howard coral reef fish and the aquarium trade (ecological impacts and socio-cultural influences in...

8/9/2019 Howard Coral Reef Fish and the Aquarium Trade (Ecological Impacts and Socio-cultural Influences in Souther Sri Lan…

1/431

•

•

•

http://htt//etheses.dur.ac.uk/policies/http://%20http//etheses.dur.ac.uk/6947/http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/6947/http://www.dur.ac.uk/


2/431

http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/


3/431

Abstract

Coral reef fish and the aquarium trade: ecological impacts andsocio-cultural influences in southern Sri Lanka

James Alexander Edward Howard

The chronic degradation of coral reefs globally and its negative impact on coastal

communities such as those in southern Sri Lanka dependent on the marine ornamental

trade for their livelihood forms the focus of this study. Attempts to improve the

conservation status of Sri Lanka's coral reefs and their associated fauna have failed

because they omit to address the social circumstances of local people. Such social-

ecological systems require an integrated approach, hich provides holistic reasons forthe degradation of natural ecosystems and livelihoods of coastal people. The aim of this

study as therefore to ascertain the current sustainability of the marine ornamental trade

in southern Sri Lanka through an interdisciplinary study employing a participatory

bottom-up approach, and derive from findings alternative pathays to restore and

maintain the health of the reef and thus provide better livelihoods for the fishing

communities.

!indings confirm both the fragile state of nearshore coral reefs, their fish populations

and the precarious nature of local communities" livelihoods. #istorical and recent

environmental and anthropogenic impacts reduced resilience in all trade sectors and

current fishing practices and the un$ust supply chain compound these effects.

Therefore, a holistic co-management frameork is recommended that recognises local

ecological knoledge and involves fishing communities as citi%en scientists to improve

monitoring and also provides communication channels to facilitate interaction ithin

and across all groups of the ornamental trade. &n this ay, all actors are involved in

making decisions and taking responsibility for the management of the supply chain at

their particular level. This single, coherent frameork ould thus employ diverse

groups and ays of doing as a resilience strategy to halt the degradation and

reinvigorate the reef for more sustainable utilisation hilst simultaneously developing

highly acceptable alternative income generating livelihoods such as the community-

based aquaculture eperiment undertaken during this study.


4/431


5/431

Coral reef fish and the aquarium trade:

ecological impacts andsocio-cultural

influences in southern Sri Lanka

James A. E. Howard

hesis su!mitted for the degree of"octor of #hilosoph$

"epartment of Anthropolog$and

School of %iological & %iomedical Sciences

"urham 'ni(ersit$Septem!er )*+)


6/431


7/431

Table of Contents

List of !igures..............................................................................................................i

List of Tables.............................................................................................................iii

List of Acronyms......................................................................................................vii(eclaration..................................................................................................................

Acknoledgements....................................................................................................i

(edication................................................................................................................iv

Chapter 1: - Introduction...........................................................................................1

).) *reface................................................................................................................)

).+ a$or themes of the thesis.................................................................................+

). ationale and unique focus of the thesis............................................................/

).0 1b$ectives of the study.......................................................................................2

)./ 1vervie of the thesis........................................................................................3

Chapter 2: - Literature Review................................................................................13

+.) &ntroduction......................................................................................................)

+.).) 4oral structure and physiology.................................................................)

+.).+ #uman interactions ith coral reefs.........................................................)0

+.+ Status of coral reefs orldide........................................................................)5

+. Status of reefs in Sri Lanka..............................................................................)2

+..) eef fisheries............................................................................................)6

+..+ 1rnamental fishery in Sri Lanka..............................................................)6

+.0 Threats to coral reefs........................................................................................)3

+.0.) 7nvironmental threats...............................................................................)3

+.0.+ Anthropogenic threats...............................................................................+8

+./ Threats in Sri Lanka.........................................................................................+)

+.5 &mpacts on coral reefs......................................................................................+)

+.5.) 1verfishing...............................................................................................+)

+.5.+ Trophic cascades.......................................................................................++

+.5. 1rnamental trade......................................................................................+

+.5.0 4oral bleaching.........................................................................................+0

+.2 &mpacts on Sri Lankan reefs.............................................................................+/

i


8/431

+.2.) 1verfishing on Sri Lankan reefs...............................................................+5

+.6 Alternating stable states of coral reefs.............................................................+5

+.3 4oral reef management....................................................................................+2

+.)8 anagement of Sri Lankan reefs...................................................................+6

+.)) 9ho is to blame for the state of the commons:.............................................+3+.)+ *ast and current management failures............................................................8

+.) Theoretical frameork...................................................................................

+.).) #istorical ecology...................................................................................

+.).+ *anarchy................................................................................................./

+.).+.) esilience........................................................................................2

+.).+.+ !orms of resilience.........................................................................3

+.).+. 9ays to foster resilience.................................................................08+.).+.0 anaging resilience........................................................................0)

+.).+./ esilience in coral reef systems......................................................0)

+.)0 Local knoledge............................................................................................0+

+.)0.) Local ecological knoledge among tropical reef fishers.......................0/

+.)0.+ Traditional forms of management..........................................................02

+.)/ *olitical ecology.............................................................................................06

+.)5 !isheries governance....................................................................................../8

+.)5.) #ierarchical governance........................................................................./8

+.)5.+ arket-based governance......................................................................./8

+.)5. *articipatory governance......................................................................../)

+.)2 4onclusion....................................................................................................../0

Chapter 3: - A narrative on the development of the project’ method...............!"

.) Statement of *urpose ......................................................................................./5

.+ !irst field season;


9/431

.+.6 (aily routine and participant observation................................................5/

.+.3 &ndirect recording of catch........................................................................5/

.+.)8 1ut-season and semi-structured intervies @SS&s.................................55

.+.)) !ocus groups...........................................................................................56

.+.)+ Alternative livelihood trial......................................................................53.+.) &ndependent reef fishing observations....................................................53

. Socio-ecology of the villages...........................................................................28

..) 9ay of life of divers.................................................................................2

.0 7thnography of village sites ............................................................................23

.0.) #ikkadua................................................................................................23

.0.+ Bapparathota.............................................................................................68

.0. Thalaramba...............................................................................................6+.0.0 *olhena.....................................................................................................6

./ Second field season; Covember +883 = April +8)8.........................................60

./.) *articipant observation.............................................................................6/

./.+ eef surveys and ornamental tank setup..................................................6/

./. !isher shadoing trips..............................................................................66

./.0 1rnamental fish tank aquaculture trial.....................................................66

././ &ntervies.................................................................................................63

.5 !ollo up field season; Covember = (ecember +8)8.....................................38

.2 Anthropological data analysis..........................................................................3)

.6 A marine ornamental fish's $ourney..................................................................3+

Chapter #: - $ocial hitor% and hitorical ecolo&% of the ornamental fiher% in

$ri Lan'a...................................................................................................................(!

0.) &ntroduction......................................................................................................3/

0.+ Social history of the villages............................................................................32

0. 7ffects of Tourism .........................................................................................)88

0.0 #istorical ecology of diving in Sri Lanka......................................................)8)

0.0.) *earl fishery in Sri Lanka.......................................................................)8+

0.0.+ 1rnamental fishery.................................................................................)80

0.0. The effect of the civil ar.......................................................................)85

0.0.0 1ther historical impacts on the ecology of the reefs..............................)82

iii


10/431

0.0./ are environmental events.....................................................................))8

0./ 4onclusion......................................................................................................))

Chapter !: - )he effect of ornamental diver* +ehaviour on catch rate and the

reilience of aociated coral reef.........................................................................11!

/.) &ntroduction....................................................................................................))/

/.).) &mpacts of fishing and vies of fishers and fishing...............................))5

/.).+ &nclusion of Local 7cological Bnoledge @L7B in fisheries

monitoring.......................................................................................................))2

/.). Social compleity behind fishing behaviour and activity......................))2

/.).0 4oncept of resilience in both fishing and management..........................))6

/.)./ The need to build resilience in the ornamental fishery in Sri Lanka......))3/.).5 Aims........................................................................................................)+8

/.+ ethods and (ata analysis.............................................................................)+)

/. esults............................................................................................................)+

/..) Shadoed snorkelling trips....................................................................)+

/..+ 4atch per unit effort @4*?7 and overall fishing pressure....................)+2

/.. 7ffect of divers' behaviour on fishing pressure and resilience...............)+3

/..0 4atch composition of shadoed fishing trips........................................)0

/../ (ivers' behaviour and habitat damage....................................................)6

/..5 Self aareness of behaviours and coral damage....................................)0+

/.0 (iscussion......................................................................................................)05

/.0.) &mpact of fishery on reef ecology...........................................................)05

/.0.+ 1ptimal foraging or resource conservation:..........................................)06

/.0. 7cological esilience.............................................................................)/8

/.0.0 (eriving local ecological knoledge ....................................................)/+

/.0./ Social resilience......................................................................................)/

/.0.5 4ultural resilience...................................................................................)/0

/.0.2 Local versus global effects on the fishery..............................................)//

/./ 4onclusion......................................................................................................)/5

Chapter ": - Complementar% cientific and local 'nowled&e to determine the

tatu of reef ite and the potential of diver to +ecome ,citien cientit... .1!/

5.) &ntroduction....................................................................................................)/2

iv


11/431

5.+ ethods..........................................................................................................)58

5.+.) Study area...............................................................................................)58

5.+.+ Sampling design and underater visual census method........................)58

5.+. Substrate surveys....................................................................................)5

5.+.0 Statistical analysis of data......................................................................)505.+./ Anthropological methodology ...............................................................)55

5.+./.) !ocus groups...................................................................................)55

5. esults of ?nderater Disual 4ensus !ish and #abitat Surveys...................)52

5..) 1verall patterns......................................................................................)52

5..+ #abitat differences and similarities among sites....................................)2

5.. 4omparison of fish diversity and evenness among sites and substrates )22

5..0 (ifferences in species richness, abundance and biomass among sites andsubstrates.........................................................................................................)26

5../ 4omparisons of abundance and biomass by family group.....................)6+

5..5 4omparisons of density and biomass by functional group.....................)65

5..2 Eeneralised linear mied model @EL results.................................)63

5.0 (ivers' knoledge of their village aters......................................................)3)

5.0.) !ish breeding knoledge........................................................................)3)

5.0.+ (ivers' conception of the reef and their perception as to its current

health...............................................................................................................)3)

5.0. Time-line of reef and fishing conditions................................................)3/

5.0.0 L7B contrast beteen young and old divers..........................................)35

5.0./ Bnoledge generation among ornamental divers..................................)36

5.0.5 (ivers' mental maps of the reefs............................................................+8)

5./ (iscussion......................................................................................................+8/

5.5 4onclusion......................................................................................................+)5

Chapter /: - )he intricacie of the mar'et chain and it influence on the marine

ornamental fiher%..................................................................................................21/

2.) &ntroduction....................................................................................................+)2

2.).) The division beteen the industry and conservationists........................+)6

2.).+ Elobal trade and the ornamental fish industry.......................................++8

2.). Aims........................................................................................................++5

2.+ ethods..........................................................................................................++5

v


12/431

2. esults............................................................................................................++6

2..) Snorkel catches among sites...................................................................++6

2..+ Snorkel catches among buyers...............................................................++

2.. S4?FA catch among sites......................................................................+0

2..0 S4?FA catch among buyers .................................................................+62../ 7stimate of marine ornamental fish collected in Sri Lanka in one year

from logbook data............................................................................................+3

2..5 7stimate of ornamental fish volumes from intervies ith buyers.......+0)

2..2 1rnamental fish volumes estimates from intervies ith eporters.....+0)

2..6 7stimate of ornamental fish volumes eported from Sri Lanka from

official statistics...............................................................................................+00

2..3 !urther data taken from buyer's logbooks and intervies ith buyers andeporters..........................................................................................................+0/

2..3.) ortality.........................................................................................+0/

2..3.+ Eender selectivity > si%e of fish caught.........................................+02

2..)8 elations beteen the different levels of the market chain in Sri

Lanka...............................................................................................................+03

2..)8.) (ivers and village buyers.............................................................+/8

2..)8.+ (ivers, suppliers and eport companies.......................................+/)

2..)8. 7port companies and foreign importers......................................+/0

2..)) *oer of the buyers and eporters.......................................................+/0

2..)+ !ish pricing system...............................................................................+//

2..) Fusiness tra$ectories.............................................................................+/6

2.0 (iscussion......................................................................................................+58

2.0.) 4omparison of snorkel catches among sites and buyers........................+58

2.0.+ 4atch and trade volumes estimates.........................................................+5

2.0. elations among all sectors....................................................................+55

2.0.0 !ish pricing.............................................................................................+52

2.0./ (ynamics of poer and debt ithin the market chain...........................+56

2.0.5 !uture ays............................................................................................+53

Chapter 0: - olitical ecolo&% and &overnance of the ornamental fiher%.........2/1

6.) &ntroduction....................................................................................................+2)

6.).) *olitical ecology of the ornamental fishery............................................+2)

vi


13/431

6.+ Signs of change for the ornamental fishery:..................................................+2+

6. *ast and current governance of the marine ornamental fishery in Sri Lanka +65

6..) CAA.....................................................................................................+62

6..+ (!A......................................................................................................+66

6.. 4oast 4onservation (epartment.............................................................+636..0 Sri Lanka 4ustoms.................................................................................+38

6../ Las and regulations..............................................................................+3)

6..5 4ompliance ith the las......................................................................+3+

6..2 &nteraction of all the players...................................................................+30

6.0 4ontinuing problems in the ornamental fishery.............................................+3/

6.0.) (!A 's perception of the problem and high task load..........................+3/

6.0.+ 4ontinuing trade in Gcut-floerH species ..............................................+356.0. !ishing don the coral reef value chain.................................................+35

6.0.0 7nforcement and political interference..................................................+32

6.0./ &nappropriate restricted species lists.......................................................+36

6./ (ynamic sustainabilities................................................................................+33

6.5 4onclusion......................................................................................................8

Chapter (: - on-monetar% +enefit of fihin& and the potential of alternative

livelihood................................................................................................................3#

3.) &ntroduction....................................................................................................80

3.+ ethods .........................................................................................................8/

3.


14/431

3.0..+ 1ther challenges.............................................................................+)

3.0.. Attitudes and skills of home-tank oners.......................................++

3.0..0 !uture initiative...............................................................................+

3./ 4onclusion......................................................................................................+0

Chapter 1: - Concluion........................................................................................32"

)8.) &ntroduction..................................................................................................+5

)8.+ Summary of main findings ..........................................................................+2

)8. ecommendations for the ornamental fishery in Sri Lanka.........................+

)8..) Small-scale freshater fish aquaculture.............................................../

)8..+ Tourist reef guides................................................................................5

)8.. eef restoration....................................................................................5)8..0 7ducation and training..........................................................................5

)8.0 Elobal applicability of the results and approaches used..............................6

)8./ eflection of the research process................................................................08

Appendi A..........................................................................................................0+

Appendi F..........................................................................................................05

Appendi 4..........................................................................................................03

Appendi (........................................................................................................../+

Appendi 7.........................................................................................................../0

Appendi !.........................................................................................................../6

Appendi E..........................................................................................................5+

Appendi #..........................................................................................................5/

eferences............................................................................................................52

viii


15/431

List of Figures

!ig +.) elationship beteen catch per unit effort @4*?7 andabundance, Source; Sadovy, @+88/............................................ )

!ig +.+ Adaptive cycle of comple S7S. Source; Eunderson >#olling, @+88+............................................................................ 2

!ig +. The stability landscape; basins of attraction,ith edges beteen them and shoing L @latitude, @resistance and *r@precariousness. Adapted from 9alker et al., @+880............... 3

!ig .). ap of Sri Lanka ith ma$or tons and cities related to theornamental fish trade marked. Study sites are shon in theenlarged section, as ell as other ornamental fishing villages;?9 I ?naatunaJ T I TalpeJ F( I Fandaramulla and d I

adihaJ and nearby tons; E I EalleJ 9 I 9eligamaJ Iatara and ( I (ondra.............................................................. 5+

!ig .+. ap of study sites in the south-est region of Sri Lanka andeach study site individually. The sea area shon encompassesthe nearshore coral reef area here snorkellers operate forfished sites or the etent of the marine protected area at#ikkadua.................................................................................. 2+

!ig . 1rnamental diver placing the moy net over a hiding fish. Cotethe float attached to the centre of the net and the lead eightsalong the edge of the net............................................................. 20

!ig .0 Stilt fishers at ork in the early evening during the S9monsoon, *olhena....................................................................... 25

!ig 0.). Artist's impression of the 4eylon *earl !ishery published inThe Eraphic ++ 1ct )662, London, 7ngland. The picturedepicts the cre on a dive boat and divers in the ater near theedge of the boat as ell as descending and collecting oysters@insets ......................................................................................... )80

!ig /.). ean number of fish caught per trip hour among @a sites and@b snorkellers, each letter denotes a different individual. Sitecodes; B* I Bapparathota, *1 I *olhena, TL I Thalaramba.

!isher codes; K I Koung, I id, 1 I 1ld.............................. )+6!ig /.+. ean number of fish caught per net thro per trip among @a

sites and @b snorkellers, each letter denotes a differentindividual. Site codes; B* I Bapparathota, *1 I *olhena, TLI Thalaramba. !isher codes; K I Koung, I id, 1 I 1ld..... )+3

!igs /.a Snorkelling fishing trip routes in Bapparathota's nearshoreaters. 7ach coloured line is a separate snorkelling trip. 1nlyseven trips are shon for clarity. !ish sale points are the fish

buyers' locations in the village..................................................... )

i


16/431

!ig /.b Snorkelling fishing trip routes in *olhena's nearshore aters.7ach coloured line is a separate snorkelling trip. !ish sale

points are the fish buyers' locations in the village....................... )

!ig /.c Snorkelling fishing trip routes in Thalaramba's nearshoreaters. 7ach coloured line is a separate snorkelling trip. !ishsale points are the fish buyers' locations in the village................ )0

!ig /.0. @a ean coral breaks @ 3/M 4.&. per trip hour by snorkellersamong sites. Site codes; B*I Bapparathota, *1I *olhena,TLI Thalaramba @b ean ater changes of holding bag @3/M 4.&. per trip hour by different aged and eperienceddivers over all sites...................................................................... )08

!ig /./ Locations here fish ere caught, here coral as damaged orhere both events occurred at the same point from shadoedsnorkelling trips in nearshore aters at all three fished sites.G1therH denotes non-fish organisms collected. !ish sale pointsare the buyers' location................................................................ )00

!ig 5.). #abitat composition among reef sites epressed as percentagecover from census sites. Site codes are; #B I #ikkadua, B*I Bapparathota, *1 I *olhena, TL I Thalaramba...................... )2/

!ig 5.+. ean cover of @a live coral, @b dead coral, @c rubble, @dmacro-algae, @e structural compleity and @f mean verticalheight among the four reef sites. Site codes are; #B I#ikkadua, B* I Bapparathota, *1 I *olhena, TL IThalaramba ................................................................................. )25

!ig 5.. eef fish diversity among substrates at each site. Solid dots

indicate the median and open dots indicate outliers. Substratecodes are; (4 I (ead coral, L4 I Live coral, I ubble, S ISand. Site codes are; #B I #ikkadua, B* I Bapparathota,*1 I *olhena, TL I Thalaramba................................................. )26

!ig 5.0. Catural log transformed reef fish mean density amongsubstrates ithin sites for all fish censused. Substrate codes;(4 I (ead coral, L4 I Live coral, I ubble, S I Sand. Sitecodes; #B I #ikkadua, B* I Bapparathota, *1 I *olhena,TL I Thalaramba......................................................................... )23

!ig 5./. ean reef fish biomass among sites and habitats for all species

censused in the survey. 7rror bars denote standard error.Substrate codes; (4 I (ead coral, L4 I Live coral, Iubble, S I Sand. Site codes; #B I #ikkadua, B* IBapparathota, *1 I *olhena, TL I Thalaramba.......................... )68

!ig 5.5. elative M abundance by family groups for each @a site and@b substrate. The families contributing to beteen 68 and 3/Mtotal abundance are shon. Site codes; #B I #ikkadua, B* IBapparathota, *1 I *olhena, TL I Thalaramba. Substratecodes are; (4 I (ead coral, L4 I Live coral, I ubble, S ISand............................................................................................. )60


17/431

!ig 5.2. elative M biomass by family groups for each @a site and @bsubstrate. The families contributing to beteen 68 and 3/Mtotal biomass are shon. Site codes; #B I #ikkadua, B* IBapparathota, *1 I *olhena, TL I Thalaramba. Substratecodes are; (4 I (ead coral, L4 I Live coral, I ubble, S ISand............................................................................................. )6/

!ig 5.6. ean density @fish. 3 m-+ of different functional groups amongsubstrates ithin sites. Substrate codes; (4 I (ead coral, L4I Live coral, I ubble, S I Sand. Site codes; #B I#ikkadua, B* I Bapparathota, *1 I *olhena, TL IThalaramba ................................................................................. )62

!ig 5.3. ean biomass @g. m-+ of different functional groups amongsubstrates ithin sites. Substrate codes; (4 I (ead coral, L4I Live coral, I ubble, S I Sand. Site codes; #B I#ikkadua, B* I Bapparathota, *1 I *olhena, TL IThalaramba ................................................................................. )66

!ig 5.)8. ap of Bapparathota village and snorkellers' fishing areas. Cumbers )-5 denote fish buyer sites in order of ealth. 4irclesand curved dark lines denote rocks.............................................. +8+

!ig 5.)). ap of *olhena village and snorkellers' fishing areas. Cumbers)-0 denote fish buyer sites........................................................... +8

!ig 5.)+. ap of Thalaramba village and snorkellers' fishing areas. Cumbers )-/ denote fish buyer sites. All the circular shapes arerocks. Fron triangular boats mark boat entry points and boatroads @GparaHs are marked ith dotted lines. 9hite shapes are

live coral areas............................................................................. +80!ig 5.). 4hange in live coral cover since )332 @pre-bleaching, after+880 @tsunami and +8)8 @this study at each study site. Sitecodes; #BI #ikkadua, B*IBapparathota, *1I *olhena,TLIThalaramba. Kears marked are years hen reef surveysere carried out. Sources; a$asuriya, et al. @+888J +88+J +88/J+886 and this study..................................................................... +86

!ig 2.). ean number of fish caught @ S.7. @bars and mean earnings@ 3/M 4.&. @LB per snorkelling trip among sites. Sitecodes; F( I Fandaramulla, B* I Bapparathota, *1 I *olhena,

TL I Thalaramba. 4&s from replicate trips.................................. +8!ig 2.+. ean number of fish caught @ S.7. @bars and mean earnings

@ 3/M 4.&. @LB per snorkelling trip among buyers. Fuyercodes; A I Fandaramulla, F-(I Bapparathota, !-E I *olhena,#-< I Thalaramba. 4&s from replicate trips................................. +8

!ig 2.. The basic structure of the marine ornamental trade marketchain in Sri Lanka, ith estimated numbers involved in eachsector of the ornamental fish trade in the southern region of SriLanka. Source of numbers; CAA, Sri Lanka @+8)8................ +03

!ig 2.0. Dalue of the Sri Lankan rupee @LB against the ?S dollar

beteen )32) and +8)8. Source; 1fficer, @+8))........................ +58

i


18/431

!ig 6.). An information sign erected in +8)8 shoing the efforts of thene co-management pro$ect and government and institutional

participants. The sign is located along the main path to the bayin Bapparathota here boats are moored and divers enter theater ........................................................................................... 88

!ig 3.). Foplot of medians,quartiles and ranges of respondentsansers. The data shos the relative prioritisation by divers offactors relating to diving as an occupation at all sites.&mportance scale; ) I most important and 6 I least important.!actor codes; A I#aving little money in the out-season F I4ontinued eistence of coral reefs, 4 I 7arning money foryourself, (I Lo fish prices, 7 I 7arning money for family, !I (esire to find an alternative $ob, E I &nequity in supplychain system, # I #aving an accident at sea. espondents @nI 2.............................................................................................. 86

!ig 3.+. (ivers reasons for choosing their $ob, in order of importance.

&mportance scale; ) I most important and 5 I least important.!amily time means ability to spend more time ith family thanother $obs. espondents @n I 2................................................. 83

ii


19/431

List of Tables

Table ).). 4hapter numbers in hich each aim of the study is addressed andthe level of integration of the to disciplines ithin each chapter

and aim............................................................................................... 3Table .). ?ser groups ith involvement in the ornamental fishery that &

interacted ith at each study site. Cumbers indicate the quantity of people interacted ith during the study out of a total number of people constituting that group at each site, indicated in brackets.Asterisks indicate estimated numbers. 4olombo and Cegombo areincluded to sho the concentration of eport companies andgovernment departments at these locations. To other reef sites@F( > ?9 ith loer numbers of divers are included to providesome comparison to the main four study sites. Site codes; #B I#ikkadua, B* I Bapparathota, *1 I *olhena, TL I Thalaramba,41 I 4olombo, C7E I Cegombo, F( I Fandaramulla, ?9I?naatuna.......................................................................................... 26

Table /.). Site comparisons of directly observed snorkellers catch data. Sitecodes; B* I Bapparathota, *1 I *olhena, TL I Thalaramba. !ishsi%es are total lengths@TL.................................................................. )+0

Table /.+. esults of *oisson and linear regressions of snorkeller fishingstatistics compared across sites @reference site I Bapparathota andacross ageN eperience categories @reference group I id............... )+/

Table /.. EL Eaussian regression results comparing 4*?7 t and 4*?7n

across sites and across ageN eperience categories. odel referencesite I GBapparathotaH and model reference age I GidH................... )+2

Table /.0. 1verall maimum fishing pressure epressed as hours fished perunit area per unit time for each site. Site codes; B* IBapparathota, *1 I *olhena, TL I Thalaramba................................ )+

Table /./. Ten most frequently caught species of fish and invertebrates, fromdirect observations across all sites. !unctional group key; #F I#erbivore, &CD I &nvertivore. Sale prices gathered from buyerslogbooks and directly from divers and averaged across si%e and site

price differentials. *rices in LB I Sri Lankan upee, ?SO)I))

LB.................................................................................................... )/Table /.5. Top +8 most caught species, si%es and electivity indices @7i from

33 shadoed fishing trips across all sites. All lengths are totallengths. Lm I Total length @cm at first maturity calculated fromLinf and von Fertalanffy equation @!roese > *auly, )332. ealdata Lm I actual knon si%e at maturity @!roese > *auly)332................................................................................................... )2

Table /.2. *oisson and Eaussian regression model results of snorkellers' behaviours and damage compared across sites and age. eferencesite I GBapparathotaH and reference age I GidH............................. )3

iii


20/431

Table /.6. ean values of coral damage measures and different fishing behaviours among sites and among divers of different age andeperience. Koung I )0-)2 yrs old > )-0 yrs eperience, id I )2-+6 yrs old > 0-)8 yrs eperience, 1ld I 8-/8 yrs old > )8-8 yrseperience........................................................................................... )0)

Table /.3. 4omparison of total fish caught, total coral pieces broken and otherornamental organisms collected during E*S recorded shado trips.! I !ish and shrimps, 4 I 4oral, 1ther I lobsters, octopus,urchins, starfish collected................................................................... )0/

Table 5.). Cumber of replicates performed at each reef site and substrategroup during the ?D4 surveys........................................................... )5+

Table 5.+. !ish species observed in the ?D4s, their maimum length @Lmafrom @Allen > Steene, )330J Allen et al., +88J !roese > *auly,)332J Anderson, )335, their assigned functional group, main targetfishery, their biomass as a percent of total family biomass and their

percent ubiquity over all )66 point count sites. !ishery role codes;1! I 1rnamental fishery, !11( I !ood fishery, CT I Cottargeted. !unctional group codes; #F I #erbivore, *L I*lanktivore, *& I *iscivore, &C I &nvertivore, 41I 4orallivore,1 I 1mnivore.................................................................................

)56-)2

Table 5.. Average percentage cover and standard deviations ith ranks givenof substrate component types across the four study nearshore reefs.Site codes; #B I #ikkadua, B* I Bapparathota, *1 I *olhena,TL I Thalaramba. (ifferences among sites ere measured usingone-ay AC1DA after percentages ere arcsin transformed @levelof significance; p P 8.8/, n.s I not significant.. G1therH category

includes corallimorpharians................................................................ )20Table 5.0. ean Shannon- 9iener @ H' diversity and *ielou's @ J 7venness

measures of reef fish encountered at each site and substratecombination and its associated measure of evenness......................... )22

Table 5./. Spearman rank correlation summary beteen reef fish assemblagemeasures and habitat variables from all reef sites. @n I )66.Significant correlations are marked for p P .8) QQ and p P .88) QQQ.#abitat variables codes; S4 I Structural compleityJ D#T Isubstrate maimum vertical heightJ L4 I live coral coverJ (4 Idead coralJ S4( I substrate composition diversityJ Temp I

temperature @ R4................................................................................. )6Table 5.5. Eeneralised linear mied model results of overall abundance

compared across site and substrate ith species set as the randomeffect................................................................................................... )63

Table 5.2. Linear mied model results of biomass compared across site andsubstrate ith species set as the random effect.................................. )38

Table 5.6. Seasonal calendar shoing sea and eather conditions and themonths hen main target fish breed according to ornamental diversat three reef sites. Site codes; B* I Bapparathota, *1 I *olhena,

TL I Thalaramba. !ish names are local names used by divers..........

)3-

)30

iv


21/431

Table 5.3. Timeline comparison of conditions and factors beteen )/ yearsago and today, affecting ornamental divers in Bapparathota,*olhena and Thalaramba, ith brief reasons given for each, derivedfrom focus groups and discussions ith divers.................................. +88

Table 5.)8. 4omplementarity of scientific knoledge and L7B for populationmonitoring @adapted from oller et al. +880.................................... +)/

Table 2.). Elobal estimates of the overall value of the ornamental fish trade@marine and freshater combined. (ata derived from officialcountry and !ood and Agriculture 1rganisation @!A1 statistics,hich are often based on eight and value data, from hichestimates of fish numbers are made.................................................... +++

Table 2.+. 7stimates of the value of the marine ornamental trade in varioussource countries as ell as global estimates from earlier studies....... +++

Table 2.. 4omparison of concerns, research needs and managementsuggestions stated in reports on the Sri Lankan and global marine

ornamental fishery over +/ years....................................................... ++0Table 2.0. *oisson and Eaussian regression model results comparing snorkel

catch data recorded by buyers among sites. Site codes; B* IBapparathota, *1 I *olhena, TL I Thalaramba. Fandaramulla isthe reference site in the model............................................................ ++3

Table 2./. eans and standard deviations of the three factors recorded in buyer's logbooks at each site for snorkelling ornamental fish catch.Site codes; F( I Fandaramulla, B* I Bapparathota, *1 I*olhena, TL I Thalaramba. (ata are for the +883N)8 season............. +)

Table 2.5. eans and standard deviations of snorkellers fish catch datacompared across all buyers. Fuyer codes; A I Fandaramulla buyer,F-(I Bapparathota buyers, 7-E I *olhena buyers, #-< IThalaramba buyers. (ata are for the +883N)8 season. All earningsgiven in LB @?SO) I )) LB based on +8)8 ?SO ; LBechange rates................................................................................... +)

Table 2.2. *oisson and Eaussian regression model results comparing catchstatistics of snorkellers among buyers. A I Fandaramulla buyer, F-(I Bapparathota buyers, !-E I *olhena buyers, #-< I Thalaramba

buyers. Fuyer 7 removed as nI)...................................................... +

Table 2.6. *oisson and Eaussian regression model results of catch statistics ofS4?FA divers compared across sites. B* I Bapparathota, TL IThalaramba. eference site I *olhena............................................... +/

Table 2.3. eans and standard deviations of the three factors recorded in buyer's logbooks at each site for S4?FA caught ornamental fishcatch. Site codes; F( I Fandaramulla, B* I Bapparathota, *1 I*olhena, TL I Thalaramba. (ata are for the +883N)8 season............ +5

v


22/431

Table 2.)8. Totals of S4?FA divers' fish catch data compared across all buyers. Fuyer codes; A I Fandaramulla buyer, F I Bapparathota buyer, 4-! I *olhena buyers, E-< I Thalaramba buyers. (ata arefor the +883N)8 season. All earnings given in LB @?SO) I ))LB based on +8)8 ?SO ; LB echange rates.............................. +5

Table 2.)) eans and standard deviations of S4?FA divers' fish catch datacompared across all buyers. Fuyer codes; A I Fandaramulla buyer,F I Bapparathota buyer, 4-! I *olhena buyers, E-< I Thalaramba

buyers (ata are for the +883N)8 season. All earnings given inLB @?SO) I )) LB based on +8)8 ?SO ; LB echangerates................................................................................................... +2

Table 2.)+. arine ornamental fish and invertebrates volumes eported permonth by eight eport companies in Sri Lanka calculated from data

provided by eport companies. (ata for the +883 = +8)8 season.!igures in grey shading are the numbers provided by companiesand those in hite are calculated or estimated from the shaded

figures. Flank cells are values that cannot be calculated from thedata provided. Dalues given are minimums, ith maimum valuesin brackets. The minimum values are used to calculate all othervalues.................................................................................................. +0

Table 2.). Sri Lankan official eport statistics for aquarium fish @freshaterand marine fish. Source; 7port (evelopment Foard, @+8)8.......... +00

Table 2.)0. arine ornamental fish and invertebrates caught and recorded infour si%e categories in buyers' logbooks. All other species caughtand recorded ere not given a si%e category in logbooks.................. +06

Table 6.). Abundance figures presented by CAA official at the meetinghighlighting the reduction in some of the highly targeted fishspecies for the ornamental trade beteen their surveys conducted in)336N33 and +883............................................................................... +22

Table 6.+. List of ministries and government departments involved in coralreef management in Sri Lanka, adapted from a$asuriya et al.,@)33/.................................................................................................. +62

Table 3.). (ivers' likes and dislikes of their $ob as ornamental fishers,includes S4?FA divers and snorkellers from all sites. ultipleresponses ere alloed...................................................................... ))

Table 3.+. 4osts to build and maintain one 38 cm 0/ cm 8 cm aquarium per month in southern Sri Lanka........................................................ +)

vi


23/431

List of Acronyms

A&E Alternative &ncome Eeneration

AC1DA Analysis of Dariance

FA Fasins of Attraction

F4( Fuoyancy 4ontrol (evice

F( Fandaramulla

F1FL7 Fay of Fengal Large arine 7cosystem *ro$ect

F*? Fiodiversity *rotection ?nit

44( 4oast 4onservation (epartment

47A 4entral 7nvironmental Authority

47CAA 4apacity 7nhancement of CAA pro$ect

4.&. 4onfidence &ntervals4&(A 4anadian &nternational (evelopment Agency

4&T7S 4onvention on &nternational Trade in 7ndangered Species

4T 4ustomary arine Tenure

41 4orallivore

41TS 4ron-1f-Thorns Starfish

4*?7 4atch *er ?nit 7ffort

4T! 4oral eef Task !orce

(4 (ead 4oral(!A (epartment of !isheries and Aquatic esources

(94 (epartment of 9ildlife and 4onservation

7i 7lectivity indice

7F! 7cosystem-Fased !isheries anagement

7(F 7port (evelopment Foard

7CS1 7l Cio Southern 1scillation

7S4 7conomic and Social esearch 4ouncil

7? 7uropean ?nion

!A1 !ood and Agriculture 1rganisation

!1F !ree-1n-Foard value

EATT Eeneral Agreement on Trade and Tariffs

EFF1 Elass Fottom Foat 1perator

E(* Eross (omestic *roduct

E77 Eeneralised 7stimating 7quation

E&S Eeographical &nformation Systems

vii


24/431

EL Eeneralised Linear odel

EL Eeneralised Linear ied odel

E*S Elobal *ositioning System

ES* Eeneralised Scheme of *references

#F #erbivore#B #ikkadua

#SA #ikkadua Special Area anagement *lan

&4 &ntegrated 4oastal anagement

&!A( &nternational !und for Agricultural (evelopment

&CN&CD &nvertivore

&*44 &nternational *anel on 4limate 4hange

&T &ndividual Transferable uota

&?4C &nternational ?nion for the 4onservation of Cature


25/431

1! 1rnamental !ishery

1 1mnivore

*A(& *rofessional Association of (iving &nstructors

*& *iscivore

*L *lanktivore*1 *olhena

uantile-quantile

ubble

S Sand

SA Special Area anagement *lan

S4 Structural 4ompleity

S4?FA Self-4ontained ?nderater Freathing Apparatus

S4( Substrate 4omposition (iversityS( Standard (eviation

S7 Standard 7rror

S7S Social-7cological System

SS& Semi-Structured &ntervie

SST Sea Surface Temperature

T44 Transforming 4oral eef 4onservation

To4 Tragedy of the 4ommons

TL Thalaramba

T4 Tropical arine 4entre

?B ?nited Bingdom

?C4TA( ?nited Cations 4onference on Trade and (evelopment

?C7* ?nited Cations 7nvironment *rogramme

?D4 ?nderater Disual 4ensus

?9 ?naatuna

D#T Dertical #eight @substrate9T1 9orld Trade 1rganisation

i


26/431

Declaration

The ork contained in this thesis has not been submitted elsehere for any other

degree or qualification and unless otherise referenced is the author"s on ork.

The copyright of this thesis rests ith the author. Co quotation from it should be

published ithout the author's prior ritten consent and information derived from it

should be acknoledged.

James Alexander Edward Howard

September 2012


27/431

Acknoledgements

y research as funded by a $oint 7conomic and Social esearch 4ouncil @7S4 and

Catural 7nvironment esearch 4ouncil @C74 studentship and & am grateful to them

for providing me ith the necessary funds to complete my research. Cet, & ould like

to thank my supervisors, (r Sandra Fell and (r artyn Lucas for their vision, support

and guidance throughout the duration of this study. Sandra initiated and developed my

skills as an environmental anthropologist and artyn embraced a ne direction of

research sub$ect for him and both ere alays approachable, patient and understanding.

y heartfelt thanks also go out to (r. Terney *radeep Bumara, of the ?niversity of

uhuna, ho as my mentor in Sri Lanka, ithout hose help and guidance this

pro$ect ould not have materialised. #e provided much enthusiasm and epertise hen

& conducted my fieldork in Sri Lanka and am sure smoothed out the essential

bureaucracy as ell as my cultural fau pas efficiently and invisibly behind the scenes.

9ithin the ?niversity of uhuna, & ould like to thank all the staff, postgraduates and

undergraduates ho & as fortunate enough to meet and ho elcomed me so armly

into the The !aculty of !isheries and arine Sciences > Technology. & look back fondly

on the tea breaks, lunches and chats e shared as & found my feet in a ne country.

1utside of academia and in Sri Lanka, & have a great many people to thank for their

contributions, help, friendships and armth during my several visits. As the voice piece

of this thesis, & ould like to thank all the divers, fishers and ornamental fish buyers and

the ider village communities of all the villages & orked in, ho remain anonymous to

protect their identities but ho participated in this study, elcomed me, hosted me and

shared their lives ith me, even if & as constantly noting things don in my

notebooks. & am indebted to them in achieving this piece of ork. The same is true ofthose in the hospitality and tourist trades in #ikkadua ho never seemed to mind my

questioning and repeat visits. &n #ikkadua, & thank Asanka Eunaardena of the

(epartment of 9ildlife 4onservation in Sri Lanka, ho spoke frankly and at length

ith me about the marine protected area at #ikkadua. A big thank you to Somey at

4oral Sands (ive School, ho alloed me to store a kayak and kit at his dive shop

during my surveys. &n Ealle, a thank you to r (aluatta of the 7(F ho made time

to speak ith me and provide me ith ornamental trade eport statistics.

i


28/431

&n and around 4olombo and Cegombo, & ish to thank all the eport company officials

ho met ith me and ho provided me ith a ealth of information on their businesses

and the ornamental fish market chain. & ould also like to thank Ar$an a$asuriya of

CAA, ho provided some great insight and knoledge about the ornamental fish

trade and coral reefs generally in Sri Lanka. & am etremely grateful to SamanthaEunasekara for making time for a long, and informative intervie about 4ustoms role

in the ornamental fish trade. 1ther people there & ould like to thank there are Cishan

*erera, Balyani #eapathirana, *rasanna 9eerakoddy, Shamen Didanage and Eamini

#evage. A big thank you to achel (ouglas-


29/431

afield, (avid 4ooper. &n academia, & ould like to thank Alisdair 7dards for some

clarification on data issues, and &sabel 4otW for methodological help, as ell as the

interest and friendliness of postgraduates and other staff at Cecastle ?niversity, during

conferences, seminars and time at the pub.

At (urham ?niversity, & ould like to thank Adetayo Basim, obi Fagchi and Shane

ichards for help and advice ith the statistical analyses. achel 4arr for patient help

ith Arcap and E&S skills and Sean Tiss, Fob Fater, Fob Layton and att 4andea

as my Fiological Sciences and Anthropology thesis committee pairs respectively. !or

comments and advice on chapters & ould like to thank Triinu ets. 1n a more

informal note, & ould like to thank all the many friends and fello students ho have

kept me going through the *h( but & have to mention a fe to keep the peace; att#ayard, Eabriel Altay, 4arla #andley, !iona Fracken, #oard Eray, (an Larence,

Andy Flair, 7milie !airet, oss 4ulloch, Steve 7mery, anny 4hao as ell as everyone

in Lab )5 past and present, and the many other Anthropology and 7cology students and

staff ho have spent time chatting ith me or listening to my storiesV

A special mention is needed for my girlfriend, egan, hom & met in the early days at

(urham and ho has stuck ith me through the good and tough times of our respective

*h(s. Thanks for putting up ith me and making this orkJ your positivity, giggles

and smile are the perfect antidote to *h( blues, and my memories of this time ill be

far rosier thanks to your presence.

!inally, & ish to thank my family; um for encouraging me to do this, keeping me

positive and for proof-reading the thesis, *a for never talking about my ork and being

able to make me laugh so easily and both of you for coming to visit in Sri Lanka and

$ust alays being there and helping in every ay possible. Tash for alays making time

to chat and provide sisterly support, despite our bad timing at being in the same regions

of the orld simultaneously. & ish Eran could be here to see me finish hat she sa

me start but & am grateful for her never-ending support and encouragement of my

choices in life and *op for being solid and updating me on all sporting, eather and

local nes in Corfolk and reminding me to Gkeep my nose to the grind-stoneH.

iii


30/431

Dedication

,n lo(ing memor$

of

%er$l Jane Lake$

+)) / )*+)0

iv


31/431

Chapter !

Introduction

!"! #refacey interest in tropical coral reefs goes back to hen & as groing up in several

developing countries in Africa. & became increasingly aare of the struggle beteen the

local villagers" need to utilise their environment for a livelihood and the conservation of

the local habitat. Through marine studies at 4ape Ton for my asters and the

acquisition of diving qualifications my interest shifted to marine environments here

ornamental fish ere under threat. y interest as still firmly located in hat as

actually happening on the reefs and ho much ere the local fishers and villagerscontributing to their current status and hat more could be done toards sustainability.

Thus on securing the opportunity for research in Sri Lanka, through (urham ?niversity,

& had the opportunity to eplore this issue. Therefore, the aim of my thesis is to

discover ho sustainable the marine ornamental fishery in southern Sri Lanka is, from

the perspective of the local fishers and divers of this area. &f there are signs that it is not

sustainable, as the literature maintained, then to ask hat alternative procedures and

management approaches that perhaps involve these divers could be adopted to move the

fishery into a path of greater sustainability both in terms of the coral reefs and the local

divers" livelihoods. This overarching aim is researched through seven key ob$ectives,

hich reflect the interdisciplinary nature of the research @Section ).0.

This chapter has four sectionsJ an overvie of the main themes, the rationale and unique

focus, the ob$ectives and a chapter summary of the study. !irst it provides an overvie

of the main themes that permeate the entire thesis. They embrace the compleity and

dynamism of social and ecological systems and the interdisciplinarity of approaches,

epistemologies and methods to uncover the problematic relationships beteen humans

and their environment. The rationale and unique focus of the thesis precedes the

delineation of the study's seven ob$ectives developed to eplore the overall research

question from the divers" perspective. !inally, a summary of each chapter is provided in

relation to each of the seven specific ob$ectives to guide the reader along the path of

discovery to the findings, recommendations and concluding remarks.

)


32/431

!"$ %a&or themes of the thesis

The global failure of policies aimed at preserving biodiversity, halting the effects of

climate change, reducing poverty and ensuring social $ustice, particularly in poor

nations, is no idely accepted @Ludig, +88)J ehta, +882J 7hrlich > *ringle, +886.

4onserving marine resources and the ecosystem services associated ith the biomes

involved therefore remains a challenge. Although the reasons for this failure differ

depending on the narratives and the groups involved, one uniting factor is the need for a

change in direction and practices. esearch in many fields from biology, environmental

sciences, economics, sociology, anthropology and development is finding conclusive

proof that humans and nature co-eist in comple and dynamic systems @Levin, )333.

This seemingly obvious reality has been bypassed, at the policy level for decades, in

favour of simpler outlooks and solutions to human natural resource requirements.

4omple systems ere stripped don and their main components identified in order to

attempt to control the flues of these systems. 4oupled to this as the belief of many

academics and practitioners that these systems remain predominantly in equilibrium

andNor optimal states @Uimmerer, +888J Buhn et al., +883J Scoones, )333. Fy

impeding ecessive outside stressors or by manipulating the core elements of these

systems it as hoped that these GequilibriumH positions could be maintained through

management @aarleveld > (abgbWgnon, )333 and technology @Ludig, +88). 9ith

hindsight there is realisation that this model has failed and studies sho that in avoidingthe compleity and unpredictability of these systems, disastrous consequences can result

for natural and human capital @Ludig et al., )33.

There is a pressing need to shift from these generalised, simple models of systems in

states of equilibrium and move toards the groing acceptance of vieing natural

systems as comple and dynamic and thus in need of appropriately aligned management

methods @#ilborn > Eunderson, )335J Beeley > Scoones, +88J Ludig et al., )33.The transition to this approach is gathering pace as alternative strategies are sought to

address resource management issues to suit the environmental and social changes that

appear to be accelerating. !urthermore, researchers and practitioners across a ide

scope of disciplines are simultaneously embracing the comple, adaptive systems

approach, including ecologists and environmental anthropologists. &ts core frameork

and methods can be applied to etremely disparate issues; from the unpredictability and

compleity of economic markets to the non-linear relationships beteen gene structure

and function @Leach et al., +8)8. & therefore chose to apply this approach to the marine

+


33/431

ornamental trade in Sri Lanka in an attempt to portray its current state and uncover the

potential for sustainability of this fishery in relation to the social and economic

institutions surrounding it. y intention is to eplore, from the integrated approach of

an environmental anthropologist and a marine ecologist, the multiple and interconnected

influences on this fisheryJ hence managing compleity is a ma$or theme of this thesis.

4ompleity as eplored via systems ecology theory several decades ago @#olling,

)32, yet it gained little currency at the time and as largely ignored by policy-makers.

#oever, compleity theories gained popularity over time and my approach has dran

on established scientific theory centred on non-linear stability to address problems of

development, poverty and sustainability @9alker et al., +880. The comple, dynamic

version of natural systems is etremely relevant to social-ecological systems @discussed

in 4hapter +.).+ in the marine contet. #umans have utilised and eploited theoceans for millennia and anthropogenic impacts are eperienced in even the most

isolated of marine areas. &n the field of marine ecology and conservation there is

groing appreciation of the need to embrace compleity in such systems, hich is also

needed ithin coral reef ecological studies, that have focused mainly on documenting

the degradation of the orld"s coral reefs but not on researching the processes causing

such decline and degradation @#ughes et al., +8)8. Some coral reef systems have

degraded and shifted in state hereas others have not, hich has led many to believecoral reefs have properties that allo for multiple stable states to eist @Bnolton,

)33+. #oever, understanding ho these states alternate remains unclear, although

much evidence indicates these shifts in state are linked ith reductions in ecosystem

resilience @see 4hapter +.).+.) as a result of human actions @!olke et al., +880.

!urthermore, a broader scope of research into such systems, aay from vieing

ecological and biological elements in isolation and including social, economic and

cultural drivers, is long overdue. &n ecological eperiments, humans are usuallyecluded from the equation, cited as being too GcompleH, their effects too ide ranging

or not part of the natural ecosystem @Alberti et al., +88. #oever, the direct effects of

fishing on natural populations has meant that some fisheries research incorporates

humans into its analysis. !or eample, some marine ecologists include humans as a

trophic level in food chain studies to understand the ecological role of humans in coastal

communities and thus assess their impact in relation to current problems of alternate

stable states and trophic cascades @see 4hapter +.5.+ and +.6 in marine ecosystems

@*innegar et al., +888. Ereater interdisciplinarity is needed in fisheries studies ith a


34/431

groing need to dra on people"s cultural capital and include humans as Gecological

actorsH to derive improved and more adaptive management strategies @4astilla, )336;

+6+. &nclusion of humans ithin study systems is standard practice for environmental

anthropologists and so interdisciplinary research beteen anthropologists and ecologists

is valuable in order to re-evaluate ho anthropology can support ecologists to address

environmental degradation.

This integration of to disciplines in order to understand to a greater degree comple,

natural systems is the second ma$or theme of this thesis. ost natural systems need to

be vieed as social-ecological systems @Ferkes > !olke, +88+ since they are not only

inherently connected ith human actions but also therefore comple, dynamic, unstable

ith non-linear properties operating at various scales in time and space. The

compleity of these systems is eamined in 4hapter + together ith the conceptualframeork for utilising this approach. &n addition to the shift in understanding natural

systems, is a coincidental burgeoning of interdisciplinary research @hoten, +88/. The

academic community is attempting to bridge disciplinary divides in order to solve

comple, chronic problems. !or over 8 years, environmental anthropologists and

some biologists have had a remit to ork alongside local communities rather than

distance themselves from them. And although many authors during the )338s began to

call for greater interdisciplinarity in conservation biology ork, hether marine orterrestrial @Arro et al., )33/J effe > Diederman, )33/, it is only recently that the

mainstream of marine conservation is orking to incorporate social sciences alongside

ecological ork. !rom a fe individuals navigating the divide beteen disciplines,

there is no a multitude of research seeking G...to understand the source and role of

change in systems...H and G...gradual change and episodic change, local and global

changesH @#olling et al., +88+;)). This interdisciplinary approach covers a ide range

of global biomes, societies and contets and spans research on tropical forests andAma%onian indigenous peoples @*osey et al., )360, Sahel drylands and pastoralists

@Send%imir et al., +8)), the Arctic and native Americans @Brupnik et al., +8)8 and

marine conservation ith close proimity to my on area of research via tropical coral

reefs and *acific island communities @4inner et al., +883a.

&nterdisciplinary studies often involve the participation of researchers from several

different disciplines ith idely divergent orld-vies, opinions and methods hich

cannot alays be readily accommodated, making this approach difficult to put into

0


35/431

practice. any researchers have spent their academic career ith only one theoretical

perspective and find it difficult to adapt to other ays of thinking or orking

collaboratively ith researchers from alternative fields. &n this pro$ect, by orking

across to disciplines, & have endeavoured to avoid the potential problems associated

ith collaborating among diverse disciplines by learning the skills of both an

environmental anthropologist and enhancing my skills as an ecologist. y desire to

ork in this ay, prevented me from being closed-minded to the ne discipline. &

consider the nature of my pro$ect to be a clear eample of the necessity to conduct some

broad scale research at a regional scale, hile focusing on individual fishers and local

groups or fish species to provide the necessary detail. 7riksen @+88) provides a

metaphor for these contrasting strategies of macro-ecologists and anthropologists hen

he compares the broad, often global scale ork of evolutionary biologists and macro-

ecologists to that of circling the earth taking photographs from a helicopter, hereas thesocial anthropologist is in a specific location eamining every grain of sand. &n this

thesis & have sought a middle ground, hereby & am able to present results concerning

one of the three ornamental fish collecting regions in Sri Lanka hile retaining an

appreciation of the concerns and priorities of different local people, that is, not $ust the

divers, but all those along the market chain.

&n tandem ith this idea of bridging disciplines is the implication of bridging methodsand forms of data, and being aare and inclusive of different knoledge forms. Fy

doing this, & intend to sho the complementarity of quantitative and qualitative data as

ell as diverse knoledge systems. 9ith varying forms of knoledge and data, hich

are often complementary or congruent, it is possible to obtain more robust results. The

results of this study ehibit this standpoint and furthermore, illustrate ho such an

approach opens these results to a ider audience than a single discipline study.

!"' (ationale and unique focus of the thesis

This thesis focuses on the marine ornamental fishery and trade based around coral reefs

in southern Sri Lanka. 7arlier studies on the topic eposed the unsustainable nature of

the industry but did not bring about any noticeable change, ith each subsequent study

reaffirming the results of previous studies and an underlying negative image of

ornamental fish collectors @9ood, )36/, )335, +88)aJ *yle, )33J 7karatne, +888J

9i$esekara > Kakupitiyage, +88). All these studies of the Sri Lankan ornamental

/


36/431

fishery ere apolitical ecological studies conducted from a top-don, poer-heavy

approach, hich focused on presenting the perceived unsustainability in terms of

volumes of fish eported and their value, the indirect effects of ornamental fish

collection, such as trophic cascades and direct habitat damage alongside the multiple

stressors affecting and contributing to the steady deterioration of coral reefs in Sri

Lanka. Although these problems cannot be denied, these studies did not empirically

measure any of the stated effects of the ornamental trade on reef ecology or investigate

socio-cultural factors behind participant behaviours and therefore the full compleity of

the situation has remained unknon. !urthermore, it means that any recommended

actions for sustainable fishery management ould be flaed as they ere not situated

ithin this ider contet.

This top-don approach used by researchers in development, environmental studies andconservation in the past has hoever, been moving toards the more idely used

bottom-up approach no promoted in these same disciplines @Sillitoe, )336. This is

the first study on the ornamental fishery in Sri Lanka conducted from a bottom-up

perspective, that is, reporting the situation predominantly from the vie of the divers

and at the level of their everyday lives, rather than the often constrained vie provided

by government officials or CE1s as offered in prior studies on the trade @9ood, )36/,

)335, +88)aJ *yle, )33J 7karatne, +888J 9i$esekara > Kakupitiyage, +88).

!irst, since the last study as over )8 years ago, an up-to-date assessment of the

ornamental trade in Sri Lanka as requiredJ hoever, & decided to take a more holistic

approach in an attempt to disentangle the current status of the ornamental fishery and

identify reasons for the current impasse beteen sustaining the fishery as a form of

livelihood for divers in these villages hilst also maintaining the health of the local

reefs and their fish populations.

The application of an interdisciplinary study to this fishery in Sri Lanka is unique. This

is beneficial as many scientific researchers remain strongly edded to quantitative

GhardH science results, hich are produced in this thesis and can provide such an

audience ith a satisfactory assessment. Additionally, ethnographic data concerning

social, economic and cultural influences also allo for a richer picture of the chronic

problems affecting this fishery to emerge from hich more $ustifiable recommendations

can be made to improve the long-term sustainability of the fishery. &t is hoped that the

5


37/431

thesis ill also convince some readers of the benefits of mied method and

interdisciplinary approaches and their applicability to comple resource management

issues.

This thesis also aims to provide additional evidence of the utility of addressing

compleity and dynamism in social-ecological systems. 9hy this is such a pressing

issue is conveyed through the observations of environmental degradation and social

deprivation, hich continually threaten the livelihoods of many of the orld's poor =

people like the divers in my study = ho are often forgotten and voiceless at the distant

reach of global trade, capitalism and science.

!") *b&ecti+es of the studyThere are seven main ob$ectives to this study, hich ere devised after revieing all

the research published on the ornamental fishery in Sri Lanka and several other

countries. These ob$ectives ere also developed ith the underlying themes of

interdisciplinarity and compleity in mind. Therefore, integration of the disciplines

ould be required to sufficiently address these ob$ectives and to uncover the compleity

of the ider social-ecological system surrounding the fishery, something hich has not

been done previously. The ob$ectives encompass an investigation of drivers on multiple

temporal and spatial scales, in keeping ith the notion of social ecological systems'

panarchy @4hapter +.).+, to present a more vivid picture of the current situation and to

delve deeper into the reasons hy the fishery has developed along its current tra$ectory.

The first five ob$ectives are employed to anser the first part of the overall aim; ho

sustainable is the ornamental fishery: 1b$ectives 5 and 2 provide the results to

determine management routes toard sustainability. The study ob$ectives are;

) To investigate, ithin historical contets, ho the social and cultural aspects that

support contemporary patterns of reef fish capture for the aquarium trade at

selected fishing villages in southern Sri Lanka can be incorporated into fishery

management for sustainable livelihoods in the future.

+ To assess the levels of current ornamental fish catches and catch per unit effort

@4*?7 and record fishing behaviours across specific sites to determine the

potential effects of local fishing practices on aspects of the ider reef ecology.

2


38/431

To derive the abundance of nearshore reef fish populations targeted by the

ornamental fish capture market in southern Sri Lanka and compare this ith

local divers' knoledge and perceptions of their local marine resources to

address ays to combine collective knoledge for the common good.

0 To assess the levels of resilience in all its forms @natural, social, community,

economic in the fishing villages and their nearshore aters to evaluate ho

social and ecological systems, related to the ornamental fishery in Sri Lanka

reorganise around change and ho they manage for resilience.

/ To analyse the links beteen the current ecological conditions and the social

interactions, beteen and among, the different actors for the capture,

transportation, holding and sale of fish across the current market chain and thusevaluate the strengths and eaknesses of the system.

5 To evaluate the success of current and past governance strategies applied to the

marine ornamental fishery and hence predict future trends in ecological change

and vulnerability of human coastal communities in relation to the reef health.

2 To assess the potential for alternative livelihoods through mariculture ofeploited species of ornamental value as ell as the social and economic

acceptability of cultivation or other alternative livelihood options to those

practising ild capture to determine their inclusion as sustainable livelihoods

ithin fishery management in the future.

These ob$ectives are addressed in different chapters ithin the thesis, ith some

spanning several chapters and others contained ithin a single chapter. Table ).)indicates hich ob$ective is predominantly addressed in hich chapter and hich

methods and data are used and presented to investigate these ob$ectives.

This study predominantly focuses on ornamental fish collection carried out by

snorkellers rather than S4?FA divers. This as due to to main reasons; firstly, a

greater number of divers in Sri Lanka snorkel to catch ornamental fish, therefore, the

study aimed to elucidate patterns concerning the ma$ority of actors in the fishery,

hoever, S4?FA divers' influence on the fishery and their patterns of behaviour are

6


39/431

included. Secondly, (urham ?niversity health and safety guidelines prevented the

study involving S4?FA diving. (espite this, & collected data from ornamental S4?FA

divers, by accompanying them on boats as

howard coral reef fish and the aquarium trade (ecological impacts and socio-cultural influences in...

Documents