, from

BAL-LOW (insignificant risk) to BAL-FL (Flame Zone – highest risk).

The Standard exists to provide property owners with clear

direction on how to increase the protection of their homes as

part of good site preparation and risk management. Anyone

considering building, renovating or retrofitting their homes need

to be aware of the changes relating to ember guard compliance

and what level of protection their site needs according to their

specific BAL rating.

AS3959-2009 was amended in 2011 when the Victorian Bushfire

Commission decided that homes built in bushfire prone areas

needed to increase their ability to resist an ember attack.

The amendment requires that any gaps around the house

greater than 3mm need to be sealed by a mesh or perforated

sheet with a maximum aperture of 2mm so that embers have

less chance of settling on or inside a house and subsequently

setting it on fire. The amendment also prescribes suitable

construction materials for ember guards based on the specific

Bushfire Attack Levels. For homes situated in designated

bushfire-prone areas, a 2mm mesh gutter guard (steel, bronze or

aluminium for BAL 12.5 - BAL 29 and steel or bronze for BAL-40

and BAL-FZ) is able to be installed as an ember-guard solution.

Other ember guard options include mineral wool and other non-

combustible material that can fill the 3mm gap.

See page 7 for an extract of the Standard for more details.

EMBER GUARD VS. GUTTER GUARD: KEY DIFFERENCES EXPLAINED

• except for being non-combustible there is no other requirement of a gutter guard product

+ An Ember Guard is designed to limit access of embers into areas of risk, like the roof cavity. It must :

• be non-combustible

• have a maximum aperture (or gap) of 2mm.

• be made of corrosion-resistant steel, bronze or aluminium in BAL 12.5 – BAL 29

• be made of corrosion-resistant steel or bronze in BAL 40 & BAL FZ

While there are many benefits of using a gutter guard as an ember guard; it’s important to understand that ember guards and gutter guards are two different things and are not interchangeable terms.



HOW BLUE MOUNTAIN MESH COMPLIES WITH THE NEW STANDARDS

Blue Mountain 2mm Superfine All Steel Mesh has been specifically designed to meet the new Australian Standards requirements for the ember guard protection of sheet roofs for all Bushfire Attack Levels (BAL-12.5 clause 5.6.3; BAL-19 clause 6.6.3; BAL-29 clause 7.6.3; BAL-40 clause 8.6.3; BAL-FZ clause 9.6.3-2011).

The 2mm aperture is the prescribed opening to restrict burning debris from entering gaps and igniting buildings. The products have also undergone rigorous, independent testing by the CSIRO to certify that the materials used meet the definition of non-combustible prescribed in the Building Code of Australia, achieving Spread-of-Flame Index of ‘0’. (CSIRO 2009).

RELATING TO BAL-12.5, BAL-19, BAL-29 RESPECTIVELY

Clause 5.6.3, 6.6.3 and 7.6.3 Sheet roofs shall –

b) have any gaps greater than 3mm (such as under corrugations or ribs of sheet roofing and between roof components) sealed at the fasia

or wall line and at valleys, hips and ridges by –

I. a mesh or perforated sheet with a maximum aperture of 2mm, made of corrosion-resistant steel, bronze or aluminium; or

II. mineral wool; or

III. other non-combustible material; or

IV. a combination of any of items I, II or III above

Clause 5.6.1, 6.6.1 and 7.6.1

These clauses also state the following should apply to all types of roofs and roofing systems:

A) roof tiles, roof sheets and roof covering accessories shall be non-combustible

B) roof ventilation openings, such as gable and roof vents, shall be fitted with ember guards made of non-combustible material or a mesh

perforated sheet with a maximum aperture of 2mm, made of corrosion-resistant steel, bronze or aluminium

RELATING TO BAL-40, BAL-FZ

Clause 8.6.3 and 9.6.3 Sheet roofs shall –

b) have any gaps greater than 3mm (such as corrugations or ribs of sheet roofing and between roof components) sealed at the fascia or

wall line and at valleys, hips and ridges by –

I. a mesh or perforated sheet with a maximum aperture of 2mm, made of corrosion-resistant steel or bronze; or

II. mineral wool; or

III. other non-combustible material; or

IV. a combination of any of items I, II or III above

Clause 8.6.1 and 9.6.1 These clauses also state the following should apply to all types of roofs and roofing systems :

C) roof tiles, roof sheets and roof covering accessories shall be non-combustible

D) roof ventilation openings, such as gable and roof vents, shall be fitted with ember guards made of non-combustible material or a mesh

perforated sheet with a maximum aperture of 2mm, made of corrosion-resistant steel or bronze.

RELEVANT EXTRACTS FROM AUSTRALIAN STANDARD AS3959-2009/AMDT 2011 CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS IN BUSHFIRE-PRONE AREAS

Blue Mountain Superfine Mesh is a mesh with a maximum aperture of 2mm, made of corrosion-resistant steel, specifically designed to meet the new Australian Standards for ember guard protection for all Bushfire Attack Levels.



THE RISK OF USING NON-COMPLYING GUTTER GUARDSThe key feature of any leaf guard installed in bushfire prone areas is that it must be NON-COMBUSTIBLE. Some plastic gutter guard companies claim their product is fire resistant, that is, made with plastic that has been treated with flame retardant additives that will extinguish a burning ember. However, plastic is not fire proof like steel. It’s likely that there will still be a hole in the gutter guard where the ember has landed, making the gutter vulnerable to further ember attack. Any holes in the gutter guard will also affect how well it can keep leaves and other debris out of the gutter, reducing its effectiveness overall.

Non-Complying Gutter Guards

The key feature of any leaf guard installed in bushfire prone areas is that it must be NON-COMBUSTIBLE. Some plastic gutter guard companies claim their product is fire resistant; but plastic is not fire proof like steel. If you are not sure, consult a trained professional.

BENEFITS OF USING A GUTTER GUARD AS AN EMBER GUARD

There are other benefits to installing a compliant gutter guard as an ember guard (e.g. such as Blue Mountain Mesh). As well as preventing embers from entering the roof cavity and gutters, gutter guards keep gutters clear of leaves and debris, they also reduce gutter cleaning and maintenance and prevent native animals and pests entering the roof space (see BMM Information Guide – Pest Control).

Furthermore, gutter guards also help prevent blocked gutters that can also cause flooding and damage to the home in the opposite climate events – severe rain and storms (see BMM Information Guide – Storm Damage Protection). In cases where rain water collection systems are installed, the gutter protection also improves rain water quality by preventing leaves and debris from breaking down in the gutter.

Property owners can get all the benefits of gutter protection and ember guard protection by ensuring that the gutter guard they select meets the ember guard requirements. This means it must be made from non-combustible material (steel, aluminium or bronze for moderate to high risk BAL sites and steel or bronze for the highest BAL zones) with an aperture of 2mm or less. Check the material has been independently tested and the installer has a certificate to prove it.

Perth resident Alan Mayor thought he’d done the right thing by installing gutter guards at his North Beach home, until the plastic gutter guard system he’d installed almost cost him his home.

“Our house isn’t surrounded by bushland, but there is a nature reserve down the road. On this particular day, a fire had started in the reserve and a howling easterly wind was carrying embers hundreds of metres away,” recalled Alan.

The embers caused spot fires along his street, including one in Alan’s gutters. Here, they found plenty of fuel where the large holes in the plastic gutter guard he was using had failed to stop leaves from building up in the gutters.

“Luckily my wife woke me up. I ran outside and saw the gutters

on the main house were on fire. The plastic gutter guard had actually ignited and the whole thing could’ve gone up had I not caught it in time.”

Alan later discovered that his ‘protected’ gutters were full of leaves, just sitting there waiting to burn. He has since replaced the plastic guard with a steel gutter guard and has been very pleased with its performance.

“Sure you can buy a roll of plastic gutter guard very cheaply but it will not protect your home. If the same thing happened to us again, the steel gutter guard would prevent the embers from getting into the gutter, and there would be no leaves in there anyway, as they just blow off the roof. It’s well worth the investment,” he said.

Plastic gutter guard goes up in flames



IN SUMMARY

The reality of living in the most fire prone country on earth means that Australians are growing to understand the risks involved of living in bushfire-prone areas. Australian Standards have been designed to increase the ability of our homes to withstand attack from bushfires, but it’s up to us to understand and comply with the requirements, to make informed decisions and take action to make our homes safe. It’s important to remember:

+ Ember attack is in fact the main cause of house fire during a bushfire. Having no gaps for embers to enter the home and gutters that are clear of leaves and debris are important precautions to safeguard your home against the spread of fire.

+ The amended AS3959-2009/2011 requires that homes built in bushfire prone areas need to seal any gaps around the house greater than 3mm so that embers have less chance of settling on or inside a house and subsequently setting it on fire

+ While there are many benefits of using a gutter guard as an ember guard; it’s important to understand that ember guards and gutter guards are two different things.

+ If in doubt, choose a gutter guard like Blue Mountain 2mm Superfine All Steel Mesh which meets all the requirements of an ember guard and offers the best protection for your greatest assets: your home and the safety of your family.

HOW CAN THE RH INITIATIVE HELP?

The RH Initiative is an Australian company driven to help every person and every community make the most of their environmental assets.

We design, manufacture and wholesale high quality and sustainable water, environmental and trade products for Australian and international markets. We work with governments, retailers, distributors and consumers all over the world to find smarter, more innovative solutions to challenges created by our environment, and in doing so, create more sustainable futures.

Our Blue Mountain Mesh advanced gutter protection system offers homeowners protection from a range of environmental hazards, including flooding during storms and ember attack during bushfire.

ABOUT BLUE MOUNTAIN MESH

Born out of fire. The inspiration behind Blue Mountain Mesh’s all-steel gutter mesh came from the most tragic circumstances: watching a man trying in vain to save his family home from a savage bushfire, fuelled by an abundance of leaves and debris in the home’s gutters.

Blue Mountain Mesh products prevent leaves and debris from entering gutters and downpipes. The all steel, fire resistant gutter mesh minimises gutter maintenance and improves the quality of rain water collected for tanks. The proprietary hot dipped zinc coated and oven baked manufacturing process offers superior corrosion and heat resistance, providing superior protection for homes over the longer term.

We look forward to opportunities to help more Australians reduce risk and protect themselves and their greatest assets. For more information on our all steel, custom-made gutter protection products visit www.bluemountainmesh.com.au or call 1800 612 908.

WHY CHOOSE BLUE MOUNTAIN MESH?

+ Blue Mountain All Steel Gutter Mesh® is hot dipped galvanised, zinc coated steel which provides a corrosion resistant layer.

+ Our zinc coated corrosion resistant steel mesh is strong and durable and will stand the test of time

+ Our entire range is bushfire compliant and conforms to the Australian Standard for the Construction of buildings in bushfire-prone areas (AS3959-2009) and the updated Australian Standard for the ember guard protection of sheet roofs (AS3959-2009/Amdt 2011).

+ Our unique steel profile ensures our steel mesh lies perfectly flat and means the finished product looks like a seamless addition to your roof.

+ Our mesh fits all gutter profiles and can be adapted for all roof types, custom made and available in a choice of over 30 colours.

+ We offer a 12 year warranty based on minimum performance that we expect from our product. Results from independent tests offer a far longer projected life span with 12 years being the most conservative estimate.



PO Box 3200, Newstead Qld 4006, Australia

Tel: +61 7 3248 9600 (TOLL FREE 1800 612 908)

Fax: +61 7 3041 3588

Email: [email protected]

Web: www.bluemountainmesh.com.au

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<http://www.bom.gov.au/social/2013/04/australias-bushfire-seasons/>.

Burns, A 2013, ‘Historic Victorian homestead Carngham Station’ destroyed in grassfire inferno near Ballarat, 9 January, accessed

1 August 2013, <http://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/national/historic-victorian-homestead-carngham-station-destroyed-in-

grassfire-inferno-near-ballarat/story-fndo3ewo-1226550097862>.

Bushnell, S and Cottrell, A, 2007, ‘Increasing community resilience to bushfire — implications from a north Queensland community

case study’, Australian Journal of Emergency Management, vol.22 no.2 May 2007, accessed 1 August 2013,

<http://www.em.gov.au/Documents/Vol%2022%20No%202.pdf>.

CFA, Vic Government and the Building Commission Victoria, (2010) A guide to retrofit your home for better protection from a

bushfire, accessed 1 August 2013,

<http://www.cfa.vic.gov.au/fm_files/attachments/plan_and_prepare/bushfire_home_retrofit.pdf>.

Country Fire Authority (CFA) Victoria, How fire behaves, accessed 1 August 2013,

<http://www.cfa.vic.gov.au/plan-prepare/how-fire-behaves/>.

Leonard, J and Bowditch, P, 2003, ‘Findings of Studies of Houses Damaged by Bushfire in Australia’, presented at the 3rd International

Conference Wildland Fire 3-6 October 2003, Sydney, Australia, accessed 1 August 2013,

<http://www.fire.uni-freiburg.de/summit-2003/3-IWFC/Papers/3-IWFC-036-Leonard.pdf>.

McAneney, J (n.d.), Australian Bushfires – Quantifying and pricing the risk to residential properties, Risk Frontiers, Macquarie University,

accessed 1 August 2013, <http://www.riskfrontiers.com/publications/Fire_Wollongong.pdf>.

NSW Rural Fire Service 2013, What is a bushfire prone area, accessed 19 August 2013,

<http://www.rfs.nsw.gov.au/dsp_content.cfm?cat_id=1052>.

‘Perth bushfires rage out of control destroying at least 40 properties’, The Australian, 7 February 2011, accessed 1 August 2013,

<http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/nation/perth-bushfires-rage-out-of-control-destroying-at-least-40-properties/story-

e6frg6nf-1226001334142>.

Summers, R 2013, ‘Fanning the flames: House burns in wildfire simulation’, New Scientist, 6 May 2013, accessed 1 August 2013,

<http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21829160.100-fanning-the-flames-house-burns-in-wildfire-simulation.html>.

Standards Australia, 2009, AS 3959-2009 Australian Standard® Construction of buildings in bushfire-prone areas, accessed 1 August

2013, <http://www.royalcommission.vic.gov.au/getdoc/2d486ba8-2cef-45a1-9f3c-6e058ec8a78a/>.