HSC Option 4HSC Option 4

Improving Improving PerformancePerformance

Focus Question 1Focus Question 1

How do athletes train for How do athletes train for improved performance?improved performance?

Strength trainingStrength training

The main goal of strength training is to increase the The main goal of strength training is to increase the maximum force that a particular muscle group can generatemaximum force that a particular muscle group can generate

Muscles will be stronger if exercised regularly at high Muscles will be stronger if exercised regularly at high enough intensityenough intensity

Strength training can take different forms and can involve a Strength training can take different forms and can involve a variety of techniquesvariety of techniques

During strength training, elements of isotonic, isometric and During strength training, elements of isotonic, isometric and isokinetic contractions can be usedisokinetic contractions can be used

Training incorporates elements of each depending on types Training incorporates elements of each depending on types of exercises, machinery and the strength development of exercises, machinery and the strength development being soughtbeing sought

Free weights are preferred by most body-builders and Free weights are preferred by most body-builders and people seeking pure strength because they enable the people seeking pure strength because they enable the participant to isolate muscles completely, and give the participant to isolate muscles completely, and give the joints and limbs an opportunity to move along their natural joints and limbs an opportunity to move along their natural planesplanes

Four types of strength:Four types of strength:

Absolute strength:Absolute strength: the maximum force that the maximum force that can be generated by a muscle e.g. weight can be generated by a muscle e.g. weight liftinglifting

Relative strengthRelative strength: the maximum strength : the maximum strength that can be generated by muscle relative to a that can be generated by muscle relative to a person’s weight e.g. male ballet dancerperson’s weight e.g. male ballet dancer

Strength enduranceStrength endurance: the ability for a muscle : the ability for a muscle to withstand fatigue and exert a force to withstand fatigue and exert a force repeatedly over an extended period of time repeatedly over an extended period of time E.g. rowerE.g. rower

Speed strengthSpeed strength: the ability to apply a force at : the ability to apply a force at a rapid rate e.g. sprint starta rapid rate e.g. sprint start

Terms used in Strength Terms used in Strength Training:Training:

TermTerm DefinitionDefinition

RepetitionRepetition The number of times an exercise is The number of times an exercise is repeated without restrepeated without rest

ResistanceResistance TheThe weight or loadweight or load

SetSet A number of repetitions done in A number of repetitions done in successionsuccession

Repetition MaximalRepetition Maximal The maximal weight you can lift a The maximal weight you can lift a number of times.number of times.

RestRest The period of time between each setThe period of time between each set

Periodisation:Periodisation: process of varying the training load process of varying the training load over discrete periods of timeover discrete periods of time

Strength requirements differ in terms of:

• How heavy the weight is

• The number of repetitions

• The speed it is being lifted

Exercise Designed for Major Exercise Designed for Major Muscle Groups:Muscle Groups:

All strength programs utilise repetition of exercises and All strength programs utilise repetition of exercises and overload to work a muscle group. overload to work a muscle group.

A muscle that is worked close to its capacity (above 2/3 of A muscle that is worked close to its capacity (above 2/3 of max) to generate peak force will experience gains in max) to generate peak force will experience gains in strength. strength.

By varying the resistance, speed, repetitions, sets and rest, By varying the resistance, speed, repetitions, sets and rest, the required muscle fibres are recruited and developed. the required muscle fibres are recruited and developed.

A session should start involving large muscle groups early A session should start involving large muscle groups early and commence specific exercises towards the end. and commence specific exercises towards the end.

Strength training is done for a Strength training is done for a number of reasonsnumber of reasons

to develop muscular strength or to develop muscular strength or enduranceendurance

to develop powerto develop powerto lose weightto lose weightto get some muscle definitionto get some muscle definition

Safe performance requires: Safe performance requires: Individually developed programs that Individually developed programs that

discourage competitiondiscourage competition Adequate warm up and cool down – emphasis Adequate warm up and cool down – emphasis

on stretchingon stretching Focus on major muscle groupsFocus on major muscle groups Concentration on form/technique – not on Concentration on form/technique – not on

increasing resistance too quicklyincreasing resistance too quickly Monitoring progressMonitoring progress Using a spotter if uncertain of abilityUsing a spotter if uncertain of ability Adequately maintained equipmentAdequately maintained equipment Special techniquesSpecial techniques Breathing in as lifting and out as loweringBreathing in as lifting and out as lowering Never holding one’s breath – increases blood Never holding one’s breath – increases blood

pressurepressure Lifting with rhythm – not jerky movementsLifting with rhythm – not jerky movements

Strength training can be tailored to Strength training can be tailored to the specific needs of the individual the specific needs of the individual i.e. upper body or lower body, sport i.e. upper body or lower body, sport specific, to suit body type, health specific, to suit body type, health issues, past injuries etc.issues, past injuries etc.

Gyms can provide information on Gyms can provide information on what exercises are available for what exercises are available for specific body parts and whether specific body parts and whether these are free weights or machinesthese are free weights or machines

Some possible exercisesSome possible exercises chestchest: : flat dumbbell press; flat dumbbell fly; machine flat dumbbell press; flat dumbbell fly; machine

presspress bicepsbiceps:: seated biceps curl (both arms), curl with a twist, seated biceps curl (both arms), curl with a twist,

alternate arm curlalternate arm curl tricepstriceps:: lying dumbbell extension; seated one-arm lying dumbbell extension; seated one-arm

triceps overhead extension; triceps push down machinetriceps overhead extension; triceps push down machine shouldershoulder:: lateral shoulder raises; seated dumbbell lateral shoulder raises; seated dumbbell

press; chin upspress; chin ups backback:: single or double bent arm dumbbell row; seated single or double bent arm dumbbell row; seated

pull row, lateral pull down ( in front and behind head, pull row, lateral pull down ( in front and behind head, narrow and wide grip)narrow and wide grip)

abdominalsabdominals:: knee-raised crunches; alternate knee in knee-raised crunches; alternate knee in crunches; abdominal machinecrunches; abdominal machine

quadricepsquadriceps:: variety of squats; leg extension machine variety of squats; leg extension machine calfcalf:: calf raises ( standing or seated, weighted or not, calf raises ( standing or seated, weighted or not,

toe in or out, machine or freetoe in or out, machine or free

Elastics – resistance that is created by Elastics – resistance that is created by the band increases as the band is the band increases as the band is stretched.stretched.

Exposure to a progressively increasing Exposure to a progressively increasing stimulus ensures that the muscle is stimulus ensures that the muscle is strengthened through the full ROM.strengthened through the full ROM.

Hydraulics – Resistance is altered through Hydraulics – Resistance is altered through cylinder adjustments and a response to cylinder adjustments and a response to speed of actionspeed of action

Hydraulics provides resistance through Hydraulics provides resistance through both phases of a movement (eg. push both phases of a movement (eg. push and pull)and pull)

Weight Training – plates, dumbbellsWeight Training – plates, dumbbells Weight discs or plates anchored to Weight discs or plates anchored to

barbells comprise free weights. The barbells comprise free weights. The exact weight can be set to ensure th exact weight can be set to ensure th overload principle appliesoverload principle applies

Dumbbells consist of two weights Dumbbells consist of two weights attached to a short bar, designed to attached to a short bar, designed to be lifted with one handbe lifted with one hand

Dumbbells are important in injury Dumbbells are important in injury rehab, when a specific muscle needs rehab, when a specific muscle needs to be targeted as a part of injury to be targeted as a part of injury rehab.rehab.

Isotonic training:Isotonic training:

Isotonic programs use free weights with Isotonic programs use free weights with fixed resistance and tailor loads to allow fixed resistance and tailor loads to allow completion of an exercise a desired completion of an exercise a desired number of times.number of times.

During isotonic training, the muscle length During isotonic training, the muscle length changes constantly as the resistance is changes constantly as the resistance is moved through a full range motion.moved through a full range motion.

Advantages:Advantages: Minimal equipmentMinimal equipment More specificityMore specificity Variations easily Variations easily

adapted to suit adapted to suit most sportsmost sports

Most commonMost common Cheap, accessible Cheap, accessible

and easy to learnand easy to learn

Disadvantages:Disadvantages: May encourage May encourage

poor techniquepoor technique Moderate level of Moderate level of

injuryinjury Resistance does not Resistance does not

remain maximal remain maximal through the full through the full range of movement, range of movement, failing to develop failing to develop fibres fullyfibres fully

Isometric training:Isometric training:

During this type of training, the muscles During this type of training, the muscles develop tension but do not change in length. develop tension but do not change in length.

A typical isometric training session is pushing A typical isometric training session is pushing or pulling against an immovable object.or pulling against an immovable object.

Tension develops in the muscle because Tension develops in the muscle because there is resistance but the muscle does not there is resistance but the muscle does not shorten since the object will not move. shorten since the object will not move.

Advantages:Advantages: Minimal equipmentMinimal equipment Helpful for weak Helpful for weak

points in muscle points in muscle contractionscontractions

Easy to learn, Easy to learn, quick, easy to quick, easy to performperform

Valuable in rehabValuable in rehab

Disadvantages:Disadvantages: Not functional – Not functional –

poor specificitypoor specificity Reduces speedReduces speed Large changes in Large changes in

blood pressure blood pressure when using large when using large muscle groupsmuscle groups

Difficult to measure Difficult to measure gainsgains

Does not produce Does not produce muscular endurancemuscular endurance

Isokinetic training:Isokinetic training:

This involves the use of elaborate This involves the use of elaborate machines that allow maximum machines that allow maximum tension to develop in the muscle tension to develop in the muscle through the full range of motion.through the full range of motion.

Therefore the level of resistance Therefore the level of resistance varies, depending on the joint angle. varies, depending on the joint angle.

Advantages:Advantages: Most beneficial as it Most beneficial as it

activates the largest activates the largest number of muscle number of muscle unitsunits

Strength gains are Strength gains are constant throughout constant throughout the full range of the full range of movement because movement because the level of resistance the level of resistance offered is constantoffered is constant

Gains in strength are Gains in strength are longer lastinglonger lasting

Speed specific – Speed specific – slower/equal to slower/equal to endurance speed used endurance speed used in trainingin training

Good for rehabGood for rehab

Disadvantages:Disadvantages: Very expensive Very expensive

machinerymachinery Few equipment Few equipment

options availableoptions available Poor specificity – Poor specificity –

confined to confined to movements of the movements of the machine many of machine many of which are not sports which are not sports specificspecific

Aerobic trainingAerobic training

Continuous/uniformContinuous/uniform

- Sustained and enduring training – low to Sustained and enduring training – low to moderate intensity. Used to increase CV moderate intensity. Used to increase CV enduranceendurance

- Needs to be matched to an athletes fitness Needs to be matched to an athletes fitness levellevel

Endurance training places demands on the Endurance training places demands on the body’s ability to deliver oxygen to muscle body’s ability to deliver oxygen to muscle cells. cells.

Progressively increasing stress is matched Progressively increasing stress is matched by appropriate adaptation, causing the by appropriate adaptation, causing the body to vastly improve oxygen delivery, body to vastly improve oxygen delivery, cell functioning and energy transfer. cell functioning and energy transfer.

Changes occur in the blood lipids, blood Changes occur in the blood lipids, blood pressure and ability to handle heat and pressure and ability to handle heat and improved oxidation of glycogen and fats.improved oxidation of glycogen and fats.

Training for EnduranceTraining for Endurance

Endurance training targets the aerobic Endurance training targets the aerobic system. system.

It causes changes to the body’s oxygen It causes changes to the body’s oxygen transport systemtransport system

Leads to the preferential recruitment of Leads to the preferential recruitment of slow twitch muscle fibres which:-slow twitch muscle fibres which:- Have a high capillary densityHave a high capillary density Red in colourRed in colour Are capable of sustainedAre capable of sustained contraction.

Training should be specific to Training should be specific to sport/eventsport/event

Examples of principle training Examples of principle training methods used are:methods used are: interval traininginterval training long, slow distance training ( low-long, slow distance training ( low-

intensity)intensity) Fartlek trainingFartlek training

Area Effect How this improves training

Fuel storage and utilisation

Increased haemoglobin More oxygen carried to working muscles

Increased myoglobin More oxygen from cell membrane to mitochondria where fuel is burnt

Increased ability to use fat Reserve fuel used earlier in endurance events

Increased storage of ATP and PC Immediate fuel storage increased up to 25%

Increased glycogen storage Fuel for lactic acid and aerobic systems increased

Increased ability to use glucose Increased enzyme activity - faster breakdown of glycogen

Oxygen transport system at rest

Increased heart size Particularly left ventricle – more blood available/heart beat

Decreased heart rate Sign of increased heart efficiency as it is able to supply required blood with less heart beats/min

Increased stroke volume More blood/stroke

Increased cardiac output More blood available to tissues

Oxygen transport system at maximal exercise

Increased oxygen uptake Increased ability for muscles to extract and utilise oxygen delivered by blood

Increased cardiac output More blood for tissues

Increased stroke volume More blood/stroke

Respiration Increased efficiency More oxygen extracted from air by alveoli and delivered to muscles

Other Increased muscle size More strength

Decreased body fat Less excess to carry

Increased power/strength Faster/more forceful movements

Increased muscle elasticity Increased muscle power – reduced injury risk

Increased mitochondria More sites on muscle fibre for burning fuel

Resistance training for Resistance training for endurance eventsendurance events

Muscular endurance is important in most sports, including middle- and long-distance running and games such as basketball, soccer, netball and touch football.

For continuous type movements that form the basis of these activities, the development of maximal power is not an advantage because fast-twitch fibres would be preferentially recruited when slow-twitch fibres are more appropriate.

Effective endurance training requires the use of less resistance and more repetitions than is required for absolute strength training. The level of resistance needs to be not more than 66 per cent of the maximum that can be lifted for each exercise (1 RM).

Resistances less than 66 per cent of maximum will result in the type of adaptation in the muscles that will enhance endurance, including: larger and more numerous

mitochondria in the muscle cells increased capillary density,

ensuring plentiful oxygen supply to the muscles

improved aerobic enzyme activity, resulting in better oxidation of fuel.

A general resistance prescription for endurance is:

repetitions maximum — 15 to 30

sets — three to fourspeed — moderate frequency — three to four days per

week.

A prescription for endurance needs to be individualised, and should specifically address the sport or activity. This is particularly relevant to the number of repetitions required.

As the number of repetitions is raised, strength will decrease and endurance increase.

If training for long-distance events, use of lighter weights and many repetitions is appropriate.

However, if training for shorter events such as a 400- or 800-metre run, anaerobic threshold training needs to be combined with resistances in the order of 15 to 25 RM.

Measuring training effect Measuring training effect (MAX VO²)(MAX VO²)

MAX VO2 is the greatest volume of oxygen MAX VO2 is the greatest volume of oxygen that can be consumed by the body during that can be consumed by the body during exercise per minute at sea levelexercise per minute at sea level

Best single measurement of endurance and Best single measurement of endurance and aerobic capacityaerobic capacity

High max oxygen consumption is one of the High max oxygen consumption is one of the major determinants of success in aerobic major determinants of success in aerobic activities e.g. swimming. Other factors activities e.g. swimming. Other factors include:include: high lactate thresholdhigh lactate threshold high economy of efforthigh economy of effort high percentage of Slow twitch muscle fibreshigh percentage of Slow twitch muscle fibres

Laboratory test for VO2 MAX usually involves Laboratory test for VO2 MAX usually involves performing on a treadmill or bicycle ergometer performing on a treadmill or bicycle ergometer while attached to machines which measure heart while attached to machines which measure heart rate and ventilationrate and ventilation

Oxygen consumption continues to increase linearly Oxygen consumption continues to increase linearly with increases in workload ( increased speed or with increases in workload ( increased speed or incline on the treadmill) until a point is reached at incline on the treadmill) until a point is reached at which an increase in intensity does not lead to an which an increase in intensity does not lead to an increase in oxygen consumption- this is the MAX increase in oxygen consumption- this is the MAX VO2VO2

Indications that MAX VO2 has been reached include Indications that MAX VO2 has been reached include hyperventilation and a heart rate very near to maxhyperventilation and a heart rate very near to max

Field tests usually involve using estimates based on Field tests usually involve using estimates based on charts of extrapolated measures of MAX VO2 charts of extrapolated measures of MAX VO2 devised from simple exercises conducted at sub devised from simple exercises conducted at sub maximal levelsmaximal levels E.g. beep test/ ‘multistage’ fitness testE.g. beep test/ ‘multistage’ fitness test Coopers 12 minute runCoopers 12 minute run 1.6k run1.6k run

fartlekfartlek Pace and terrain variations develop a Pace and terrain variations develop a

need for planning for this type of need for planning for this type of trainingtraining

Ideal training method for early pre-Ideal training method for early pre-season to reintroduce athletes to the season to reintroduce athletes to the more demanding endurance work more demanding endurance work after the off-seasonafter the off-season

Long intervalLong interval

This method uses reps of high speed This method uses reps of high speed intensity work followed by periods of intensity work followed by periods of recovery to develop aerobic fitnessrecovery to develop aerobic fitness

Workout periods are generally 2-5 Workout periods are generally 2-5 mins, with rest periods up to 2 mins. mins, with rest periods up to 2 mins. The shorter the rest period, the The shorter the rest period, the harder the workout session.harder the workout session.

Anaerobic trainingAnaerobic trainingTraining for power and speedTraining for power and speed

Developing power through Developing power through resistance/weight trainingresistance/weight training

Starting strength: the ability to ‘turn on’ as many fibres as possible in the performance of a movement. •Important in movements such as power lifting•Momentum is generated before ATP supplies are depleted

Explosive strength: the ability to extend the ‘turned on’ period of explosiveness. •Seen in acceleration of the body or object•Important in activities such as shot put, javelin throwing, and high jump•Muscle fibres contract quickly as creatine phosphate works rapidly and repeatedly, resynthesising ADP back to ATP.

•Resistance programs designed to develop speed and power will seek to enhance fast-twitch fibres involved in the activity.

•If the resistance (weight) is too heavy, the exercises will necessarily be performed slowly, leading to recruitment of slow-twitch fibres.

•A general exercise program for power would include:

5-10 RM ( resistance 60 % to 75% of maximal)3 to 4 sets

5 minutes between setsFast exercise speed3 to 4 days a week

To develop speed, the resistance is medium - high, and contractions are executed quickly. The principle of specificity to the activity is important.

ApplicationApplication

Resistance training programResistance training program

Choose any sport or activityChoose any sport or activity

Use a range of exercises similar to those in 14.1 (pg 434-5) Use a range of exercises similar to those in 14.1 (pg 434-5) to design a resistance training program that develops to design a resistance training program that develops power/speed as required in a particular sport such as power/speed as required in a particular sport such as boxing or running. Detail your exercise prescription. boxing or running. Detail your exercise prescription.

Plyometric TrainingPlyometric Training

Plyometric training: plyometrics refers to a special range of exercises in which a muscle is lengthened using an eccentric contraction and this is rapidly followed by a shortening or concentric contraction.

Plyometrics has considerable value in power development because it has been demonstrated that if muscle is stretched (preloaded) before it is shortened it will contract more forcefully. Plyometrics has been used for decades to improve performances in sports such as athletics, b’ball; where the development of reactive power is critical.

short intervalshort interval

Similar to long interval but exercise Similar to long interval but exercise periods are brief and recovery longer periods are brief and recovery longer to enable restoration of ATP storesto enable restoration of ATP stores

Improves the muscle’s ability to Improves the muscle’s ability to tolerate lactic acidtolerate lactic acid

Circuit formats can be utilised to Circuit formats can be utilised to achieve the aims of short intervalachieve the aims of short interval

Training for Training for FlexibilityFlexibility

Types of flexibility training Types of flexibility training and the specifics of and the specifics of

performanceperformance Static flexibility is the range of motion about a joint Static flexibility is the range of motion about a joint Dynamic flexibility is the opposition or resistance Dynamic flexibility is the opposition or resistance

of a joint to motionof a joint to motion Flexibility is limited by the structures in and around Flexibility is limited by the structures in and around

joints- such as the bones, muscles, ligaments, joints- such as the bones, muscles, ligaments, tendons, and the overlying skintendons, and the overlying skin

Most of these are elastic so therefore their ability Most of these are elastic so therefore their ability to stretch can be improved with practice.to stretch can be improved with practice.

Bones are not elastic therefore the flexibility of Bones are not elastic therefore the flexibility of some joints is limited by the shape of the bones some joints is limited by the shape of the bones and cannot be improved past a certain point and cannot be improved past a certain point

Type of Flexibilit

y Training

Definition Advantages Disadvantages Best suited for…

Static Holding a stretch at its limit for 15-30 seconds

- Unlikely to result in injure

- does not increase flexibility through full range of movement

All activity

Ballistic A muscle is taken to its limit, then over stretched by bouncing

- Similar in its speed and body movement to actual sporting activity

- Can cause muscle soreness and injury, by activating the stretch reflex

Ballet, gymnastics

Dynamic Rhythmical movement of major muscles through full range of movement

- Stretches the muscle groups that cross the major joints- Stretches through the full range of movement

- May not stretch sport specific smaller muscle groups

Swimming, aerobics

P.N.F A gentle stretch, with an isometric muscle contraction against a resistance, followed by relaxation of that muscle and a further stretch

- Develops range of motion

- Requires a partner that understands what to do

All sports

Stretching can be:-Stretching can be:- A stretching regime as part of a warm A stretching regime as part of a warm

up/cool downup/cool down Regular scheduled stretching programs Regular scheduled stretching programs

over 2-5 days per week, for 15-30 minutes over 2-5 days per week, for 15-30 minutes per day with stretches held for 10-30sec.per day with stretches held for 10-30sec.

Performed statically, dynamically, Performed statically, dynamically, ballistically, or PNF ballistically, or PNF

Physiotherapists and sports trainers often Physiotherapists and sports trainers often use tools such as Flexibility Screening Test use tools such as Flexibility Screening Test to screen athletes, predict possible sites of to screen athletes, predict possible sites of injuries, weakness in athlete and injuries, weakness in athlete and suitability for different sports.suitability for different sports.

Contraindications for Contraindications for flexibility training flexibility training

Contraindicated exercises are those exercises that are seen Contraindicated exercises are those exercises that are seen as being potentially dangerousas being potentially dangerous

Some of these may be used by elite athletes or for Some of these may be used by elite athletes or for rehabilitation, but they are not advised for the general rehabilitation, but they are not advised for the general population population

Being an effective coach, trainer, athlete, or fitness leader Being an effective coach, trainer, athlete, or fitness leader involves developing an understanding of the factors that involves developing an understanding of the factors that increase the risk of injury, being able to evaluate exercises, increase the risk of injury, being able to evaluate exercises, being able identify the elements that cause injury and being able identify the elements that cause injury and being able to modify potentially dangerous exercises being able to modify potentially dangerous exercises

Contraindicated exercises are usually recognised when Contraindicated exercises are usually recognised when numerous injuries arise from these exercises and are numerous injuries arise from these exercises and are treated by doctors and physiostreated by doctors and physios

Factors include:Factors include: extreme movementextreme movement- go beyond normal and safe range- go beyond normal and safe rangee.g. e.g.

ballistic movementballistic movement- performed quickly and without control, - performed quickly and without control, dangerous as they place pressure on joints dangerous as they place pressure on joints

e.g.e.g.

excessive loadexcessive load- placed on joints or muscles- placed on joints or musclese.g.e.g.

sustained movementsustained movement- movements that involve sustained pressure - movements that involve sustained pressure on muscle groups or joints can be dangerouson muscle groups or joints can be dangerous

e.g.e.g.

repetitive movement- repetitive movement- excessive repetition of any movement can excessive repetition of any movement can place strain on body, lead to injuries, strain injuriesplace strain on body, lead to injuries, strain injuries

e.g.e.g.

Imbalance-Imbalance- developing one muscle group (agonist) while not developing one muscle group (agonist) while not developing the opposite muscle group ( antagonist)developing the opposite muscle group ( antagonist)

e.g.e.g.

Skill trainingSkill training

Most individual and team sports Most individual and team sports require the athletes to be able to require the athletes to be able to perform skills competently.perform skills competently.

The difference between two teams or The difference between two teams or individual athletes is not always about individual athletes is not always about aerobic or anaerobic capacity, aerobic or anaerobic capacity, strength or flexibility.strength or flexibility.

Coaches often spend long periods of Coaches often spend long periods of time improving the performance of time improving the performance of basic and complex skills involved in basic and complex skills involved in their sports.their sports.

Drills practiceDrills practice

It is important for the CoachIt is important for the Coach to plan activities/training session that to plan activities/training session that challenge the athlete challenge the athlete

Key point- Key point- variety. variety. Athletes will be motivated to perform if training is kept interesting and Athletes will be motivated to perform if training is kept interesting and

challengingchallenging Variety of drills to practice a particular skillVariety of drills to practice a particular skill Modifying a well-learned drill by adding defence, obstacles, or other Modifying a well-learned drill by adding defence, obstacles, or other

variables adds variety to the training session and makes it more game variables adds variety to the training session and makes it more game like- variety of practice methodslike- variety of practice methods

Demonstrations and explanations should be clear and concise, Demonstrations and explanations should be clear and concise, feedback about practice and performance should be frequent and feedback about practice and performance should be frequent and appropriate.appropriate.

Skill practices vary according to:Skill practices vary according to: performer’s skill levelsperformer’s skill levels performer’s motivationperformer’s motivation practice methods usedpractice methods used requirements of the sportrequirements of the sport

Analysis of techniqueAnalysis of technique

To provide relevant instruction and feedback a coach To provide relevant instruction and feedback a coach requires good skills of observation and analysisrequires good skills of observation and analysis

The coach requires the ability to analyse skills into their The coach requires the ability to analyse skills into their component parts, and to identify the part that is causing component parts, and to identify the part that is causing trouble. E.g.trouble. E.g.

Coaches can use video analysis for evaluation purposes. Coaches can use video analysis for evaluation purposes. What would be the advantage of this??What would be the advantage of this??

Videos can also be used to show performances to athletes, Videos can also be used to show performances to athletes, to review team plays, to note faults, and to view another to review team plays, to note faults, and to view another team ( note weaknesses or moves)team ( note weaknesses or moves)

Methods which can be used to analyse technique include Methods which can be used to analyse technique include biofeedback, photos, biomechanical analysis and match biofeedback, photos, biomechanical analysis and match report sheetsreport sheets

Technique correctionTechnique correction

Once a problem has been identified it is the Once a problem has been identified it is the responsibility of the athlete to use this information responsibility of the athlete to use this information to modify their performanceto modify their performance

Using a variety of feedback methods and Using a variety of feedback methods and communication are important at this stage communication are important at this stage because the athlete needs to understand the because the athlete needs to understand the information, remember it, correct the performance information, remember it, correct the performance and practice it.and practice it.

The revised technique needs to be practiced until The revised technique needs to be practiced until the performance becomes automatic.the performance becomes automatic.

Many athletes are able to self correct Many athletes are able to self correct

Modified and small-sided Modified and small-sided gamesgames

The skills of the real game are utilised The skills of the real game are utilised on modified areas of play, or using on modified areas of play, or using modified rulesmodified rules

These are important training techniques These are important training techniques as they mimic skills and tacticsas they mimic skills and tactics

They can also impose certain conditions They can also impose certain conditions (conditional games) to practice a (conditional games) to practice a certain skillcertain skill

Games for specific Games for specific outcomesoutcomes

Small games can be created to achieve Small games can be created to achieve a specific outcome eg. Defensive skills, a specific outcome eg. Defensive skills, attacking ability, creating spaceattacking ability, creating space

Provide opportunity for concentrated Provide opportunity for concentrated practice and decision making within practice and decision making within structures that closely resemble the structures that closely resemble the game situationgame situation

Functional practice Functional practice – address specific – address specific elements of a game causing concernelements of a game causing concern

Focus Question 2Focus Question 2

What are the What are the planning planning

considerations for considerations for improving improving

performance?performance?

Initial Planning Initial Planning Considerations Considerations

Training programs need to be Training programs need to be thoroughly planned if the potential of thoroughly planned if the potential of players and the performance of players and the performance of teams are to be optimisedteams are to be optimised

Performance and fitness Performance and fitness needsneeds

Data is collected from previous Data is collected from previous seasons and current performances to seasons and current performances to develop effective programsdevelop effective programs

This becomes the basis of developing This becomes the basis of developing individual and team considerationsindividual and team considerations

Eg individual – physical fitness, skillsEg individual – physical fitness, skills Team – team goals, Team – team goals,

leadership(captain)leadership(captain)

Schedule of Schedule of events/competitionsevents/competitions

Careful consideration needed to Careful consideration needed to avoid over-committing athletes and avoid over-committing athletes and inhibiting performance.inhibiting performance.

Data needs to be analysed such as Data needs to be analysed such as main competitions, area and national main competitions, area and national championships etc, to pace training championships etc, to pace training programs and performance.programs and performance.

Climate and seasonClimate and season

Initial planning needs to consider Initial planning needs to consider seasonal variations together with seasonal variations together with climatic influencesclimatic influences

Heat, wind, rain, cold, fog and Heat, wind, rain, cold, fog and humidity are examples of climatic humidity are examples of climatic considerationsconsiderations

Clothing and attire must address Clothing and attire must address these issues.these issues.

Planning a training year Planning a training year --

phases of Competitionphases of Competition

Many athletes train all year to Many athletes train all year to maintain fitness maintain fitness

Periodisation: the dividing of a Periodisation: the dividing of a program into phases program into phases

Post/Off Season/Transition Post/Off Season/Transition PhasePhase

Aim: prevent weight gain (by modifying diet), Aim: prevent weight gain (by modifying diet), maintain an aerobic fitness base + strength + maintain an aerobic fitness base + strength + skill level, repair injuries skill level, repair injuries

This is the phase in which recovery occurs. This is the phase in which recovery occurs. Coaches should encourage active physiological Coaches should encourage active physiological and psychological recovery. (as the principle of and psychological recovery. (as the principle of reversibility can have an effect on the athletes) reversibility can have an effect on the athletes)

Any injury should be managed at this stage. Any injury should be managed at this stage. Involves recreational and social activities, variety Involves recreational and social activities, variety

is important (also in the environment) is important (also in the environment) Low intensity, high volume Low intensity, high volume One week total rest at the conclusion of the One week total rest at the conclusion of the

competition may be wisecompetition may be wise

Pre Season Pre Season Training/Preparation PhaseTraining/Preparation Phase

6-12 weeks before the start of the season 6-12 weeks before the start of the season Aim: Aim: The main aim of this phase is to reach a The main aim of this phase is to reach a

level of fitness that will see the athlete competing level of fitness that will see the athlete competing at their best with a reduction in the likelihood of at their best with a reduction in the likelihood of injury. There should be an increase in intensity as injury. There should be an increase in intensity as the athlete begins with general whole-body the athlete begins with general whole-body conditioning and then progresses to sport-specific conditioning and then progresses to sport-specific fitness work and technique is developed. fitness work and technique is developed.

High volume, moderate intensity High volume, moderate intensity A variety of training methods should be used A variety of training methods should be used

incorporating endurance and power eg Fartlek + incorporating endurance and power eg Fartlek + interval interval

In Season In Season Training/Competition PhaseTraining/Competition Phase

Aim: maintain fitness, strength + skills Aim: maintain fitness, strength + skills developed in the pre season developed in the pre season

Maintaining fitness by increasing intensity Maintaining fitness by increasing intensity and decreasing volume and decreasing volume

Focus: gain competitive experience, Focus: gain competitive experience, tactics and strategies, mental skills tactics and strategies, mental skills

Specificity and games + game-like Specificity and games + game-like practice is important practice is important

The athletes ability to load (train) and The athletes ability to load (train) and unload (recover, regenerate) will influence unload (recover, regenerate) will influence the level of intensity the level of intensity

Off Season/Transition PhaseOff Season/Transition Phase Physical and mental recovery from Physical and mental recovery from

training and competitiontraining and competition Off- season is characterised byOff- season is characterised by- 1 week of total rest1 week of total rest- Remaining time consisting of active rest, Remaining time consisting of active rest,

with training sessions and intensity with training sessions and intensity decreaseddecreased

- Change of environmentChange of environment- Diet changes to reflect decreased loadDiet changes to reflect decreased load

subphasessubphases MacrocyclesMacrocycles are long term planning are long term planning

frameworks and may represent an frameworks and may represent an entire planning program (annual entire planning program (annual plan)plan)

MesocyclesMesocycles are periods of 4-8 weeks are periods of 4-8 weeks MicrocyclesMicrocycles are short term 7-10 days are short term 7-10 days Mesocycles and microcycles allow for Mesocycles and microcycles allow for

the planning of specific objectives to the planning of specific objectives to be achievedbe achieved

Peaking for PerformancePeaking for Performance

Peaking:Peaking: phase of training in which performance is phase of training in which performance is optimised to meet the demands of a optimised to meet the demands of a race/competition, a temporary state race/competition, a temporary state

Characteristics of peaking: Characteristics of peaking: High health/fitness High health/fitness Quick recovery from training Quick recovery from training Neuromuscular coordination Neuromuscular coordination self confidence/motivation self confidence/motivation Mental alertness Mental alertness Technical/tactical preparation is optimal Technical/tactical preparation is optimal Program should be organised so that physical and Program should be organised so that physical and

mental states are optimal mental states are optimal Involves a sequential, cumulative training Involves a sequential, cumulative training

program program

TaperingTapering

Tapering:Tapering: a period of reduced training a period of reduced training immediately prior to competition, can immediately prior to competition, can increase the strength and power of the increase the strength and power of the athlete athlete

7-10 days is appropriate for most sports 7-10 days is appropriate for most sports Reasons: allows tissue to rebuild, heal Reasons: allows tissue to rebuild, heal

injuries, replace energy stores injuries, replace energy stores Effects differ: good in swimming, minimal Effects differ: good in swimming, minimal

for running for running

Tapering (varies according to sport 7-14 days) involves a reduction in Tapering (varies according to sport 7-14 days) involves a reduction in volume and intensity and is fundamental for allowing tissue to volume and intensity and is fundamental for allowing tissue to rebuild/heal and for the full replacement of energy/glycogen stores. rebuild/heal and for the full replacement of energy/glycogen stores. Part of the in-season phase, duration depending on whether an athlete Part of the in-season phase, duration depending on whether an athlete must perform every week or for a major competition. Following a high must perform every week or for a major competition. Following a high quality preparation it brings about an increase in strength and power quality preparation it brings about an increase in strength and power as it takes stress of muscles, immune and nervous systems. Diet must as it takes stress of muscles, immune and nervous systems. Diet must be considered as over-eating, can be a problem during tapering. be considered as over-eating, can be a problem during tapering.

ExampleExample: swimmers gain benefits by tapering for two weeks. No loss in : swimmers gain benefits by tapering for two weeks. No loss in maximal aerobic capacity if training is reduced by 60%. Those tested maximal aerobic capacity if training is reduced by 60%. Those tested had a 3.1% improved performance and a 17-24% increase in arm had a 3.1% improved performance and a 17-24% increase in arm strength. There are four variables to consider:strength. There are four variables to consider:

Taper DurationTaper Duration - ensures training is reduced to allow recovery without - ensures training is reduced to allow recovery without loss of fitness. Research shows between 7 and 14 days caters for both.loss of fitness. Research shows between 7 and 14 days caters for both.

Training VolumeTraining Volume – Research shows that reducing the volume gradually – Research shows that reducing the volume gradually up to 60% allows the body’s tissue to recover from excess training up to 60% allows the body’s tissue to recover from excess training easily and utilise energy to improve fitness parameters. easily and utilise energy to improve fitness parameters.

Exercise IntensityExercise Intensity – intensity remains the same but frequency or – intensity remains the same but frequency or repetitions decrease therefore an improvement in performance due to repetitions decrease therefore an improvement in performance due to less damage from training. less damage from training.

Exercise FrequencyExercise Frequency – frequency should remain relatively stable as – frequency should remain relatively stable as athletes are familiar with training at certain times. This is providing the athletes are familiar with training at certain times. This is providing the other three variables are manipulated to prepare the athlete for other three variables are manipulated to prepare the athlete for optimal performance. optimal performance.

How to Prevent How to Prevent Overtraining:Overtraining:

Athletes and coaches should be aware, recognise it Athletes and coaches should be aware, recognise it early and take the appropriate rest. Coaches should early and take the appropriate rest. Coaches should also be considering:also be considering:

Increase training loads graduallyIncrease training loads gradually Periodisation of training must be planned throughout Periodisation of training must be planned throughout

the yearthe year Taper the program leading into major competitionsTaper the program leading into major competitions Ensure the athlete is maintaining a balanced lifestyleEnsure the athlete is maintaining a balanced lifestyle Adapt training to suit the environmental conditionsAdapt training to suit the environmental conditions Alternate training sessionsAlternate training sessions

Environmental Environmental ConsiderationsConsiderations

An athletes performance can be An athletes performance can be affected by a number of affected by a number of environmental conditions including:environmental conditions including:

WeatherWeather AltitudeAltitude Pollution Pollution

AltitudeAltitude Altitude:Altitude: height above sea level height above sea level Hypoxia: lack of an adequate supply of oxygenHypoxia: lack of an adequate supply of oxygen.. radiation radiation Different conditions: air is less dense, lower humidity, lower air Different conditions: air is less dense, lower humidity, lower air

temperature, solartemperature, solar Heights > 1500m above sea level affect the body’s ability to Heights > 1500m above sea level affect the body’s ability to

perform physical work perform physical work Aerobic capacity is reduced by 3% for every 300m ascended Aerobic capacity is reduced by 3% for every 300m ascended

above 1500m above 1500m In the Mexico City Olympics 1968, endurance athletes had In the Mexico City Olympics 1968, endurance athletes had

problems with the 2290m altitude problems with the 2290m altitude Decreased barometric pressure leads to decreased ability to take Decreased barometric pressure leads to decreased ability to take

in oxygen, hence decreasing metabolism of glycogen.in oxygen, hence decreasing metabolism of glycogen. Max VO2 decreases due to decrease in arterial oxygen content, Max VO2 decreases due to decrease in arterial oxygen content,

though at higher altitudes it is explained by a decrease in cardiac though at higher altitudes it is explained by a decrease in cardiac output.output.

Lower humidity and air temperatures at altitude create Lower humidity and air temperatures at altitude create temperature regulation problems and dehydration. temperature regulation problems and dehydration.

There is less moisture in the air to absorb UV radiation. There is less moisture in the air to absorb UV radiation. Less resistance leads to increased distances thrown.Less resistance leads to increased distances thrown.

AcclimatisationAcclimatisation Acclimatisation:Acclimatisation: The hypoxia stimulates physiological adaptations The hypoxia stimulates physiological adaptations

both at rest and during exercise. This is called acclimatisation both at rest and during exercise. This is called acclimatisation Immediate response: Immediate response:

Hyperventilation (increase ventilation) Hyperventilation (increase ventilation) Increased cardiac output Increased cardiac output Increased blood pressure Increased blood pressure

Long term adjustments: Long term adjustments: Red blood cells ^ Red blood cells ^ Changes to tissue/cells Changes to tissue/cells

Acclimatisation is a gradual process taking from 1 week to one Acclimatisation is a gradual process taking from 1 week to one month (depending on the altitude) month (depending on the altitude)

The benefits are lost within 2-3 weeks after returning to sea level The benefits are lost within 2-3 weeks after returning to sea level 3 phase process: 3 phase process: Increase in lung ventilation Increase in lung ventilation Red blood cells Red blood cells Capillarisation of muscle cells Capillarisation of muscle cells Problem: advantages of acclimatisation are often outweighed by Problem: advantages of acclimatisation are often outweighed by

the reduced training volume needed to incorporate the altitude the reduced training volume needed to incorporate the altitude training training

Elements to be considered Elements to be considered when designing a training when designing a training

sessionsession

Health and safety Health and safety considerationsconsiderations

Disregard for health and safety can lead to injury. Disregard for health and safety can lead to injury. Important considerations include:Important considerations include:

- Injury prevention Injury prevention – warmup/cooldown and stretching– warmup/cooldown and stretching- Protective equipment Protective equipment – should be used during – should be used during

practice and gamespractice and games- General equipment General equipment – all needs to be checked for – all needs to be checked for

safetysafety- ApparelApparel – should be comfortable as well as provide – should be comfortable as well as provide

protectionprotection- Environmental hazards Environmental hazards – UV protection (sunscreen, – UV protection (sunscreen,

sunglasses, hats etc)sunglasses, hats etc)- IllnessIllness – virus transfer must be minimised eg water – virus transfer must be minimised eg water

bottle usebottle use

Providing an overview of the Providing an overview of the sessionsession

At the beginning of a training session, it is At the beginning of a training session, it is common for a coach to provide a brief common for a coach to provide a brief overview of what will be required in the sessionoverview of what will be required in the session

This ensures that the intentions of the coach This ensures that the intentions of the coach and expectations of the players is channelled and expectations of the players is channelled in the same direction.in the same direction.

It also provides a forum for specific issues such It also provides a forum for specific issues such as recording attendance, assessment of as recording attendance, assessment of injuries, discussion of goals, tactics, discussion injuries, discussion of goals, tactics, discussion of previous performanceof previous performance

Warm up and cool downWarm up and cool down

Effective warmups consist ofEffective warmups consist of- Phase 1 – general body warm up until the body Phase 1 – general body warm up until the body

begins to sweatbegins to sweat- Phase 2 – stretchingPhase 2 – stretching- Phase 3 – callisthenics – general body exercises Phase 3 – callisthenics – general body exercises

eg pushups, abdominal crunches (specific to the eg pushups, abdominal crunches (specific to the game)game)

- Phase 4 – skill rehearsal – performance of Phase 4 – skill rehearsal – performance of routines required later in the training sessionroutines required later in the training session

Skill instruction and practiceSkill instruction and practice Delivery of a body of knowledge from a coach to the Delivery of a body of knowledge from a coach to the

playersplayers Effective delivery requires good communication skills Effective delivery requires good communication skills

and prior organisationand prior organisation Effective communication is:Effective communication is:- BriefBrief- Well timedWell timed- SpecificSpecific- ConstructiveConstructive- ClearClear- InformativeInformative- DemonstrableDemonstrable

conditioningconditioning It is essential to identify the most important fitness It is essential to identify the most important fitness

components for success and design sport-specific components for success and design sport-specific conditioning within training sessions that will conditioning within training sessions that will enhance these fitness components and energy enhance these fitness components and energy systemssystems

In most cases, general training sessions are not In most cases, general training sessions are not sufficient to develop the progression of physical sufficient to develop the progression of physical conditioningconditioning

During the preseason, the time allocated to During the preseason, the time allocated to conditioning should be greater than that of the in-conditioning should be greater than that of the in-season or transitional phases of a training program, season or transitional phases of a training program, to effectively prepare the athlete for competitionto effectively prepare the athlete for competition

evaluationevaluation Good coaching methods include Good coaching methods include

evaluating the training session. It evaluating the training session. It allows feedback on the effectiveness allows feedback on the effectiveness of the session and whether specific of the session and whether specific goals were met.goals were met.

After the evaluation session, the coach After the evaluation session, the coach and athlete can discuss any and athlete can discuss any information relating to the next information relating to the next training session, game or game training session, game or game preparation.preparation.

Planning to avoid Planning to avoid overtrainingovertraining

Amount and intensity of Amount and intensity of trainingtraining

Overtraining can occur as a result of accumulated Overtraining can occur as a result of accumulated factors which include:factors which include:

- Inappropriate increase in the frequency of Inappropriate increase in the frequency of trainingtraining

- Demands increase too rapidly which don’t allow Demands increase too rapidly which don’t allow for adaptationfor adaptation

- Too rapid increase of loading after injuryToo rapid increase of loading after injury- Too high an intensity of duration loading in Too high an intensity of duration loading in

endurance trainingendurance training- Excessive competition with maximum demandExcessive competition with maximum demand- Excessive bias of training methodsExcessive bias of training methods

Physiological considerations Physiological considerations eg lethargy, injuryeg lethargy, injury

It is normal to suffer from fatigue or muscle It is normal to suffer from fatigue or muscle discomfort during training, especially at the beginning discomfort during training, especially at the beginning of preseason training. Coaches and athletes must be of preseason training. Coaches and athletes must be aware that prolonged periods of training without aware that prolonged periods of training without adequate recovery can result in overtrainingadequate recovery can result in overtraining

Physiological responses to training must be Physiological responses to training must be monitored, and appropriate adjustments made if the monitored, and appropriate adjustments made if the athlete is suffering from any of the following:athlete is suffering from any of the following:

Elevated resting pulse/HR, frequent minor infections, Elevated resting pulse/HR, frequent minor infections, chronic muscle soreness, lethargy, weight loss and chronic muscle soreness, lethargy, weight loss and appetite loss, intolerance to exercise, decreased appetite loss, intolerance to exercise, decreased performance performance

Psychological Psychological PreparationPreparation

The Role and Use of Sports The Role and Use of Sports PsychologistsPsychologists

Aim: to establish mental toughness Aim: to establish mental toughness Sports psychology: involves the study of human behaviour in Sports psychology: involves the study of human behaviour in

sports setting and the influence of coach, athlete and environment sports setting and the influence of coach, athlete and environment on performance on performance

The sports psychiatrist aims to The sports psychiatrist aims to Help athletes overcome the pressures of competition Help athletes overcome the pressures of competition Improve performance by teaching techniques for mental Improve performance by teaching techniques for mental

control and alertness control and alertness Educate and teach coaches/players Educate and teach coaches/players

Psychological skills training (PST) can enhance both performance Psychological skills training (PST) can enhance both performance and self-confidence. But these skills need to be practiced and self-confidence. But these skills need to be practiced

Focusing: staying in a controlled emotional state and concentrating Focusing: staying in a controlled emotional state and concentrating on the immediate event, sometimes employs the use of cue words on the immediate event, sometimes employs the use of cue words

Centring: process that gives the athlete a feeling of being Centring: process that gives the athlete a feeling of being grounded, in control grounded, in control

Positive self-talk: can help in rehearsing and correcting a skill and Positive self-talk: can help in rehearsing and correcting a skill and refocusingrefocusing

Relaxation TechniquesRelaxation Techniques Relaxation: characterised by a decrease in breathing rate, heart Relaxation: characterised by a decrease in breathing rate, heart

rate, muscle activity and oxygen consumption rate, muscle activity and oxygen consumption Anxiety: fear/apprehension as a result of a proposed threat Anxiety: fear/apprehension as a result of a proposed threat When arousal levels are too high performance is compromised.When arousal levels are too high performance is compromised. Relaxation techniques are designed to prevent excessive Relaxation techniques are designed to prevent excessive

arousal, decreasing the physical and mental symptoms of arousal, decreasing the physical and mental symptoms of nervousness. nervousness. Progressive muscular relaxation: tense then relax a muscle group Progressive muscular relaxation: tense then relax a muscle group Mental relaxation: visually tranquil experience relax the mind and Mental relaxation: visually tranquil experience relax the mind and

bodybody Mental rehearsal: repeat a mental picture before a performance Mental rehearsal: repeat a mental picture before a performance Centred breathing: focus on breathing depth and rate Centred breathing: focus on breathing depth and rate Flotation: floating in water to produce a sense of calm Flotation: floating in water to produce a sense of calm Meditation: exclusion of surrounding interferences Meditation: exclusion of surrounding interferences Sports massage: manipulating soft tissue Sports massage: manipulating soft tissue Autogenic training: mental creation of feelings of heaviness and Autogenic training: mental creation of feelings of heaviness and

warmth in the muscles warmth in the muscles Biofeedback: uses instruments which measure changes in bodily Biofeedback: uses instruments which measure changes in bodily

functions (skin temperature, breathing, heart rate etc) functions (skin temperature, breathing, heart rate etc) Hypnosis Hypnosis

Intense physical training can contribute to mental Intense physical training can contribute to mental and emotional issues in athletes. By balancing and emotional issues in athletes. By balancing motivational techniques and physical intensity, a motivational techniques and physical intensity, a coach can help avoid the onset of overtraining.coach can help avoid the onset of overtraining.

Psychological indicators of overtraining include:Psychological indicators of overtraining include:- fatigue, tirednessfatigue, tiredness- apathy or no motivationapathy or no motivation- irritabilityirritability- anxietyanxiety- depressiondepression- headachesheadaches- insomniainsomnia- inability to relaxinability to relax

Physiological Physiological ConsiderationsConsiderations

Causes: Causes: poor dietpoor diet stressstress sleep disorderssleep disorders excessive training excessive training

volume/intensity volume/intensity

Effects: Effects: insomniainsomnia InfectionsInfections Resting Heart Rate Resting Heart Rate

increasesincreases

Causes: Causes: PressurePressure lack of self-confidencelack of self-confidence BoredomBoredom FearFear

Strategies: Strategies: change of change of

environment/routineenvironment/routine active restactive rest mini breaks mini breaks

Psychological Psychological ConsiderationConsiderationss

Focus Question 3Focus Question 3

What ethical issues What ethical issues are related to are related to

improving improving performance?performance?

USE OF DRUGSUSE OF DRUGS

The dangers of performance The dangers of performance enhancing drugsenhancing drugs

A star athlete can earn a lot of money and receive fame and A star athlete can earn a lot of money and receive fame and attention, andattention, and

they only have a short time to do their best work. Athletes know that they only have a short time to do their best work. Athletes know that training is the best path to victory,training is the best path to victory,

but they also understand that some drugs and other practices can but they also understand that some drugs and other practices can boost their efforts and offer a shortcutboost their efforts and offer a shortcut

Athletes can be lured into using performance-enhancing drugs Athletes can be lured into using performance-enhancing drugs because:because:

• • winning can attract lucrative sponsorship deals and endorsementswinning can attract lucrative sponsorship deals and endorsements • • society places great emphasis on success in sportsociety places great emphasis on success in sport • • some banned drugs can speed recovery from injurysome banned drugs can speed recovery from injury • • some athletes desire to win so much that they are willing to use some athletes desire to win so much that they are willing to use

any meansany means • • some coaches may push drug use to enhance an athlete’s chances some coaches may push drug use to enhance an athlete’s chances

of winningof winning

For strength (HGH, steroids)For strength (HGH, steroids) HGH stimulates the body’s synthesis of the proteins that form HGH stimulates the body’s synthesis of the proteins that form

bone and muscle tissue, decreases body fat and increases bone and muscle tissue, decreases body fat and increases testosterone levels.testosterone levels.

HGH stimulates the growth of muscle, cartilage, and bone, HGH stimulates the growth of muscle, cartilage, and bone, and so increases muscle size.and so increases muscle size.

It also allows tired muscles to recover quicker, which enables It also allows tired muscles to recover quicker, which enables thethe

athlete to train harder and more often.athlete to train harder and more often. The side effects of using human growth hormone include:The side effects of using human growth hormone include:

• • overgrowth of hands, feet and face (acromegaly) because ofovergrowth of hands, feet and face (acromegaly) because of

the increased muscle and bone development in these partsthe increased muscle and bone development in these parts

• • enlarged internal organs, especially heart, kidneys, tongueenlarged internal organs, especially heart, kidneys, tongue

and liverand liver

• • heart problems.heart problems.

effects of HGH and steroidseffects of HGH and steroids

For aerobic performance For aerobic performance (EPO)(EPO)

Erythropoietin (EPO) is a naturally occurring protein Erythropoietin (EPO) is a naturally occurring protein hormone that is secreted by the kidneys during low-oxygen hormone that is secreted by the kidneys during low-oxygen conditions.conditions.

Endurance athletes, use EPO to increase oxygen Endurance athletes, use EPO to increase oxygen absorption, reduce fatigue and improve endurance by absorption, reduce fatigue and improve endurance by increasing the rate of red cell production.increasing the rate of red cell production.

It is also believed that EPO increases the metabolism and It is also believed that EPO increases the metabolism and the healing process of muscles because the extra red cells the healing process of muscles because the extra red cells carry more oxygen and nutrients.carry more oxygen and nutrients.

In someone who already has normal levels of red blood In someone who already has normal levels of red blood cells, the use of EPO can lead to increased thickening (or cells, the use of EPO can lead to increased thickening (or viscosity) of the blood causing clotting, thrombosis, heart viscosity) of the blood causing clotting, thrombosis, heart attack and stroke.attack and stroke.

To mask other drugs To mask other drugs (diuretics)(diuretics)

Masking agents are prohibited as they are products that have Masking agents are prohibited as they are products that have the potential to impair the excretion of prohibited substances, to the potential to impair the excretion of prohibited substances, to conceal their presence in urine or other samples used in doping conceal their presence in urine or other samples used in doping control, or to change haematological (blood) parameters.control, or to change haematological (blood) parameters.

DiureticsDiuretics are classified as masking agents and can be used to are classified as masking agents and can be used to control weight or mask the use of other drugs.control weight or mask the use of other drugs.

Depressants affect concentration and coordination, and slow the Depressants affect concentration and coordination, and slow the response time to unexpected situations. response time to unexpected situations. AlcoholAlcohol can have the can have the same masking affect as a diuretic by diluting urine.same masking affect as a diuretic by diluting urine.

Alcohol is an ergolytic aid to sports performance. This means Alcohol is an ergolytic aid to sports performance. This means that it will detract from, not improve, exercise performance. It is that it will detract from, not improve, exercise performance. It is banned in:banned in:

aeronautic, archery, boules, karate, modern pentathlon aeronautic, archery, boules, karate, modern pentathlon (disciplines involving shooting), motorcycling, tenpin bowling, (disciplines involving shooting), motorcycling, tenpin bowling, powerboating.powerboating.

Warne recently returned a positive sample to the banned drug Moduretic, a Warne recently returned a positive sample to the banned drug Moduretic, a diureticdiuretic

often used by sports drug cheats to mask other prohibited substances often used by sports drug cheats to mask other prohibited substances includingincluding

anabolic steroids, which are often used by sports men and women to promote anabolic steroids, which are often used by sports men and women to promote rapidrapid

tissue healing after injury.tissue healing after injury.

Benefits and limitations of Benefits and limitations of drug testingdrug testing

Effective drug testing programs are difficult and extremely Effective drug testing programs are difficult and extremely costly to maintain. One reason is that new performance-costly to maintain. One reason is that new performance-enhancing drugs are constantly being developed. These enhancing drugs are constantly being developed. These drugs are usually produced in secret and are specifically drugs are usually produced in secret and are specifically designed to avoid detection by current testing methods.designed to avoid detection by current testing methods.

Some performance-enhancing drugs are more difficult to Some performance-enhancing drugs are more difficult to detect than others. Elevated levels of EPO, for instance, do detect than others. Elevated levels of EPO, for instance, do not remain in the blood for longnot remain in the blood for long

The Australian Sports Anti-Doping Authority (ASADA) is the The Australian Sports Anti-Doping Authority (ASADA) is the primary anti-doping authority in Australia and, as such, is primary anti-doping authority in Australia and, as such, is responsible for testing athletes for banned substances.responsible for testing athletes for banned substances.

Although there is limited statistical evidence on how Although there is limited statistical evidence on how widespread doping is, athletes and coaches stress that most widespread doping is, athletes and coaches stress that most competitors do not take drugs. Nonetheless, drug testing is competitors do not take drugs. Nonetheless, drug testing is becoming an increasingly integral part of sports competitions.becoming an increasingly integral part of sports competitions.

Use of TechnologyUse of Technology

Oscar Pistorius of South Africa was Oscar Pistorius of South Africa was born without a fibula bone in his born without a fibula bone in his legs resulting in both legs being legs resulting in both legs being amputated below the kneeamputated below the knee

Is technology going too far???Is technology going too far???

Training innovationTraining innovation New training innovations develop every year, with what is New training innovations develop every year, with what is

regarded as the latest innovation becoming outdated in a regarded as the latest innovation becoming outdated in a very short period of time.very short period of time.

Coaches research, or in the case of elite athletes, have Coaches research, or in the case of elite athletes, have support staff to investigate the latest training methods and support staff to investigate the latest training methods and vices to improve athletic performance in power, distance vices to improve athletic performance in power, distance and accuracy, and to prevent injury or aid in rehabilitation.and accuracy, and to prevent injury or aid in rehabilitation.

much of the research done by the AIS is cutting-edge, and much of the research done by the AIS is cutting-edge, and designed to give Australian athletes the best chance at designed to give Australian athletes the best chance at international success, and so is not made available.international success, and so is not made available.

Some examples of innovative training aids to improve Some examples of innovative training aids to improve performance include:performance include:

clothing, compression garments, playing surfaces, testing clothing, compression garments, playing surfaces, testing procedures, simulated competition environments, procedures, simulated competition environments, equipment, computerised video analysisequipment, computerised video analysis

lactate threshold testinglactate threshold testing Lactate thresholds testing Lactate thresholds testing is an innovative method used is an innovative method used

to measure lactate levels during training by sport scientists, to measure lactate levels during training by sport scientists, coaches and athletes to accurately determine heart rate coaches and athletes to accurately determine heart rate training zones and recovery. Lactate is a metabolic product training zones and recovery. Lactate is a metabolic product that can be measured by taking a drop of blood at a that can be measured by taking a drop of blood at a fingertip the same way diabetics monitor their blood sugar fingertip the same way diabetics monitor their blood sugar level.level.

The blood lactate level increases with exercise intensity The blood lactate level increases with exercise intensity and shows clearly the transition from aerobic to anaerobic and shows clearly the transition from aerobic to anaerobic activity. The ability of the muscles to reach a peak activity. The ability of the muscles to reach a peak performance during an athletic event requires that the performance during an athletic event requires that the energy systems providing energy be ‘fine tuned’ or energy systems providing energy be ‘fine tuned’ or ‘balanced’ properly so that the athlete can generate the ‘balanced’ properly so that the athlete can generate the highest amount of energy per unit of time during a race.highest amount of energy per unit of time during a race.

biomechanical analysisbiomechanical analysis Biomechanical analysis is another innovative method used Biomechanical analysis is another innovative method used

to improve an athlete’s performance. For example, walking, to improve an athlete’s performance. For example, walking, running, throwing, pitching, hitting, kicking, diving and golf running, throwing, pitching, hitting, kicking, diving and golf swing mechanics can be compared to normative data in swing mechanics can be compared to normative data in order to pinpoint flaws in the motion; and so performance order to pinpoint flaws in the motion; and so performance improvements can then be based on scientific evidence.improvements can then be based on scientific evidence.

Biomechanical analysis is valuable in the prevention of Biomechanical analysis is valuable in the prevention of injuries. Data regarding joint stresses incurred during sport-injuries. Data regarding joint stresses incurred during sport-specific movements, knowledge of joint mechanics and the specific movements, knowledge of joint mechanics and the magnitudes and rates of joint loads, provide sports magnitudes and rates of joint loads, provide sports medicine practitioners with the information necessary to medicine practitioners with the information necessary to prescribe injury prevention and rehabilitation programs.prescribe injury prevention and rehabilitation programs.

All biomechanical evaluations should be completed with All biomechanical evaluations should be completed with two goals in mind:two goals in mind:

1. improve performance and 1. improve performance and

2. reduce the chance of injury.2. reduce the chance of injury.

Equipment advancesEquipment advances One of the most controversial One of the most controversial

advances is that of the Speedo LZR advances is that of the Speedo LZR Pulse™ Pulse™ swimsuitswimsuit. At the beginning . At the beginning of 2008, the suit was worn for 9 out of 2008, the suit was worn for 9 out of 9 world records broken in the of 9 world records broken in the swimming pool between Jan – March swimming pool between Jan – March of that yearof that year

Characteristics of the suit that Characteristics of the suit that improves performance include:improves performance include:

* constructed water repellent * constructed water repellent material reducing drag by 5% and material reducing drag by 5% and increasing efficiencyincreasing efficiency

* tighter, corset-like midsection * tighter, corset-like midsection reported to reduce fatigue at the end reported to reduce fatigue at the end of races and improve body shapeof races and improve body shape

* seamless, consisting of special * seamless, consisting of special panels of the repellent material panels of the repellent material further reducing drag.further reducing drag.

golf ballgolf ball

manufacturers have sought to create manufacturers have sought to create superior golf balls by varying both the superior golf balls by varying both the materials and the patterns and materials and the patterns and combinations on the surface.combinations on the surface.

as computer technologies and models as computer technologies and models are developed, manufacturing are developed, manufacturing companies can develop new golf balls companies can develop new golf balls with new patterns, accompanied by with new patterns, accompanied by new marketing campaignsnew marketing campaigns

Callaway Golf replaced traditional Callaway Golf replaced traditional dimples with a hexagonal dimple dimples with a hexagonal dimple pattern on their golf balls, which they pattern on their golf balls, which they claim further reduces drag for longer, claim further reduces drag for longer, more efficient ball flight.more efficient ball flight.