2

CONTENTS

Contents 2

This Guide 3

Brief Overview 3

Before You Begin 3

So How Do You Go About Planning This Essay 4

Writing Your Essay: Introduction 5

Writing Your Essay: Main Body 6

Writing Your Essay: Conclusion 7

Helpful Tips For Writing Essays 8

Common Misspelled Words 10

IB Grading Criteria 11

MYP Grading Criteria 12

Language Issues 13

Tone 14

Linking Words 14

Excellent Essay Writing 15

What Does This Text Appeal To? 15

Paragraphing 16

Literary/Poetic Devices 17

Synonyms 19

Ideas For Literary Analysis 20

Reading and Analysing Fiction 21

Reading and Analysing Poetry 22

Bibliography and Referencing 23

Internet Research Validity 26

Checklist For Effective Writing 27

Proofreading Checklist 28

Graphic Organisers 29-36

Useful Sources and Essay Guides 29

3

THIS GUIDE This guide has been written to help students, plan, write and organise their essays, with an emphasis on IB literature based responses. It has been written using a variety of sources as well as first hand experience from problems Anglo students have encountered and errors they have repeatedly made. Do not be put off by its length, this is valuable information that, if followed, will have an immediate effect on your grades. Good luck. BRIEF OVERVIEW

A very basic pattern for writing an essay is to follow the simple strategy of: Introduction - Say what you are going to say Main Body - Say it Conclusion - Say what you’ve said Of course that is a very simplistic way of writing an essay, but it does illustrate the basic essay format. BEFORE YOU BEGIN Always begin with an essay plan. You will find that this really helps to organise your thoughts. This should include your initial reaction to the essay title, your basic ideas and thoughts and some quotations you want to use. You may find that you do not stick completely to your plan and this is okay, as the more you think about an essay your ideas will evolve and change. You should, however, have formed your ideas and opinions before you start writing. In planning your essay it is important to have done preliminary reading. This may involve surfing the web and checking out relevant sites or it may involve reading your novel/text to hunt out some quotations to justify your argument. Whichever it involves, MAKE SURE you write down the sources of this information for your referencing and bibliography. There is no avoiding the fact that you cannot write a good essay without first having done the research, just as a lawyer will NEVER go into court and try a case without having done substantial research and preparation. Imagine going into court and just making it all up on the spot, how embarrassing would it be? That is what it is sometimes like reading badly written essays at this school: embarrassing!

4

SO HOW DO YOU GO ABOUT PLANNING AN ESSAY?

1. Preliminary reading a. Use the internet to begin your investigations. Try to use academic

websites and not blogs or blatantly subjective writing. This is a disadvantage of the internet; not all sources are reliable. With over 550 billion websites how many can really be reliable academic sources?

b. Do not merely use google, MSN or Ask Jeeves as a search engine. Try also using specifically academic search engines such as Beaucoup, Lookoff, Virtual Free Sites, Freeality, Searchbug, Collegebot, Turbo10, Colossus or Lincon.

c. Look at the web address of the site you are using as this domain type indicates a possible bias and the information may therefore be unreliable. For example a .org website may be an animal rights websites with subjective, persuasive arguments. (Johnson)

d. Do not just use the internet. Go to a library and see what resources are available there. The Anglo now has an agreement with The Luis Angel Arango Library, (one of the biggest and best libraries in South America) and so any of the texts, readings, journals, periodicals etc that they have in store is available to you. This is a wonderful resource and a fantastic opportunity for you to be able to produce excellent, well researched work. Use it!

2. When you have done your research and collected a variety of sources

carefully plan the direction of your essay. a. Establish your opinion. Do you agree with the essay title? Do you

disagree? How will you answer it? What is your stance? b. What proof and evidence (sources and quotations etc) do you have

to justify your point of view? Have you got all the necessary information for the referencing and bibliography?

c. Try brainstorming all of your ideas on the topic, or try using a graphic organiser to help you in this stage of the planning.

3. Write your essay’s outline.

a. Draft a quick step by step outline of your essay. b. Ensure the most valid and important points are raised at the

beginning. c. The more complete the outline, the easier it will be to write the

essay, but remember it is not set in stone and can change. Check out some of the graphic organisers at the end of this booklet to see if any of them could help you focus your initial ideas and planning. Ensure you have written the title of your essay at the top of your question paper. This helps you focus your ideas from the beginning. Make sure you copy down the question exactly and do not change it in any way. Planning in advance saves you from last minute panics!

5

WRITING YOUR ESSAY INTRODUCTION Answer the Question! Do not answer what you want the question to be or do not change the question slightly to fit your pre-planned essay, but answer the EXACT question. It is amazing how regularly students do not follow this very basic rule. It is simple: if you answer a different question, you WILL NOT get a good grade. Try this technique: start by underlining key words in the questions/essay title. A tip on how to stay on track and not wander off the topic is to regularly refer back to title at the beginning or end of a paragraph. If helps keep your focus. Your introduction should be a brief statement outlining the aims of the essay. In it you must address the question directly in the opening paragraph. DO NOT just give background to the text or title i.e. do not give an overview of euthanasia, a history of capital punishment, a summary of the role of women in Greek Society. Euch. It is important that you impress your examiner in your opening paragraph. Remember that they will be reading anywhere between 20 and 200 essay papers on the same topic! This can become very monotonous and you want your paper to stand out and impress at the beginning: first impressions last a long time. So if the principle goal of your introduction is to grab the reader's attention, how do you go about achieving this? Why not try including one of the following suggestions…

• An interesting fact

• A surprising piece of information

• An exciting quotation

• An intriguing paradox

• An explanation of an odd term

• A short narrative/anecdote (not fiction)

• A provocative question

The entire introduction should lead toward the presentation of your arguable assertion, or thesis, whereby you take a stand on the issue you are discussing. Deliver your thesis at the end of the introduction so that your reader knows what general position you will take in your essay. You don't need to spell out all the details of your thesis in the introduction, particularly if it would be bulky and unintelligible to the reader who lacks all the ensuing reference and context, but you should give the reader a good idea of what your argument is. (Johnson)

So, in summary: Do not make your introduction too long, too short or too obvious. The point of the introduction is simply to introduce the examiner to your point of view and tell them the direction your essay will take.

6

MAIN BODY Your Main Body should address each point of the essay one paragraph at a time. Try following the simple pattern of:

Statement � Quotation � Analysis Begin a paragraph by making a statement, back that up with a relevant quotation from your text and then analyse it. Using the quotations from the text is like evidence; you cannot win a court case without relevant and convincing evidence to prove you are right, and writing an essay is no different in that respect. But you will also not win your court case without explaining the relevance of the evidence, and so it is with your quotations, you must go on to analyse them. This is rather like a hamburger! Each paragraph is a hamburger with the quotations being sandwiched between a statement and its analysis. The Analysis should be more detailed than the other sections of the paragraph – just think about your hamburger again: if the bread on the bottom is too weak the whole thing falls apart. Each paragraph should have a clear, singular focus to it. If there is an overriding error students make in writing essays, it is shifting topics within the same paragraph, rather than continuing to develop the same idea they began with. A paragraph is a discrete unit of thought that expands one specific idea, not three or four. If you find yourself shifting gears to start a new topic, begin a new paragraph instead. (Johnson) Do NOT summarise plot! This is one of the worst things you can do in an essay! Too many students try to fill up word counts by explaining what happens in the novel… do not go down this path. Your examiner/teacher has read the text and does NOT want to simply reread a summary. Students that do this will not receive good grades.

7

If there is an opposing view to the discussion make sure you address this and do not think that by ignoring it, it will go away. Every argument has two sides to it and these need to be addressed if you are to give a thoughtful, well rounded argument to your essay. Ensure that you are always analysing the effect on the reader.

• How is the reader being involved and drawn into the text? • What literary devices is the author using to communicate with the reader? • How is the reader being emotionally involved with the text? • Is the author creating any sympathy or empathy with any of the characters? If

so, how? If you are not evaluating these ideas in your essay you will not be scoring a high grade. You should probably be referring to the effect on the reader/audience every paragraph. CONCLUSION The conclusion should be a brief summary of the most salient points, if appropriate with personal evaluation. Your conclusion should not be overly long, after all, you are summarising what you have already said and you want to avoid repetition. Make sure that your conclusion is not a total surprise for the reader! You will not score a high mark if your essay comes to a conclusion that contradicts the general flow of the essay. This will almost certainly have come about through poor planning. Even though your conclusion is a summary of your essay, if you simply recap what you have already written the ending will be drab and dull. You must avoid this as the examiner is about to grade your work, so you want to leave them thinking highly of you! You need to say something that impresses the examiner and results in your work standing out above the rest.

8

Try one of the following ideas to impress the reader…

• Giving a thought-provoking quotation • Describing a powerful image • Talking about consequences or implications • Stating what action needs to be done • Ending on an interesting twist of thought • Explaining why the topic is important

You should not introduce any totally new ideas in the conclusion; however, you should not merely repeat your thesis either. This situation -- not presenting anything new, and neither just sticking with the old – at first seems to be a paradox. However, with a little effort, one of the above six methods will usually result in a memorable, stinging or impressive end to your essay. (Johnson)

HELPFUL TIPS FOR WRITING ESSAYS Always use 3rd person. Never write, “I think”, “I believe”, “I feel” Instead try using ...

• The reader can see the use of imagery… • The importance of _____ must be considered… • The inevitable conclusion, therefore, is that… • The author’s purpose here is to…

Be affirmative in statements you make. i.e. don’t use ‘maybe’, ‘probably’ etc. You should be convincing the marker of your position. If studying a play use the word ‘play’. If studying a novel use the word ‘novel’. If studying a poem use the word ‘poem’. A viable alternative is to use the word ‘text’. NEVER use the term ‘book’. Pay attention to the register that you use in your essay. Avoid slang; avoid colloquialisms; avoid chatty language and avoid swear words! Keep your language formal and use your language to impress the examiner with your level of English. Do NOT use contradictions such as don’t or weren’t. Avoid long sentences. The average length of a sentence in English is 17 words; if you find your sentence running long, simply break it up into two separate ones. Reread your work once you have finished. In doing this you will notice spelling mistakes/grammatical errors and will be able to correct them. If possible, try reading your essay out loud to yourself. In hearing the written word aloud you often detect grammatical and contextual inconsistencies more easily than by reading it in your head.

9

Include a word count. You should be able to cover all aspects of the essay in 1500 words or less (unless instructed otherwise), so do not waffle. When writing the title of the text put it in inverted commas, in italics or underline it; for example, ‘The Great Gatsby’ or The Great Gatsby or The Great Gatsby. It is very important that you do this, especially when the title of a text is the name of one of the protagonists. When studying the play Othello with the protagonist Othello for example, the italics (or the inverted commas or underline) differentiate between the title and the character. Below there is a substantial explanation of how to source, reference and bibliography texts using the MLA style. If you use this style of referencing you should be underlining the text name, as opposed to using one of the other options. Don’t make paragraphs too long, particularly in the introduction/conclusion. When you make a new point, start a new paragraph. The introduction and the conclusion can normally be written in one paragraph. Always refer to literature in the present tense. Do not write, “Holden went to a bar on page 12”, but instead write, “Holden goes to a bar on page 12.” And remember to stick to this tense throughout the essay… do not changed it as this heavily affecting the flow. (See!) Avoid writing “etc” in an essay. It shows that you cannot be bothered to complete the thought or sentence. Either finish the thought/list or write a synonym of ‘etc’ such as “and so on”. “In the other hand” is not a phrase you should be using in an essay (unless it is a creative piece and you wish to write something along the lines of “In the other hand she was holding a poor little bird that fallen from its nest). The phrase you should be using in “On the other hand…” Get it right! A novel is written by an author A play is written by a playwright (note the spelling) A poem is written by a poet A reader reads a novel An audience sees a play An audience hears a poem

10

COMMON MISPELLED MISSPELLED WORDS By making common spelling errors you are throwing away grades. This is careless and you should ensure that you do not let yourself down here. Watch out for the following…

• These / those • This / that • Were / where / which • Beginning • Conscious • Receive, perceive, believe, etc • Writing, writer, written • Disappear • Recommend • Caffeine • Accommodate • Autumn • Committee • Imitation

• Disappoint • Weird • Loneliness • Embarrassed • Occasion • A lot – it is always two words! • Acceptable • Mayor / Major • Immediate • Approximately • Separate • Library • Whether / weather • Patience

Whilst there are many more commonly misspelled words than are on this short list, these examples have all been made recently by Anglo students and as such should be paid special attention. MYP & IB GRADING CRITERIA IB A2 Essay Paper 2 Criteria In the IB A2 language course your essay (paper 2) is worth 25% of your overall grade. All of the information in this guide is pertinent to that exam. Much of this information can also be used in your paper 1 commentary (also worth 25%) and both of your written assignment pieces (worth 20%). So if you have paid careful attention to this guidebook you will find 70% of your IB A2 course significantly easier. When writing your essays you should finish the process with self evaluation. Read your essay through carefully, checking it against the following criteria depending on whether you are taking the IB or the MYP. Are you consistently reaching the highest levels of achievement? If not, why not? How can you edit your work to ensure the top grade? Be tough on yourself, your examiner almost certainly will be!

11

The IB A2 (H) essay is graded on the following criteria… Note that whilst this is for A2H it is very similar to the criteria for Standard Level

Criterion A: Response to the Question

Criterion B: Presentation

Criterion C: Language

• To what extent has the candidate understood the implications of the question?

• How relevant and focused are the candidate’s ideas to the argument?

• Is there evidence of critical thinking? • Are the ideas supported by well-chosen

examples?

• How organized and persuasive is the essay?

• How coherent is the essay structure?

• Are examples well integrated into the essay?

• How fluent, varied and accurate is the language used by the candidate?

• How appropriate to the essay is the candidate’s choice of register and style? (Register and style include the selection of appropriate vocabulary, structure, tone, etc)

0 Level 1 is not achieved

0 Level 1 is not achieved

0 Level 1 is not achieved

1-2 The candidate has little awareness of the implications of the question

• Ideas are frequently irrelevant and/or repetitive

• There is little analysis of the subject matter • Ideas are not supported by examples

1-2 Little organization is apparent

• The essay has little structure • Supporting examples are not

integrated into the essay

1-2 The language lacks fluency and appropriateness

• There are many basic errors in grammar, spelling and sentence construction

• There is little sense of register and style • There is little variety in vocabulary and idiom

3-4 The candidate has a superficial awareness of the implications of the question

• Some ideas are relevant • There is some analysis of the subject matter • Ideas are occasionally supported by

examples

3-4 Some organization is apparent

• The essay has some structure

• Supporting examples are sometimes integrated into the essay

3-4 The language sometimes lacks fluency and appropriateness

• Grammar, spelling and sentence construction are sometimes accurate, although errors and inconsistencies are apparent

• The register and style are to some extent appropriate to the task

• The range of vocabulary and idiom is fairly limited

5-6 The candidate has an adequate

understanding of the implications of the question

• Ideas are generally relevant and focused • There is evidence of critical thinking • Ideas are generally supported by examples

5-6 The essay is organized • The essay structure is mostly

coherent • Supporting examples are

generally well integrated into the essay

5-6 The language is mostly fluent and appropriate

• There is an adequate degree of accuracy in grammar, spelling and sentence construction, although some minor errors and inconsistencies are apparent

• The register and style are mostly appropriate to the task

• Vocabulary and idiom are mostly varied and appropriate to the task

7-8 The candidate has a good

understanding of the implications of the question

• Ideas are mostly relevant and focused • A good degree of critical thinking is shown • Ideas are mostly supported by well-chosen

examples

7-8 The essay is well organized and persuasive

• The essay structure is mostly coherent and effective

• Supporting examples are mostly well integrated into the essay

7-8 The language is fluent and appropriate • There is a good degree of accuracy in grammar,

spelling and sentence construction, although the essay is not necessarily free from error

• The register and style are effective and appropriate to the task

• Vocabulary and idiom are varied and appropriate to the task

9-10 The candidate has a thorough

understanding of the implications of the question

• Ideas are relevant and focused • A high degree of critical thinking is shown • Ideas are fully supported by well-chosen

examples

9-10 The essay is well organized and very persuasive

• The essay structure is coherent and effective

• Supporting examples are well integrated into the essay

9-10 The language is fluent and entirely appropriate

• There is a high degree of accuracy in grammar, spelling and sentence construction, although the essay is not necessarily free from error

• The register and style are consistently effective and appropriate to the task

• Vocabulary and idiom are varied and highly appropriate to the task

12

MYP Criterion A: Content Maximum 10 This criterion refers to the student’s ability to demonstrate: an awareness of the function of language A through critical and creative writing; an understanding of the works studied; and an effective response to literature.

MYP Criterion B: Organization Maximum 10 This criterion covers the student’s ability to: express ideas with clarity and coherence; structure arguments in a sustained and logical fashion; and support these arguments with relevant examples.

MYP Criterion C: Style and Language Usage Maximum 10 This criterion refers to the student’s ability to use language for a variety of purposes, including description, analysis and persuasion. Appropriate register and language should be chosen, according to intention and audience.

9-10 The student demonstrates a perceptive understanding of the relevant aspects of the topic or theme. The work consistently displays illustrative detail, development and support. Creative pieces reflect a high degree of imagination and sensitivity. The student’s response to literature demonstrates a sophisticated analysis of the author’s intention and techniques.

9-10 The student’s work is consistently well organized, clear and coherent, and arguments are presented in a perceptive and persuasive manner. Paragraph structure and transitions effectively develop and substantiate the ideas being expressed. When such devices are required, critical conventions and apparatus are used in a sophisticated manner.

9-10 The student’s use of vocabulary is always appropriate and greatly varied with very infrequent errors in spelling, pronunciation, punctuation and syntax. The student has mastered the use of a register suitable to intention and audience.

7-8 The student demonstrates a good understanding of the relevant aspects of the topic or theme. The work displays substantial detail, development and support. Creative pieces reflect substantial imagination and sensitivity. The student’s response to literature demonstrates a good appreciation of the author’s intention and techniques.

7-8 The student’s work is usually well organized, clear and coherent, and arguments are presented in a thoughtful, logical manner. Paragraph structure and transitions help to develop the ideas. When such devices are required, sufficient attention is paid to critical apparatus.

7-8 The student’s use of vocabulary is appropriate and varied. Occasional errors in spelling, pronunciation, punctuation and syntax rarely hinder communication. The student consistently uses a register suitable to intention and audience.

5-6 The student demonstrates a sufficient understanding of the relevant aspects of the topic or theme. The work displays adequate detail, development and support. Creative pieces reflect a degree of imagination and sensitivity. The student’s response to literature demonstrates an awareness of the author’s intention and techniques.

5-6 The student’s work is basically organized, clear and coherent, and arguments are presented in a logical manner. Paragraph structure and transitions are apparent. When such devices are required, some attention is paid to critical apparatus

5-6 The student’s use of vocabulary is usually appropriate and generally varied. Some errors in spelling, pronunciation, punctuation and syntax sometimes hinder communication. The student often uses a register suitable to intention and audience.

3-4 The student demonstrates a limited understanding of the relevant aspects of the topic or theme. The work displays insufficient detail, development and support. Creative pieces reflect limited imagination and sensitivity. The student’s response to literature sometimes demonstrates an awareness of the author’s intention and techniques.

3-4 The student’s work shows the beginnings of organization, but lacks significant logical order. Paragraphs and transitions are weak. When such devices are required, little attention is paid to critical apparatus

3-4 The student’s use of vocabulary is sometimes inappropriate and somewhat varied. Regular errors in spelling, pronunciation, punctuation and syntax hinder communication. The student attempts to use a register suitable to intention and audience.

1-2 The student demonstrates very limited understanding of the topic or theme. The work lacks detail, development and support. Creative pieces do not reflect imagination and sensitivity. The student’s response to literature demonstrates little or no awareness of the author’s intention or techniques.

1-2 The student’s work is generally disorganized and confused, and arguments are not presented in a logical manner. Paragraph structure and transitions are very weak. When such devices are required, no attention is paid to critical apparatus.

1-2 The student’s use of vocabulary is often inappropriate and limited. Very frequent errors in spelling, pronunciation, punctuation and syntax persistently hinder communication. Little attempt has been made to use a register suitable to the intention and audience.

0 The student does not reach a standard described by any of the descriptors given above.

0 The student does not reach a standard described by any of the descriptors given above.

0 The student does not reach a standard described by any of the descriptors given above.

13

LANGUAGE ISSUES Clarity and expressiveness of language is obviously particularly important in essays on literature, and the development of an accurate and engaging writing style is one of the aims of a degree in English Literature. A satirical checklist of common errors that should be avoided is reproduced below: 1. Verbs has to agree with their subjects. 2. Prepositions are not words to end sentences with. 3. And do not start a sentence with a conjunction. (exceptions can be made) 4. It is wrong to ever split an infinitive. 5. Avoid clichés like the plague. 6. Also, always avoid annoying alliteration. 7. Be more or less specific. 8. Parenthetical remarks (however relevant) are (usually) unnecessary. 9. No sentence fragments. 10. Contractions aren't necessary and shouldn't be used. 11. One should never generalise. 12. Don't use no double negatives. 13. Eschew ampersands & abbreviations etc. 14. Eliminate commas, that are, not necessary. 15. Never use a big word when a diminutive one would suffice. 16. Kill all exclamation marks!!! 17. Use words correctly, irregardless of how others use them. 18. Use the apostrophe in it's proper place and omit when its not needed. 19. Puns are for children, not groan readers. 20. Proofread carefully to see if you any words out. (Guidelines for essay writing)

14

TONE When analysing literature be sure to carefully study the tone that is being used. You can often ascertain the appropriate tone by looking at the language and any repetitions in the lexical field. When describing the tone be sure to use a variety of synonyms to demonstrate your extensive vocabulary and to avoid repeating yourself. Use the synonym checklist below to help you:

� jubilant, joyful, exuberant, excited, enthusiastic, dramatic � dark, sombre, melancholy, gloomy, bleak, solemn, earnest, serious � light, playful, flippant, tongue-in-cheek, good-humoured, whimsical, humorous � satirical, mocking, sarcastic, ironic, cynical, irreverent � angry, bitter, harsh, assertive, dogmatic � impersonal, detached, dispassionate, clinical, cold � personal, intimate, emotional, lyrical, poignant, sentimental, warm � calm, philosophical, reflective, gentle, mellow, tranquil, tender � self-mocking � conversational, matter-of-fact � formal, stately

LINKING WORDS It is important to use a variety of linking words and phrases to demonstrate your versatility in writing. If every paragraph/sentence begins with the word “then”, you will NOT score well. Do not force the use of the following phrases, but include them in your writing where appropriate to help the flow. Introduction: Firstly Primarily Chiefly Importantly The writer/author/poet/playwright introduces… Main Body The reason for this is… Secondly. Thirdly etc Moving on… The reader can see from this that… The author writes… because… Another/ Also/ Therefore/ Then/ Next… Significantly… The writer then moves on to… This literary technique is significant because…

Additionally The effect on the reader is… The writer utilises this because… Obviously this shows that… Following this… Penultimately… On the other hand… In comparison Conclusion In summary In conclusion It is important to conclude with… Weighing up the evidence… Finally, Lastly, The message conveyed is therefore… To summarise…

15

EXCELLENT ESSAY WRITING A good literary essay will present a series of logically ordered points, each substantial with close textual reference and/or quotation, each clearly linked to the essay question or topic. By the end of the essay, it will draw to a general conclusion. However, there is a gear shift between a good literary essay and an excellent one. An excellent essay will present a conceptualised argument. Instead of drawing towards some conclusions through the process of discussing relevant points, the excellent essay will present a clear case from the start. It will start with the key concept or idea that study of the text(s) has generated and then ‘prove’ this with close analysis of the textual evidence. Its conclusion is likely to move beyond the individual text(s) to draw out the wider issues of significance. In this sense, the excellent essay is perhaps more like a legal argument than a straightforward presentation. This requires careful critical thinking about the relationship between ideas. Exploring this kind of structure will help you understand how to produce a more sophisticated essay, as well as giving you important practice in the critical analysis of argument. (Teachit (UK) Ltd 2005 www.teachit.co.uk/attachments/4014.pdf 6/11/07) WHAT DOES THE TEXT APPEAL TO? The text that you are studying may appeal to a variety of human emotions and senses and it is important to analyse this and include your assertions in your response. Does the text appeal to…

� Ethos (morals) � Logos (reason or rationality) � Pathos (pity or compassion) � Mythos (spirituality or beliefs) � The Senses

o Sight (visual/ocular) o Hearing (auditory) o Taste (gustatory) o Touch (tactile) o Smell (olfactory)

Having identified any of the above you MUST go on to analyse the effect on the reader of such literary devices.

What is the effect on the

reader of appealing to the senses?

16

PARAGRAPHING Paragraphs form the bulk and heart of your essay and, as such, it is vital that they are organised and ordered correctly and that they flow smoothly. Just like sentences, it is advisable to vary the lengths of your paragraphs, but similarly do not include ridiculously loooong paragraphs. You should start a new paragraph when there is a shift or a change in your essay. Such changes are called paragraph shifts and can take place for any of the following reasons: to introduce a new main point, to shift emphasis, or to indicate a change in place and time. It is also important that your paragraphs are arranged in the best possible way – by order of importance, by classification, by time and so on. These paragraphs should flow clearly and smoothly from one to the next. In order to achieve this flow, the first sentences in each new paragraph should somehow be linked to the proceeding one. Transitions or linking words are often used for this purpose. (Kemper, Sebranek, and Meyer) Begin each paragraph with a direct and focused sentence that immediately tells the reader the direction and purpose of this particular paragraph. Often Anglo students write lengthy sentences (I recently read a sentence that was 218 words long!) and this must be avoided. The interesting diagram below illustrates the different styles between various language bases. As you can see, English writing should be direct and to the point.

Whereas the English paragraph tends, for example, to follow a direct line of development, the Oriental paragraph tends to develop thought in a more circular pattern. Romance languages and Russian tend to prize digressions, while Semitic paragraphs often value parallel lines in development. (Guildford College)

17

LITERARY/POETIC DEVICES Listed below is a list of just a few literary (poetic) devices. It is very important that when analyzing literature you can identify these. However, identification is just half of the job, you MUST go on to analyse their importance within the text and their effect on the reader/audience. It is no good, for example, to write: “In line three of the text we can see an example of personification.” You must include the author’s intention of including this literary device, for example, “The importance in line three of personification is to create a deep bond between the protagonist and his surroundings.” Simile A comparison using "as" or "like"

• ‘He is as fast as a cheetah’ • ‘Her smile is as bright as the sun’

Metaphor A direct comparison NOT using "as" or "like" when one thing is said to be another

• ‘The Internet is an information superhighway’ • ‘There is a fire in my heart’

Alliteration The deliberate repetition of consonant sounds

• ‘The green grass grew’ • ‘The bright blue bicycle’

Assonance The deliberate repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds

• ‘Adam Ant ambles along’ • ‘…night-tide, I lie down by the side…’

Onomatopoeia Use of words resembling the sound they mean

• Boom! • Crash!

• Smash! • Moo

• Oink • Baa

Rhyme Repetition of the same sounds

• The small girl smiles. One eyelid flickers. (A) She whips a pistol from her knickers. (A) She aims it at the creature's head, (B) And bang bang bang, she shoots him dead. (B)

Rhythm The internal ‘feel’ of beat and metre, better perceived when poetry is read aloud

• The - small - girl - smiles. - One - eye-lid - fli-ckers (9) She - whips - a - pis-tol - from - her - kni-ckers. (9) She - aims - it - at - the - crea-ture's - head, (8) And - bang - bang - bang, - she - shoots - him - dead. (8)

18

Hyperbole Exaggeration for dramatic effect

• ‘I’ve eaten so much I could burst’ • ‘I’ve told you a million times already’

Oxymoron A seeming contradiction in two words put together

• The living dead • The Peace Force • A pair of plastic glasses

• Pretty ugly • A work party • Head butt

Paradox A statement or concept that contains conflicting ideas, but that may yet have some truth in it

• When you increase your knowledge, you see how little you know. • A man says that he is lying. Is what he says true or false?

Personification Attribution of human personality or behaviour to an impersonal thing

• The wind moaned and screeched. • The tropical storm slept for two days

Anaphora The repetition of the same word/group of words at the beginning of several consecutive sentences or verses to emphasize an image or a concept

• We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. (Churchill)

• I have a dream speech (Luther King) Foreshadowing The giving of hints or clues of what is to come later in the plot. And more… Check out these other literary terms and/or poetic devices and where appropriate…

a. understand their definition and purpose b. come up with examples for them c. use them in an essay or creative writing piece

• Allegory • Irony

o dramatic o verbal o situational

• Malapropism • Parody • Pathetic fallacy

• Pseudonym • Satire • Stream of consciousness • Tragic hero • Caesura • Enjambment • Refrain

19

SYNONYMS You are not showing off your linguistic abilities if you use basic primary school words in your essays. Therefore, words such as ‘good, ‘bad’ and ‘nice’ should all be avoided. In using these words to analyse literature you are severely hampering yourself as it shows a lack of thought on your part. When looking up synonyms in www.dictionary.com I found 477 synonyms for the word ‘good’, 324 possibilities for the word ‘bad’ and 84 entries for the word ‘nice’. There are no excuses for using these limited words. Below are just a few examples… Good: high-quality, first-class, first-rate, superior, fine, excellent, skillful, able, proficient, accomplished, talented, expert, skilled, capable, clever, competent decent, respectable, moral, upright, virtuous, noble, worthy, blameless, wholesome beneficial, sound, safe, advantageous, reliable, trustworthy, useful, fine, clear, mild, pleasant, fair, sunny, well-behaved, well-mannered, polite. (Encarta) Bad: poor, inferior, deficient, flawed, faulty, defective, substandard, imperfect, abysmal, awful, terrible, dreadful, appalling, shocking, ghastly, horrific, unpleasant, evil, wicked, corrupt, immoral, depraved, debauched, unscrupulous, ruthless, merciless, cruel, base, shameless, naughty, disobedient, badly behaved, unhealthy, damaging, injurious, ruinous, dangerous, prejudicial, harmful, rotten, off, decayed, decaying, decomposing, putrid, moldy, sour, stale, rancid, regretful, penitent, remorseful, ashamed, apologetic, contrite, guilty, repentant, (Encarta) Activity How many synonyms can you think of for the word ‘nice’? Write ten sentences with the word ‘good’ in it. Now substitute the word good for a more appropriate synonym. Repeat this exercise for the words ‘bad’ and ‘nice’.

20

IDEAS FOR LITERARY ANALYSIS Theme

1. Does the author seem to be saying something about ambition… courage… greed… jealousy… happiness?

2. Does the selection show you what it is like to experience racism, loneliness, and so on?

3. Does the author have a point to make about a specific historical event? 4. How do the themes engage with the reader/audience?

Characters

5. How does the main character change or develop as the text progresses? 6. What forces or circumstances make the characters act in a certain way?

(Consider the setting, the conflict, other characters, etc.) 7. What are the most revealing aspects of the characters? (Consider his or her

thoughts, words and actions.) 8. Do the characters’ actions seem believable within the story? 9. Does the main character have a confidant? How important/reliable is this

person? 10. Consider the role of the antagonist and how they relate to the protagonist. 11. What is the role of the subsidiary characters? 12. Is the audience/reader able to identify with the protagonist? How? And Why?

Plot

13. What external or internal conflict(s) affect the main character? 14. How is suspense built and maintained in the story? 15. Are there examples of foreshadowing that hint at the story’s resolution? 16. How does the climax come about and how does it change the story? 17. Are there any twists in the plot? (What do they add to the story?)

Setting

18. What effect does the setting have on the characters? 19. Does the setting expand your understanding of a specific time and place?

Style

20. How does the writing – descriptive phrases, images and so on – create an overall feeling or tone in the selection?

21. Is dialogue or description used effectively? (Give examples) 22. Is there an important symbol that adds meaning to the text? (How is this

symbol represented in different parts of the story?) 23. Are there key figures of speech such as metaphors and similes? (What do

these add to the writing?) 24. Are there any other examples of literary/poetic devices? What effect do these

have on the reader? 25. Is the structure noteworthy or unique? How does the structure add to the

overall impact of the text? 26. Analyse the title of the text. Does the title hint at or suggest anything?

Adapted from Kemper, Sebranek, and Meyer, Writers Inc p231

21

READING AND ANALYSING FICTION The following notes are intended to be used as a guide to help you get the most out of fiction whilst you are reading. Try to follow the recommended steps as you read and your literary analysis will improve. Before You Read…

• Learn something about the author and his or her works. What were the major influences on their writing?

• React thoughtfully to the title and the impact of the opening pages. As You Read…

• Identify the following story elements: setting, tone, main characters, theme, and central conflict.

• Think about the plot and try to predict what will happen next. • Record your thoughts (or draw/mind map/list) in a reading journal as you go. • Think about the characters and the things they do.

o What motivates the characters? o Do they relate to other characters in literature? Are they based on real

life people? o Have I faced situations similar to the ones faced by the main

characters? (Whilst you may not include this in your literary analysis of the text, it will help you gauge the effect of the writing on the audience/reader, ie you!)

o Would I have reacted in the same way? • Think about how the time and place in which the author lives (or lived) may

have influenced the story. • Notice the author’s style and word choice.

o How effectively has the author used literary devices? o Why did the author use a particular word or phrase?

• Discuss the story with others who are reading it. Their insights may complement your own.

After You Read

• Think about the development of the main character/s. How do they change and why?

• Decide what you think the story’s message or main theme is, then decide how good a job the author did in getting that message across to the reader.

Adapted from Kemper, Sebranek, and Meyer, riters Inc p365

22

READING AND ANALYSING POETRY Whilst reading and analysing poetry employs some of the same skills as reading fiction, it is also distinct. Use the recommendations below when you are reading poetry. First Reading…

• Read the poem all the way through at your normal reading speed to gain an overall impression of the poem.

• Jot down your immediate reaction to the poem. Second Reading…

• Read the poem again – out loud if possible. Pay attention to the “sound” of the poem.

• Read slowly and carefully – word by word, syllable by syllable – observing the punctuation, spacing, and special treatment of words and syllables.

• Not the examples of sound devices in the poem – alliteration, assonance, rhyme, rhythm.

• Think about what the poem is saying. Third Reading…

• Try to identify the type of poem you are reading. Does this poem follow the usual pattern of that particular type? If not, why not?

• Determine the literal sense of the poem. What is the poem about? What does the poem seem to say about its subject?

• Look carefully for figurative language in the poem. How does this language – metaphors, similes, personification, symbols – support the literal meaning of the poem?

• Take note of the structure of the poem. How does the structure complement the themes or the message?

Having noticed all these different devices, you MUST then go on to analyse their effect on the reader!

Adapted from Kemper, Sebranek, and Meyer, Writers Inc p366

23

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCING You must include ALL references in your essay and you must finish your essay with a bibliography. By including this information you are telling the reader where you got your sources of information from. Without including this you could be accused of plagiarism so, it very important that you do it. If you are caught having plagiarised by the Anglo your case is handed to the disciplinary committee and generally results in a suspension. If you are caught having plagiarised by the MYP/IB then you will be disqualified from that subject, you will not receive your certificate/diploma and all your years of hard work will be in vain. Don’t do it. The following information is a simplified version of MLA (Modern Language Association) Referencing. Consult the internet for a more detailed guide. In writing this guide the textbook Writers INC was used. It comes highly recommended and its specific details are included below. In-Text Citations Because Internet sources typically have no page or paragraph numbers, and Web sites often list no author, people are often confused about how to refer to these sources within their papers. The answer is to cite the author's name whenever possible, and use the source’s title otherwise (or a shortened version of the title). Keep in mind that the primary purpose of an in-text citation is simply to point readers to the correct entry in the Bibliography at the end of document. Along with the author also include the page number. If you are going to include a direct quotation from the text and include it in the main body of your essay it must be under four lines long. If the quotation you wish to use is longer, you have two options. A) split it into two using an ellipsis at an appropriate point (…) . Be careful that by leaving out material you are not changing the meaning of the text. Or B) keep the full quotation, but set off the quotation by indenting each line by 10 spaces. In an essay with a word limit, be careful about using lengthy quotations as it will limit the ideas you can write. See the following for examples and use these formats in your work… When using an exact quotation e.g.: Holden Caulfield continually uses a quotidian and colloquial language in his narration. “He gave her every single goddam play in the whole game – I’m not kidding.” (Salinger, 85). This device is used in order to build up a more convincing rapport with the reader. OR… When paraphrasing an idea from elsewhere (an introduction, a textbook, the internet, a research paper etc) you MUST still give the source, e.g.: Weather is very important in Shakespeare’s plays. You can generally predict that something important or tragic is going to happen if there is a storm or rain during a scene (Thompson, 34).

24

If, when discussing literature, you wish to add in to your response specific words used repeatedly by a character in the novel, you do not have to reference the page number exactly as it appears in many places. e.g.: Holden Caulfield grabs the reader’s attention through continual the use of ‘goddam’ profanities. This especially appeals to an adolescent readership who feel as though they can identify with ‘old’ Holden. Don’t forget that you need not mention the author’s name twice. So if you have written his name in the text as part of your sentence, you do not need to write his name in parenthesis at the end of the sentence. If however, you choose not to write the author’s name in the main body of your essay, you must write it in the brackets at the end of the sentence. If in your Bibliography you have listed two (or more) works by the same author you need to give more than just the name in the parenthetical citation. So as well as including the author’s name you should also give the title, or a shortened version of the title, and the page reference. e.g.: Kerouac’s life was very similar to that of Sal Paradise; it was fuelled by drink, drugs, and a search for his true identity through his nomadic travelling across the United States (Chatwin, The Life of Jack, 221). If you cite an indirect source (someone’s remarks published second hand) write “qtd. in” (quoted in) before you reference the source. e.g.: Gandhi, in discussing the idea of Biblical retribution said, “An eye for an eye makes the whole world blind” (qtd in Hamlin, 153) When citing a piece of literature prose that has more than one publisher or edition, be sure to give more than just a page number. After the page reference add either the part, chapter or section, in abbreviated form after a semicolon. e.g.: In ‘A Handmaid’s Tale’, Atwood portrays a society in which women have become little more than transportable wombs. If they fail to become pregnant they are expelled to certain death in the colonies. Pregnancy therefore becomes their one and only goal. “Each month I watch for blood, fearfully, for when it comes it means failure” (83; ch13). Bibliography Study the following to see how to correctly format your bibliography. Note that when the entry spills over the first line onto a second or a third that you must indent the subsequent lines by 10 spaces. For a Book entry… Author’s last name, First name. Book Title. City: Publisher, date. e.g.: Cisneros, Sandra. The House on Mango Street. New York: Vintage, 1991

25

For a Periodical entry… Author’s last name, First name. “Article.” Periodical Title date: page nos. e.g.: Johnson, Hugh. “Life in the cold of Antarctica.” National Geographic 15 Nov.

2001: 116-127 For an On-Line entry… Author’s last name, First name. “Title.” Information on print version (if any). Site

title. Date posted or last updated. Sponsor. Date accessed <Electronic address>

e.g.: Douthat, Ross. “SparkNote on Agamemnon.” Barnes and Noble. 25 Oct.

2007 <http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/agamemnon/>. For a Translated work… Author’s last name, First name. Book Title. Trans. Translator’s First name Last

name. City: Publisher, date e.g.: Mishima, Yukio. The Sound of Waves. Trans. Meredith Weatherby. New

York: Vintage International, 1994 There are of course many other types of text that you could use to obtain information (eg anthologies, pamphlets, texts with multiple authors, newspapers, interviews etc) but to list them all here is unnecessary. For a fill list either consult Writers INC or the Internet. The following website was useful in writing this guide and may help you too: http://www.aresearchguide.com/8firstfo.html Abbreviations Take note of (and use!) some of the following abbreviations when writing papers. ch. chapter(s) ed. editor(s), edition(s), or edited by et al. and others illus. illustrator, illustration, illustrated by n.d. no date given no. number (s) n.p. no place of publication or no publisher

given n. pag. no page numbers p. page pp. pages qtd. quoted rpt. reprinted sec. sections vol. volume

26

INTERNET RESEARCH VALIDITY There is a great deal of information available to you on the Internet. Before you use that information, you need to ask yourself whether or not your sources are trustworthy. These questions can help you judge them:

Is the source a primary or secondary source? Facts from a primary or firsthand source are often more trustworthy than secondhand information.

Is the source an expert on the subject? An expert is someone who is respected in the field and considered an authority.

Is the information complete? Is information presented on all sides of an issue, not just facts that support the author’s opinion?

Is the information current? Generally, you want the very latest information. Is the source biased? A biased source is one that favors one side or opinion

over the others. Because of this, a biased source is not always a reliable source of information

http://www.thewritesource.com/eval.htm

27

Checklist for Effective Writing… Stimulating Ideas Presents interesting and valuable information Maintains a clear, specific focus or purpose Grabs the reader's attention and holds it Answers the question! � Does NOT add unnecceasy information � Does NOT retell plot Logical Organisation Has a direct, engaging introduction The main body is well organised and links together well to flow smoothly The conclusion is an effective and challenging summary The essay provides correctly referenced quotations to justify the ideas Engaging Voice The voice used is engaging and appropriate to the task Language Contains an appropriate level of language Contains a variety of language, vocabulary and idiom The sentence & paragraph beginnings are varied and help the essay flow Contains a variety of sentence lengths Verb tense is correct and maintained throughout Formatting Word Count included

28

Proofreading Checklist Sentence Structure Did I write clear and complete sentences? Do my sentences flow smoothly? Did I vary sentence length? Do my sentences begin with a variety of linking words and phrases? Word Choice and Usage Did I avoid unnecessary repetition? Did I use the correct word (their, there, they're)? Did I use specific nouns, vivid verbs and descriptive adjectives/adverbs? Punctuation Does each sentence have the correct end punctuation? Did I use commas and apostrophes correctly? Did I punctuate dialogue correctly? If I use the title of a book (Othello for example) have I underlined it? Capitalisation Did I start all of my sentences with capital letters? Did I capitalise the proper names of people, places, things and ideas? Grammar Do the subjects and verbs agree in all my sentences? Did I use the correct verb tenses and do all the verb tenses all agree? Spelling Did I check for spelling errors?

29

GRAPHIC ORGANISERS Graphic organisers can often help you to clarify your thoughts and plan your essay before you write it. Have at the look at the following examples and try implementing them in your essay writing. USEFUL SOURCES AND ESSAY GUIDES The following two sources (one textbook, one website) have been invaluable in the writing of this document. Various sections have been copied, others paraphrased, I hope that all have been appropriately referenced. They both come highly recommended if you require additional information on essay writing. Kemper, Sebranek, and Meyer. Writers INC. Wilmington, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 2001 Johnson, Tom. “Ten Steps to Writing an Essay.” August 2004. The American University in Cairo. 14th Nov 07 http://www1.aucegypt.edu/academic/writers/introduction.htm Other useful sources… “Guidelines for Essay Writing.” The University if Edinburgh. 14th Nov 07 http://www.englit.ed.ac.uk/studying/undergrd/english_lit_1/Common/essay_guidance.htm “Organisation.“ Guilford College. 15th Nov 07 http://www.guilford.edu/about_guilford/services_and_administration/writing/organization/index.html 15th Nov 07 www.cartoonstock.com

30

31

32

33

34

35

36