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HOW WILDNESS IS LOST250 years of encroachment into the Scottish hills

James Fenton

Extract from Wild Land News 94the newsletter of the Scottish Wild Land Group

www.swlg.org.ukJanuary 2019

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This article illustrates in roughchronological order the mainchanges to the Highland landscapeover the centuries. It considers onlythe wild, uncultivated land, not thesettlements and the land aroundwhere signs of human impactwould always have been high, asshown in the picture below.

Up until the 1800s there wouldhave been summer shielings distantfrom the settlements in the areas ofbetter grazing, but it is unlikelytheir presence would havedramatically altered thesurrounding landscape. Nowadaysthe signs of the small shielingbuildings are slowly disappearing,reclaimed by nature. Roads were

absent before the military roads ofthe 1700s.

Before the Highland Clearances andthe era of Victorian shootingestates, the land was not managedas such although it was used forgrazing, hunting and peat cuttingand, where present and nearhabitation, the exploitation ofwoods.

A naturally wild landscapeLandscapes where the vegetationpattern is determined by naturalprocesses (i.e. is not designed byhumans) and where infrastructureis absent can be termed naturallandscapes. Where such landscapes

How wildness is lost:250 years of encroachment into the hills

James Fenton

This article considers the land beyond the areas of settlement, i.e. the unenclosed hill land asshown here above Achiltibuie.

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are still found in the Highlands theyrepresent some of the most naturalremaining in Europe – althoughthey are becoming increasinglyrare.

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“The next day I travelled over anexceeding high mountain, calledmount Skeene … and withall, amost familiar mist embraced meround, that I could not see thricemy length any way : withall, ityielded so friendly a deaw, that itdid moisten thorow my clothes ;where the old proverb of a Scottishmiste was verified, in wetting me tothe skinne. Up and downe, I thinkthis hill is six miles, the way souneven, stony, and full of bogges,quagmires, and long heath, that adogge with three legs will out-runne a horse with four …”

Taylor, The Water Poet, in 1618 onMount Keen (939m)

“As I stood at the height of the roadand gazed down on its strangecourse both ways, I could not helprejoicing that there was at least oneplace where railways, canals, andsteamers and all these devices forsinking hills and raising valleys, andintroducing man and levels, anddestroying solitude and nature,would for ever be set at defiance.”

Lord Cockburn at the Rest and BeThankful in 1838

“When cross-country droving inScotland on an appreciable scalefirst began, and for many a yearthereafter, a great part of theHighland and upland areas of thecountry was common land, or atthe least land which, whilenominally owned by the localchieftain, was in fact unused anduncared for.”

A R B HaldaneThe Drove Roads of Scotland, 1952

“Settlement in the westernHighlands and Islands was mainlyconfined to very limited areasbecause of the challengingconstraints of geology, climate andgeography. Therefore, whenmodern visitors contemplate hillsand glens which are empty ofpeople, they should not assumethey were inhabited in the past. Orthat their present silence andloneliness were necessarily theconsequence of later clearance andemigration.”

Tom DevineThe Scottish Clearances, 2018

The Highlands: a natural and wild landscape. Beinn Dearg,Ross-shire.

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PEAT CUTTINGS

Period: For thousands of years, butthe practice is now dying out

Extent: Throughout Scotland

Reversibility: Irreversible (althoughpeat will regrow over thousands ofyears)

Peat has always been the main fuelof Scotland. Peat cutting, togetherwith creation of inbye land, probablycaused the greatest landscapechange throughout the earliercenturies.

Once all the peat near settlementswas used up, the people had totravel further and further to winpeat. In extreme cases, such as theisland of Eriskay, all the peat wasexhausted and people were reducedto removing and burning turf,resulting in exposure of bedrock insome places.

Hence much of the flatter land nearto existing and earlier settlementsconsists of land which once waspeat-covered. Peat growth mayeventually resume, but the processtakes thousands of years.

Traditional peat cutting in Wester Ross.

Over the millennia, removal of peat has transformed thelandscape. This picture in Shetland.

Signs of old peat cuttings are visible throughout theHighlands, here at Inverasdale.

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ROADS & RAILWAYS

Period: From 1725 onwards

Extent: Throughout the Highlands

Reversibility: Early roads tended tofollow the landforms and, whenunused, tend to merge back into thelandscape. Modern roads withsignificant landform modificationare to all intents and purposesirreversible

Before the building of the firstmilitary roads by General Wade,which began in 1725, themountainous areas of the Highlandswere road-less. For most of history,the sea was the main highway. Itwas only possible for wheeledvehicles to traverse the Highlandsafter the completion of the roadnetwork supervised by ThomasTelford in the early 19th century.

During the Victorian era, thecoming of the railways opened upthe Highlands to mass visitation.

The development of the road andrail infrastructure in the previouslytrackless uplands was an essentialprerequisite of the subsequentdevelopment of the Highlands –which, inevitably, accelerated theloss of wildness.

The Wade bridge at Daviot.

Road bridges old and new at Dunbeath.

Kyle of Lochalsh station. This line terminated at Stromeferryin 1870, when the line was opened, and was extended to Kyle

in 1897 – which at that time had only half a dozen houses.

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FENCING

Period: From the 18th centuryonwards

Extent: Throughout the hills andmoors

Reversibility: The process isreversible in that the fences can beremoved, although experience to-date suggests most will remain insitu even when redundant

As the shieling system(transhumance) died out, first dykesand then fences were built to keepstock out of the inbye land.

Compartmentalisation of the widerlandscape began with the erectionof fences and dykes as sheep-farmboundaries in the 18th century.These often went over the summitsof the hills at over 900 metresaltitude. Their remains are stillvisible today.

Compartmentalisation of theremaining wild areas throughfencing remains widespread today.This can be to manage grazing,separate landholdings, protectwoodland or for road safety.Particularly common nowadays arelong lengths of high deer fencingsurrounding new woodland/forestryschemes.

Roadside fencing also subdivides thearea: for example, roadside deerfencing from Garve to Loch Maree ineffect separates off the northwestHighlands.

The remains of a Victorian fence in the Monadhliath,built to separate sheep farms.

The Beinn Eighe ring fence built to exclude deer toallow woodland development.

A modern stock fence below Beinn Chapull in Argyll.

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VICTORIAN & LATERSHOOTING ESTATES

Period: 19th century

Extent: Throughout the Highlands

Reversibility: Buildings can beremoved but access tracks are likelyto remain. The pattern of muirburnfor grouse is reversible in that ifburning ceases the heather standswill recover to full height

Although there have been castlesand strongholds in the Highlandssince Pictish times (brochs), thesewere largely coastal or in the largerstraths. The creation of the Victorianshooting estates caused accesstracks and shooting lodges to bebuilt in the heart of the mountains.Before this period the areas wouldhave been road-less. Where theglens and straths were inhabited,there would have been turf housesand smaller shieling huts.

Management of moorland forgrouse through rotational heatherburning has resulted in an unnaturalpatchwork pattern on the hills andmoors. Although such burning hasbeen carried out since at least the19th century, it has probablyincreased in intensity in recentdecades.

Rotational burning of heather moorland aboveCorgarff to encourage red grouse.

Sron na Larig Lodge shooting Lodge in the Monadhliath(recently demolished).

Stripes of burnt heather above Glen Clunie.

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FORESTRY PLANTATIONS

Period: From the 1750s; majorexpansion post-1919; recentexpansion of native woodplantations from 2000

Extent: Throughout

Reversibility: Irreversible (throughsoil changes, including groundpreparation)

The adding of trees to the landscapeis the greatest cause of landscapechange in the Highlands. Theecological conditions of the area aresuch that woodland would naturallybe of restricted distribution (lessthan 10% land cover), with thelandscape of hills and moors largelyopen as would be expected in this,the oligocratic phase, of aninterglacial.

‘Improving’ estate owners startedcreating plantations in the 1750s,although these were at first oflimited extent. The processaccelerated rapidly following thecreation of the Forestry Commissionin 1919, when there wasgovernment policy to create astrategic reserve of timber. In someareas whole upland farms wereplanted.

The commercial forests which havetransformed the landscape consistprimarily of non-native conifers,with Sitka spruce now the mainspecies planted.

A spruce plantation on heather moorland above Strathnairn,with extensive plantations in the background.

Ground preparation for tree planting causes majorlandscape change. Top: mounding above Inveralligin.

Bottom: ploughing a whole hillside on Dava Moor.

A new native woodland plantation aboveLoch Bad an Sgalaig in Wester Ross.

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THE ORIGINAL HYDRO-ELECTRIC SCHEMES

Period: 1895-1975

Extent: Throughout the Highlands

Reversibility: Irreversible owing tothe volume of concrete and draw-down zones

Construction of the first large-scalehydro-electricity scheme in Britainbegan in 1895 at Foyers to providepower for aluminium smelting.Thereafter large scale schemes wereconstructed for smelters inKinlochleven and Fort William.

With the formation of the NorthScotland Hydro-Electric Board in1943, an era of dam building began,so that by 1975 over half thecatchments of the Highlandspossessed large-scale hydroschemes.

Most of the easily exploitablecatchments have now beendeveloped, so that future hydro-electric schemes will be relativelysmall-scale.

The middle picture shows the barerock which appears when reservoirlevels are low.

Associated with the reservoirs aretracks, borrow-pits, tailings, pipesand power-houses. Most suchschemes also have a network ofsmaller dams, channels and pipes tofunnel water from the tributaries tothe main reservoirs.

The Ben Cruachan dam.

The drawdown zone around Loch Cluanie when waterlevels are low.

A modern Highland landscape north of Loch Tay showing ahydro pipe, tailings from a hydro tunnel and commercial

forestry plantations.

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AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENT

Period: For thousands of years, withmajor expansion ca.1950-1970

Extent: Fringes of hills and moorland

Reversibility: Reversible in the longterm: abandoned land can over timeregain a natural vegetation cover.Ditching can be irreversible if it leadsto erosion

Land has been taken in for agriculturefor as long as there has been croppingof cereals, grass and vegetables. In theHighlands away from the east coast,the area of arable land has only everbeen a very small percentage of thewhole landscape. This is because,except in favoured low altitude areas,climate and soils preclude arablefarming. It has been restricted to thevicinity of settlements, i.e. favouredcoastal areas, and the floors of certainglens /straths.

Many of the level areas of raisedbeaches and the flat-bottoms of theglens and straths which are nowagricultural land would originally haveconsisted of raised peat bogs. Thesehave disappeared through peatcutting, drainage and agriculturalimprovement.

Grant-aid has resulted in extensiveareas of moorland being converted topasture, particularly in the 1950s and1960s. It also resulted in patterns ofmoor grips (ditches) being ploughedeven in remote areas distant fromsettlements.

An area of improved pasture on Ashie Moor,south of Inverness

A ditch ploughed through blanket peat, a once common practicethroughout the UK uplands to improve grazing (moor-gripping).

Pasture created out of the raised bog of Mòine Mhòrsouth of Kilmartin.

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An eroding path above Bridge of Orchy.

Tracks from from ATV vehicles above Inverasdale.

An improved (repaired) path in Glen Coe.

Footpaths below the Northern Corries of the Cairngorms.

FOOTPATHS AND ATV ROUTES

Period: 1800s onwards

Extent: Throughout the Highlands

Reversibility: Reversible (unless thecause of major erosion)

Foot and pony paths into the highhills were first constructed on thesporting estates in the 1800s toprovide access for stalkers and theirponies.

With the increase in hill-walkingfrom the 1950s onwards, informalpaths began to develop in the hillsalong the popular walking routes.

These paths often become erodedowing to the wet climate and peatysoils. Of necessity, many have beenconverted to constructed footpaths.

With the advent of all terrainvehicles (ATVs) in the 1960s, andmore recently quadbikes, vehicleshave increasingly been taken intothe hills away from formal tracks.Their wheel marks are often visibleon the vegetation and they caninstigate erosion, particularly wherethe soils are soft and peaty (lowerpicture).

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HILL TRACKS

Period: Since Victorian times, butprimarily in the 20th century and onto the present day

Extent: Throughout the Highlands

Reversibility: Irreversible

Tracks designed to facilitatevehicular access have beenincreasing in extent throughout thehills and moors, even into theremotest areas. There are now fewplaces more than a mile or two froma track.

They have been built to provideaccess for farmers, estate workers,shooting clients and hydro-electricschemes. Additionally newcommercial forestry plantations,windfarms and masts come with anassociated networks of tracks. Theconstruction of modern tracks,particularly those designed to takeheavy construction traffic, can resultin major importation of hardcoreinto the area.

Although it is theoretically possibleto remove tracks and reinstate theoriginal landform, this is anexpensive operation and not alwayspossible in rough and steep terrain.

A hill track for grouse shooting in the Monadhliath.

A new track above Achnasheen.

A hill track for deer stalking in Coire Buidhebelow Ben Sgulaird, Argyll.

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PYLONS, TRANSMISSION LINESAND MASTS

Period: 1940s onwards (pylons);1990s onwards (mobile phonemasts)

Extent: Throughout, although phonemasts are primarily along transportcorridors

Reversibility: Reversible

Metal pylons came on the scene inthe 1940s with the advent of thefirst large-scale hydro-electricschemes.

Additionally there are numerouspower-lines throughout theHighlands carried by smaller woodenpoles, again dating from the firsthydro-electric power stations.

Although there have beencommunication masts on some hillssince the middle years of the 20thcentury, the advent of the mobilephone has resulted in masts beingbuilt throughout the Highlands.These are generally along the majorroads. Many masts have aconstructed access track.

Above Loch Cluanie.

Above Slochd.

Below Ben Cruachan.

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DOWNHILL SKI DEVELOPMENT

Period: 1955-1990

Extent: Five localities

Reversibility: Most aspectspotentially reversible

The first permanent ski tow wasbuilt in Glencoe in 1956, althoughskiing enthusiasts had being usingBen Lawers and other hills since theearly 20th century. Work started onbuilding the last ski centre, NevisRange, in 1988.

The ski centres are at The Lecht,Cairn Gorm, Glencoe (Mealla’Bhuiridh). Nevis Range (AonachMor) and Glenshee. As well as upliftfacilities, infrastructure includes carparks, buildings and snow fences.

Of necessity the ski centres are inmountain areas, and include thesixth highest mountain in Scotland(Cairn Gorm) and the eighth (AonachMor).

The Nevis Range ski area.

The car park at Cairn Gorm.

The Cairngorms ski area.

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WIND FARMS

Period: 2005 onwards

Extent: Throughout, although not inNational Parks and National ScenicAreas

Reversibility: The turbines arereversible (can be removed), but theconcrete foundations, access tracksand borrow pits are in effectirreversible

Windfarms are a characteristic ofthe 21st century. The tall turbinesare generally visible from multipleviewpoints although their visualimpact is reversible in that they canbe removed.

Their construction necessitates thecreation of a network of accesstracks, often of long distance. Theserequire large volumes of hardcore asfoundation, either won from localborrow pits or imported. Turbinefoundations require considerablevolumes of concrete (as did theoriginal hydro-electric schemes). It istheoretically possible to remove thetracks, concrete foundations andimported hardcore to reinstate theoriginal landform, but this is anexpensive operation and probablynot practical.

The Carraig Gheal wind farm west of Loch Awe.

The Farr wind farm, with associated tracks.

The Farr wind farm in the Monadhliath.

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NEW HYDRO-ELECTRICSCHEMES

Period: 2000 onwards

Extent: Throughout the Highlands

Reversibility: Can be reversible ornot

With the completion of the last ofthe major hydro-electric schemes inthe 1970s, there was a lull in theconstruction of new ones. In recentyears there has been a revival ofinterest. As most of the easilyexploitable catchments have beendeveloped, effort is nowconcentrated on pumped-storageschemes and smaller run-of-riverschemes.

The top picture shows a dam beingbuilt over moorland to form thereservoir for a pumped-storagescheme. The lower pictures shownew access tracks associated withthe creation of small run-of-riverschemes; other associatedinfrastructure will be a dam, pipeand small power-station.

Such run-of-river schemes arecurrently being built throughout theHighlands, including the remotestglens.

There are likely to be more of bothtypes of scheme, particularly run-of-river schemes. Currently pumpedstorage schemes are the only way totemporarily store electricity fromrenewable energy generation.A new run-of-river hydro scheme being built at Kingairloch.

One of the new run-of-river hydro schemes in Glen Fallochunder construction, within the Loch Lomond and The

Trossachs National Park.

The new Glendoe pumped storage scheme. This shows the damunder construction to create a high altitude reservoir

(over blanket peat).

A new scheme within the Wester Ross National Scenic Area.

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An Ordnance Survey trig point in the Monadhliath.

A burn on Jura which has been deepened to improvethe fishing.

A scrape on a Monadhliath grouse moor built toencourage grouse.

ACCUMULATION OF SMALL-SCALE STRUCTURES

Period: 1800s onwards

Extent: Throughout

Reversibility: Reversible

Shieling sites date back hundreds ofyears, but their signs on thelandscape are slowly fading.

In the 1800s the Ordnance Surveybegan mapping the Highlands andconstructed huts at high altitudenear the main triangulation stations(Colby Camps), the remains of whichare still visible in some places. Smalltriangulation pillars (trig points) areare a common sight on summits.

Landowners sometimes take diggersinto the hills to restructure burnsand rivers to improve fishing,particularly canalisation and thedeepening of pools.

Grouse shooting estates can createlines of shooting butts and also digpools for grouse.

Other structures include cairns,signposts, notice boards andfootbridges.

A sign in the Cairngorms.

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Scottish Wild Land Group

Working to protect Scotland’s species, environment and landscapes

We are Scotland’s oldest and only volunteer-run wild land charity

Join us today at www.swlg.org.uk

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The objects of the Group are:(a) To promote the conservation of wild land in Scotland;(b) To promote public awareness of the problems facing wild land in Scotland;(c) To promote and encourage the implementation of good planning policies;(d) To co-operate with other bodies to promote the foregoing objects.

Liathach by James Fenton