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Hudson High School

Writing Guide

2015-2016

I write to discover what I think.

--Daniel J. Boorstin

Nobody should suppose that good writing—the kind that says what it means

while being pleasant to read—has ever been easy.

--Jacques Barzun

Every piece of honest writing contains this tacit message: “I wrote this because

it’s important; I want you to read it; I’ll stand behind it.

--Matthew Grieder

A writer is somebody for whom writing is more difficult than it is for other

people.

--Thomas Mann

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Table of Contents Organizing Your Paper Introductions and Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….4 Six Kinds of Ineffective Introductions……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………5 Thesis Statements…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……6 Generating a Thesis Statement…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….7 CER Paragraphs…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….8 Claims (Topic Sentences)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..9 Transitions………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….10 Formatting the First Page of the Paper……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….12 Formatting the Works Cited Page……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….13 Using Evidence Blending Quotes…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………15 Using Evidence in Your Paper (paraphrasing, tagging, and quoting)…………………………………………………………………..16 Qualifying an Argument……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..17 Plagiarism……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….18 What Gets Cited?.....................................................................................................................................................20 Reliable Sources: They’re in the CARRDSS…………………………………………………………………………………………………..……..21 How to Cite Sources on a Works Cited Page………………………………………………………………………………………………..……..22 In-Text Citations………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...26 In-Text Citations Cheat Sheet………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….27 Terms to Know Academic Terms…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…..29 Literary and Rhetorical Terms…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….33 Logic and Argument Terms…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….38 Tone……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………...40 Style……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….41 Grammar & Mechanics The Eight Parts of Speech………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…43 Grammar Focus: Putting Sentences Together and Using Commas………………………………………………………………….….44 Grammar Focus: Verbs……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………...48 Capitalization……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………52 Titles…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..53 Types of Sentences…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....54 Numbers………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…..55 Words and Phrases to Avoid in Formal Papers……………………………………………………………………………………………………56 Commonly Confused Words………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…..57 The Big Picture The Three Writing Modes………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…59 Writing Assessment…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...60 This guide was written and compiled by Amy Plackowski, with contributions from members of the Hudson High School and Quinn Middle School English Language Arts department.

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Writing Effective Introductions and Conclusions

A good way to think about writing a compelling introduction is like an upside-down triangle.

You can think about the conclusion as doing the opposite.

Begin by generalizing the arguments you made in your paper.

Although Dumbledore's Army is less experienced fighting the dark arts than the Order of the Phoenix, it proves to be an

important part of the fight against Voldemort.

Start broadening out to the larger significance of your argument.

In drawing parallels between the Order of the Phoenix and Dumbledore's Army, Rowling demonstrates the similarities between Voldemort's first rise and the events in this book. She also shows how Harry has much in common with his mentors, who fought Voldemort before him: his parents,

Sirius Black, and Dumbledore.

End by answering the "so what?" question. Why is your argument important? What does your paper show us about your topic that we

might not have noticed before?

Most importantly, she uses these similarities to deepen one of the themes that appears throughout the series: that young people are as brave, just,

and important as adults.

Begin with a broad statement about your topic.

In every society where one group of people abuses another group of people, individuals have come together to stand up for the people being persecuted.

Set the context for the paper and give necessary background info.

In the fifth book of the Harry Potter series, author JK Rowling draws on historical examples of rebellion to portray two important rebel

groups: the Order of the Phoenix and Dumbledore's Army. The Order of the Phoenix was formed when Voldemort first rose to power, and

included Harry's parents, the Weasleys, and many Hogwarts teachers. Inspired by the Order's revival, Harry leads his own rebel group at

Hogwart's, which goes by the code name Dumbledore's Army.

Narrow to your thesis.

In Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Rowling demonstrates the power of rebel groups through her portrayal

of the Order of the Phoenix and Dumbledore's Army.

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Six Kinds of Ineffective Introductions

1. The Place-Holder Introduction. When you don’t have much to say on a given topic, it’s easy to create this kind of introduction. Essentially, this weaker introduction contains several vague sentences that don’t really say much. They exist just to take up the “introduction space” in your

paper. Example: Slavery was one of the greatest tragedies in American history. There were many different aspects of slavery. Each created different kinds of problems for enslaved people.

2. The Restated Question Introduction. Restating the question can be an effective strategy, but it can be easy to stop at just restating the question instead of offering a more effective, interesting introduction to your paper. The teacher wrote your question and will not need to read a whole paragraph that simply restates the question. Try to do something more interesting. Example: Indeed, education has long been considered a major force for American social change, righting the wrongs of our society. The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass discusses the relationship between education and slavery in 19th century America, showing how white control of education reinforced slavery and how Douglass and other enslaved African Americans viewed education while they endured. Moreover, the book discusses the role that education played in the acquisition of freedom. Education was a major force for social change with regard to slavery. 3. The Webster’s Dictionary Introduction. This introduction begins by giving the dictionary definition of one or more of the words in the assigned question. Anyone can look up a word and copy down what the dictionary says. However, the dictionary is not a particularly authoritative source; it doesn’t take into account the context of your course and doesn’t offer particularly detailed information. Example: Webster’s dictionary defines slavery as “the state of being a slave,” as “the practice of owning slaves,” and as “a condition of hard work and subjection.” 4. The Dawn of Man Introduction. This kind of introduction generally makes broad, sweeping statements about the relevance of this topic since the beginning of time. It is usually very general and fails to connect to the thesis. Avoid beginning a paper with phrases like “throughout history” or “since the dawn of time.” Example: Throughout history, slavery has been a problem. 5. The Book Report Introduction. This introduction is what you had to do in your 5th grade book reports. It gives the name and author of the book you are writing about, tells what the book is about, and offers basic facts about the book. You might resort to this kind of introduction when you are trying to fill space because it’s a familiar format. It is ineffective because it offers details that your reader already knows and that are irrelevant to the thesis. Example: Frederick Douglass wrote his autobiography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave, in the 1840s. It was published in 1986 by Penguin Books. He tells the story of his life. 6. The Obvious Rhetorical Question Introduction. You may have been taught that a good “hook” is a question. This can sometimes be effective, but only in very specific circumstances. In more advanced writing, the rhetorical question usually seems obvious or silly. Example: Have you ever seen your family brutally murdered by Indians? Well, that’s exactly what happened to Abigail Williams in Arthur Miller’s play The Crucible.

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Thesis Statements

What does a good thesis statement do?

It directly answers the question or prompt, if there is one.

It makes a claim that others might dispute, which can be backed up by evidence. It

doesn’t just state the topic of the paper; rather, it makes an argument about the topic. If

you don’t have an argument for a thesis, you don’t have an essay!

It provides a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader exactly what to

expect from the paper.The more specific you can be about how you will prove your

point, the better.

Examples

Bad: The North and the South fought the Civil War for various reasons, some the same and

some different.

Better: While both sides fought the Civil War over the issue of slavery, the North fought for

moral reasons while the South fought to preserve its own institutions.

Best:While both Northerners and Southerners believed they fought against tyranny and

oppression, Northerners focused on the oppression of slaves while Southerners defended their

own right to self-government.

Bad: Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn is a great American novel.

Better: In Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain develops a contrast between life on the river and life

on shore.

Best: Through its contrasting river and shore scenes, Twain’s Huckleberry Finn suggests that to

find the true expression of American democratic ideals, one must leave “civilized” society and

go back to nature.

Remember, your thesis can and should change throughout the writing process!

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How to Generate a Thesis Statement

If you’re having trouble writing a thesis statement, follow these steps.

Step 1: Identify your topic and your task.

Imagine you get a prompt like this:

Literature is full of characters that can be considered heroic. From a work of literature you have read,

select a character who in your opinion is heroic. In a well-developed composition, identify that character

and explain why he or she is heroic.

Your topic is a heroic character in a piece of literature you know. You must now choose what,

specifically, you will write about.

Step 2: Turn your subject into a guiding question.

In Finding Nemo, which character is heroic?

Step 3: Put your topic in a sentence.

In Finding Nemo, the character of Marlin is heroic.

Step 4: Add your argument, viewpoint, or opinion to your topic to make your thesis persuasive.

Marlin is heroic because he rescues his son from captivity.

Step 5: Elaborate on your thesis so that it addresses all parts of your assignment.

Marlin is heroic because he overcomes his own fears when he braves the dangers of the ocean

to rescue his son from captivity and realizes that he has to stop sheltering his son.

Where should I put my thesis statement?

The most common, and often required, spot for a thesis statement is at the end of the

introductory paragraph or paragraphs.

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Claim, Evidence, Reasoning Paragraph Format (CER)

Claim

Makes an argument for your thesis

Should be your idea, not someone else’s

Encompasses the entire paragraph

Transitions from the previous paragraph

Evidence

Information that proves your claim

Examples

Paraphrases

Occasional quotes, only when necessary (always blended and explained)

Data

Details

Research

Reasoning

Provides the reason the evidence supports the claim

Explains how the paragraph’s claim supports the larger thesis

Doesn’t rely on the reader to guess what you meant to prove

Provides a satisfying conclusion to the paragraph. (This means that your transition to the next paragraph shouldn’t happen here. The first sentence of the next paragraph should do that for you. See the next page for more explanation.)

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Claims (Topic Sentences) Claims, which are usually the first sentences in your paragraphs, are sometimes also called topic sentences. A good claim

provides a transition from the previous paragraph. Remember, your transition shouldn’t happen in the last part of the paragraph, but the first. Often, all you need is a good transition word (see the “Transitions” section) to move smoothly into the paragraph. If the ideas are closely related, you might not need a transition word at all.

encompasses the entire paragraph. It should act like an umbrella for the whole paragraph. Once you’ve written the paragraph, go back and read the claim. If you’ve mentioned anything in your paragraph that wasn’t covered in the claim, either change your claim or change the paragraph.

makes an argument. If your claim is just a statement of fact, it’s not really a claim. Remember, a large part of your paragraph is evidence and proof, so you can’t write a good paragraph if you have nothing to prove!

Examples of good claims The Great Gatsby shows how people allow the pursuit of wealth to cloud their judgement, as even the most moral characters are corrupt. The contrast between Proctor’s flawed goodness and Abigail’s deceptive immorality is developed in the first act. Atticus demonstrates his value of respect for all people in his cross-examination of Mayella Ewell. Examples of bad claims There is no doubt that the characters in The Great Gatsby are wealthy; Gatsby throws extravagant parties frequently. (Summarizes the book without making an argument.) In Arthur Miller’s play The Crucible, many characters are introduced in the first act. (Vague and broad; doesn’t make an argument.) Atticus Finch is a lawyer in a small, Southern town. (Summarizes the book.)

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Transitions

Using transitional words and phrases helps papers read more smoothly. They provide logical organization and understandability and improve the connections and transitions between thoughts. Transitions indicate relationships, whether within a sentence, paragraph, or paper. This list illustrates "relationships" between ideas, followed by words and phrases that can connect them.

Illustration Thus, for example, for instance, namely, to illustrate, in other

words, in particular, specifically, such as.

Contrast On the contrary, contrarily, notwithstanding, but, however, nevertheless, in spite of, in contrast, yet, on one hand, on the

other hand, rather, or, nor, conversely, at the same time, while this may be true.

Addition And, in addition to, furthermore, moreover, besides, than, too,

also, both-and, another, equally important, first, second, etc., again, further, last, finally, not only-but also, as well as, in the

second place, next, likewise, similarly, in fact, as a result, consequently, in the same way, for example, for instance,

however, thus, therefore, otherwise.

Time After, afterward, before, then, once, next, last, at last, at length, first, second, etc., at first, formerly, rarely, usually, another, finally, soon, meanwhile, at the same time, for a minute, hour, day, etc.,

during the morning, day, week, etc., most important, later, ordinarily, to begin with, afterwards, generally, in order to, subsequently, previously, in the meantime, immediately,

eventually, concurrently, simultaneously.

Space At the left, at the right, in the center, on the side, along the edge, on top, below, beneath, under, around, above, over, straight

ahead, at the top, at the bottom, surrounding, opposite, at the rear, at the front, in front of, beside, behind, next to, nearby, in the distance, beyond, in the forefront, in the foreground, within sight,

out of sight, across, under, nearer, adjacent, in the background.

Concession Although, at any rate, at least, still, thought, even though, granted that, while it may be true, in spite of, of course.

Similarity or Comparison Similarly, likewise, in like fashion, in like manner,

analogous to.

Emphasis Above all, indeed, truly, of course, certainly, surely, in fact, really, in truth, again, besides, also, furthermore, in addition.

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Details Specifically, especially, in particular, to explain, to list, to enumerate, in detail, namely, including.

Examples For example, for instance, to illustrate, thus, in other words, as an

illustration, in particular.

Consequence or Result So that, with the result that, thus, consequently, hence, accordingly, for this reason, therefore, so, because, since, due to,

as a result, in other words, then.

Summary Therefore, finally, consequently, thus, in short, in conclusion, in brief, as a result, accordingly.

Suggestion For this purpose, to this end, with this in mind, with this purpose in

mind, therefore.

Adapted From: Taraba, Joanna. “Transitional Words and Phrases.” [online] 23 January 2010

<http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/trans1.html>

Be careful when using transition words to choose words that actually indicate the relationship you are trying to convey. For example, although this sentence sounds authoritative, the transition word doesn’t make sense in this context: Thoreau believes that people should become closer to nature to discover the essence of life. More specifically, he writes, “we do not ride the railroad; it rides upon us.” The quote is not a more specific example of the first statement. It’s another point. The writer should have chosen a more fitting transition word (such as “additionally”), or used a quotation that is actually a specific example of that particular point. Although words like “first,” “second,” etc. can sometimes be good transition words, avoid using a string of transitions that sounds like a list (first, second, last, etc.). Here’s an example of the type of transitions to avoid: The origins of World War I were quite complex. First, from the end of the Franco-Prussian War, a system of secret alliances developed across Europe. Second, competition for colonies provoked international antagonism. Thirdly, a class of professional military officers developed and tended to dominate the civil authorities. Finally, strong feelings of nationalism fed the fires of hatred in pre-war Europe. Note: Under no circumstances should you add the suffix “-ly” to a numerical order (firstly, secondly, lastly, etc.). Yuck!

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How to Format the First Page of Your Paper

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Lastname 1

Your Name

Name of Teacher

Name of Class

Date

What are the Guidelines for Written Papers?

Generally, your paper should consist of an introductory paragraph, a few body

paragraphs, and a conclusion. The thesis statement will usually be located at the end

of the first paragraph. The number of body paragraphs will depend on the type of

paper you are writing, the required length of the paper, and the subject matter. You

may have been taught that you should have three body paragraphs, and this is a good

rule of thumb. You should ask your teacher if you should stick to this rule or not.

When you are doing textual analysis, remember that quotations must be short

and you must cite the source of the quotation. If you are quoting a single text, and you

have named the text and the author in the first paragraph, you only have to indicate

the page number. All quotations must be blended with your own words. If your

quotation is longer four typed lines, there is a special way of incorporating it into your

paper. See page 12 for more information about blending quotes. See page 25 for

more information about block quotes. See pages 25-26 for more information about

in-text citations.

Your heading should consist

of this information, in this

order, 1” from the top. Double-

space everything, including the

heading. Do not abbreviate the

date.

Your title should be centered and

placed one double-spaced line below

the date. Do not bold, italicize, or

underline the title. Do not make it a

different or larger font. Begin your

paper just one double-spaced line

below the title. Capitalize all the

words in the title except prepositions,

conjunctions, and articles.

Each page of your paper should

include your last name and the

page number in the top right

corner. It should be ½” from the

top. It should look exactly like this

example (one space, no comma). In

Microsoft Word 7, go to “Insert,”

click “page number,” choose the

third option, and type in your name

and a space.

Papers should be typed in 12-

point Times New Roman

font, unless you are told

otherwise.

The paper should be

double-spaced. The

margins should be one inch.

You should use paragraphs

in any paper you hand in. The

first line of every paragraph

should be indented.

The other pages in your

paper do not need to include

the heading or the title, but

should include your last name

and page number.

Remember that this is for

papers written in MLA

format. If your teacher wants

to you write in APA or

Chicago format, he or she will

give you separate instructions.

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How to Format a Works Cited Page

Lastname 5

Works Cited

Carpenter, Frederic I. Eugene O’Neill. Boston: G.K. Hall,

1979. Print.

Griffin, Ernest G. “O’Neill and the Tragedy of Culture.”

Modern Drama. 31 (March 1988): 1 - 15. Print.

Grimm, Reinhold. “A Note on O’Neill, Nietzsche, and

Naturalism: Long Day’s Journey into Night in

European Perspective.” Modern Drama. 26

(September 1983): 331 - 333. Print.

O’Neill, Eugene. Long Day’s Journey into Night. 1955. New

Haven: Yale University Press, 1989. Print.

Rich, J. Dennis. “Exile without Remedy: The Late Plays of

Eugene O’Neill.” Eugene O’Neill: a World View. Ed.

Virginia Floyd. New York: Frederick Ungar, 1979.

Print.

Your Works Cited page should be the

last page(s) of your paper. Therefore,

your last name and the page number

should be in the top right corner, ½”

from the top of the page. Use the

“header” function on your computer to

do this.

Write the words “Works Cited,” centered, at the top of the

page, 1” from the top. Don’t do anything else with these

words. They should not be bolded, underlined, italicized,

inside quotation marks, or in a different font or size. Don’t

skip any extra lines before beginning your list.

Your Works Cited page should be listed in

alphabetical order by the first letter of each

entry.

Just like the rest of your paper, the

Works Cited page should be double-

spaced. You shouldn’t have any extra

spaces between entries, and you

shouldn’t single-space your entries.

Use a hanging indent for each entry.

This means that the first line of each

entry should be left-aligned, and each

line after that should be indented.

(Think of it as the opposite of how you

indent in a regular paragraph.)

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Blending Quotes

Quoted passages should never stand as their own sentences. To blend quotes properly, you need to provide an introduction that gives the context, and, if possible, an analysis after the quote. A good rule of thumb: a sentence should never begin with a quote. Quotes that need blending: Roger’s cruelty begins in chapter four when he torments Henry. “Roger gathered a handful of stones and began to throw them” (Golding 32). The society in The Giver teaches that conformity is important. “It was not a rule, but it was considered rude to call attention to things that were unsettling or different about individuals” (Lowry 25). Prospero tortures Caliban because Prospero thinks Caliban belongs to him. “Thou poisonous slave, got by the Devil himself . . . be sure, tonight thou shall have cramps / . . . that shall pen thy breath up” (Shakespeare 1.2.320-330). Fitzgerald gives Nick a muted tribute to the hero. “Gatsby turned out all right at the end” (176). Quotes that are blended well: Roger’s cruelty begins in chapter four, when he gathers “a handful of stones and [begins] to throw them [at Henry]” (Golding 32). Lowry emphasizes society’s belief that conformity is important when she explains that “it was not a rule, but it was considered rude to call attention to things that were unsettling or different about individuals” (25). Prospero treats Caliban as a “poisonous slave” who was “got by the Devil himself” and tortures him with “cramps . . . that shall pen [his] breath up” (Shakespeare 1.2.320-330). Fitzgerald gives Nick a muted tribute to the hero: “Gatsby turned out all right at the end” (176). For Nick, who remarks that Gatsby “turned out all right” (Fitzgerald 176), the hero deserves respect but perhaps does not inspire great admiration.

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Using Evidence in Your Paper

Your evidence needs to be apt, accurate, and smooth. APT: Fitting, appropriate ACCURATE: Correct, not changed so much in the paraphrase that it means or suggests something else. SMOOTH: Instead of One example is when . . ., try leading up to the example with context. There are three basic ways to use evidence: you can paraphrase it, quote it with a tag, or blend it. Different subjects prefer different techniques; always check with your teacher. The Paraphrase This is when you take an idea from an author and put it 100% into your own words. It is usually the preferred method of using outside sources; you should paraphrase whenever you can, and only quote directly when there’s something about the language that you want to draw attention to, or you can’t say it any other way. Be careful when you paraphrase, because copying the sentence structure is plagiarism as much as copying the words. There are several ways to paraphrase.

1) You can name the author in the paraphrase: a. Daisy has a selfish desire for financial security with inherited money, and according to

Donaldson, this deceives Gatsby into believing he could achieve his dream (100). b. Gatsby’s inability to distinguish between the past and the present is a disadvantage that Sven

Birkerts claims results in his failure to recognize the impossibility of his dream (96).

2) You don’t have to name the author in the paraphrase as long as you cite him or her: a. Geography plays a role in Nick and Gatsby’s friendship: they meet because they live next door to

each other, indicating a similar economic status (Donaldson 100-101). b. After learning that Hazel spent her Wish on a trip to Disney World, Augustus invites Hazel on a

trip with him to Amsterdam. He wants to use his Wish to visit Van Houten, the author of An Imperial Affliction (Green 89).

The Tag This is when you write “[Author] argues / writes / claims / suggests” before or after a quote. Generally, it’s undesirable to do this unless your own words and ideas are included in the same sentence.

1) There would be no Gatsby without the illusion he built his life upon; as Miller claims, “Gatsby’s own corrupted innocence lies at the heart of the novel” (84).

2) Despite the glitz of 1920s New York City, Fitzgerald hints at its dark side when he writes, “At the enchanted metropolitan twilight I felt a haunting loneliness sometimes, and felt it in others . . . young clerks in the dusk, wasting the most poignant moments of night and life” (34).

The Blended Quote This is when you blend a quote seamlessly into your own sentence, while still using quotation marks and citations to indicate which words aren’t yours. If you were to read it out loud, without the citation, your listener wouldn’t know which words were yours and which were someone else’s. See the previous page for more examples

1) Gatsby’s death is a “symbolic formality,” included to show that it is impossible to rise in American society (Bewley 97).

2) Yet nothing is held in greater reverence than Gatsby himself, as “we see Gatsby as Nick sees him, magnified and dazzling in the strobe lights of rumor” (Birkerts 90).

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How to qualify an argument

When given a choice between “defend,” “challenge,” or “qualify,” it’s usually best to qualify. Very rarely will you agree or disagree with a position wholeheartedly and in all circumstances, and even when you do, it’s good to show that you have given some thought to when the statement could be right or wrong. Qualifying allows you to make a more complex, nuanced argument, and shows a high degree of critical thinking. Below are some samples from Thoreau argument analyses of good qualifying statements. Notice the emphasized words that help the author qualify the statement. Thoreau’s claim is correct to an extent; life is too short to waste time on useless emotions, but not all complexities in life are pointless. Thoreau’s argument about living a deliberate, meaningful life is powerful and effective, but he goes too far in saying modern technology prevents us from accomplishing this. Though Thoreau makes wise, well-thought-out points, it may be unrealistic to believe that they are possible to achieve. Thoreau is partially right, because technology has muddled our once-simplistic life, but without some of the advances we have made, our lives would be much harder.” Thoreau makes a good argument but is not completely correct, specifically in his assertion that people should not get involved in affairs that do not pertain to them. Although I agree with Thoreau’s idea in theory, I don’t think I would agree with his sentiments much if I had to practice them myself. Thoreau is partially right and partially wrong, because technology is needed and useful to a certain extent, but can become too much when people require advances for every little thing they don’t want to put the energy into doing themselves.

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PLAGIARISM

Plagiarism is using someone’s else’s words or ideas without giving proper credit—or without giving credit at all—to the writer of the original material. Whether plagiarism is intentional or unintentional, it is a serious offense. It may result in your failing the paper or even failing the class. If you plagiarize a paper in college, you may even be expelled. Fortunately, plagiarism is easy to avoid as long as you know the rules. Learn how to avoid plagiarism now, and you won’t have to deal with the consequences later. Rules to live by:

Never submit any writing as representing your own ideas or words when it does not.

You must cite paraphrases as well as direct quotes. Even if you don’t quote a word or phrase directly, you have to give the author credit if you use one of his/her ideas.

Always give formal, direct credit for other people’s words or ideas. This includes legitimate research as well as sources such as SparkNotes and Wikipedia. (However, you should avoid these resources anyway.)

Always use quotation marks when you are using someone else’s word, phrase, sentence, or paragraph.

Always ask the teacher if you’re not sure if you’re plagiarizing, or if you’re not sure how to cite something correctly.

Never, never, never participate in any form of plagiarism.

The following excerpt from A Guide to MLA Documentation provides examples of what plagiarism is or is not.

Original version (written by Robert Hughes, p. 168, of A History of English, on the transportation of criminals from England to Australia:) Transportation did not stop crime in England or even slow it down. The “criminal class” was not eliminated by transportation, and could not be, because transportation did not deal with the causes of crime.

Version A—Plagiarized Transportation did not stop crime in England or even slow it down. Criminals were not eliminated by transportation because transportation did not deal with the causes of crime. Because the writer of Version A does not indicate with quotation marks that the words and ideas belong to Hughes, her readers will believe the words are hers. She has stolen the words and ideas and has attempted to cover the theft by changing or omitting an occasional word.

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Version B—Plagiarized Robert Hughes points out that transportation did not stop crime in England or even slow it down. The criminal class was not eliminated by transportation, and could not be, because transportation did not deal with the causes of crime (168). Version B is also plagiarized, even though the writer acknowledges his source and documents the passage with a parenthetical reference. He has misunderstood the difference between quoting and paraphrasing. He has copied the original word-for-word, yet has supplied no quotation marks to indicate the extent of the borrowing. As written and documented, the passage masquerades as a paraphrase when in fact it is a direct quotation. Version C—Not plagiarized Hughes argues that transporting criminals from England to Australia “did not stop crime. . . . The ‘criminal class’ was not eliminated by transportation, and could not be, because transportation did not deal with the causes of crime” (168). Version C is one satisfactory way of handling this source material. The writer has identified her source at the beginning of the sentence, letting readers know who is being quoted. She then explains the concept of transportation in her own words, placing within quotation marks the parts of the original she wants to quote and using ellipsis points to delete the parts she wants to omit. She provides a parenthetical reference to the page number in the source listed in the Works Cited.

NOW YOU KNOW! (ZERO EXCUSES)

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What Should Be Cited? You need to cite:

1. Direct quotes—sentences, phrases, and key words 2. Paraphrases (rephrased or summarized material) 3. Words specific or unique to the author’s research, theories, or ideas 4. Use of an author’s argument, opinion, or line of thinking 5. Historical, statistical, or scientific facts 6. Articles or studies you refer to within your text

You do not need to cite:

1. Proverbs, axioms, and sayings (“You can’t judge a book by its cover.”) 2. Well-known quotations (“Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for

your country.”) 3. Common knowledge (Thomas Edison invented the phonograph, or oxygen has an atomic

number of 8, or Starry Night was painted by Vincent van Gogh.) Common knowledge refers to facts and is information that is so well-known that it can be confirmed in numerous sources.

Sometimes it is difficult to be sure what counts as common knowledge, especially when writing in an academic discipline that is new to you. Perhaps you are not familiar with Van Gogh or atomic numbers. Two good rules of thumb: ask yourself if a knowledgeable reader would be familiar with the factual information and check multiple sources (at least three) to see if the fact is contained therein. If you are not sure if something counts as common knowledge, document it to be safe.

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Reliable Sources: They’re in the CARRDSS Just because something is online doesn’t mean it’s accurate or factual. On Wikipedia, for example, anyone with a computer can write and edit the information that appears on the site. Because of this, Wikipedia is not to be used as a Works Cited entry, though your teacher may allow you to use it as a Works Consulted entry. Ask your teacher to be sure. Google can also lead students to inaccurate information. The school library subscribes to numerous online databases that contain information about topics of interest. Typically, these are considered more credible sources. Use the acronym CARRDSS to evaluate your sources.

CREDIBILITY : Who is the author? What are his or her credentials? Was this source reviewed and

checked by another knowledgeable person, like an editor or other experts in the field?

ACCURACY: Can facts, statistics, or other information be verified through other sources? Based on

your knowledge, does the information seem accurate?

RELIABILITY: Does the source present a particular view or bias?

RELEVANCE: Does this information directly support my hypothesis/thesis or help to answer my

question?

DATE: When was this information created? When was it revised? Is that relevant for this subject?

(For example, it’s more important that a scientific study is up-to-date than an author’s biography.)

SOURCES BEHIND THE TEXT: Did the author use reliable, credible sources?

SCOPE: Does this source address my hypothesis/thesis/question?

If you’re not sure whether a source is credible, ask your teacher or a librarian. Adapted from http://www.sdst.org/shs/library/carrdss.html

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How to Cite Sources on a Works Cited Page

This will vary based on what kind of source you are using and the information available on that source. Use the following pages to help guide you in your creation of each works cited entry. If you are using a source that’s not included on this list, see your teacher for help. In your paper, Works Cited entries must be double-spaced. Note: The following information is in MLA format. You should use MLA format unless otherwise instructed by your teacher. If your teacher asks you to use another citation style (APA, Chicago, etc.), he or she will give you more information about that style.

Citations below have been adapted from: “MLA Works Cited: Examples of MLA Citations.” Scribendi. Web. 24 September 2012.

BOOKS

The Basic Form:

Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Edition used. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication. Medium of publication.

Book with one author:

Aprilson, Andy. The Emergency Budget Task Force Handbook. Mississippi: Haberdasher, 2001. Print.

Book with two authors:

Bringham, Darrin E., and Sally Knope. Resting Heartbeat Science. 12th ed. Alahandro: Spaghetti, 2001. Print.

Book with three authors:

Christopherson, Charles, Ronald Swanson, and Roger Koltz. Fog Pirates: On Board the USS Hammerhead. Pickleton: Putters, 2001. Print.

Book with more than three authors:

Niderbacher, Leslie A., et al. Penne and the Jets: A Love Story. Albuquerque: Partridge, 2003. Print.

Books with no author:

Encyclopedia of Football. New York: Sporting Publishers Inc., 2002. Print.

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Books by a corporate author or organization:

Canadian Pumpkinology Association. The Truth about Rats and Skunks: Nature’s Worst Enemies. Toronto: La Fraude Publishers, 2009. Print.

A book with an editor:

Hill, Charles A., and Marguerite Helmers, eds. Defining Visual Rhetorics. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004. Print.

Work in an anthology:

Graeve, Michael J. “Catching the Big One: How Fishing Helped Me Find My Center.” The Anthology of Modern Fishing. Ed. A.D. Hovel. Ann Arbor: Maven Publishing Company, 2009. 42-63. Print.

Work in a reference book:

Graeve, Michael J. “The Best Way to Catch a Fish.” The Big Book of Fishing. Ed. D.A. Trader. Burlington: Vermont’s Finest Publisher Inc., 2008. Print.

Two or more works by the same author:

Zruna, Jim. Adequate Lawn Care 101. Detroit: University of Michigan Press, 1993. Print.

---. Common Lawn Pests and How to Destroy Them Effectively. Florida: Simon & Penguin, 1991. Print.

E-book

Stoker, Bram, Dracula. London: Dover Publications, 2000. Kindle Edition.

PERIODICALS

The Basic Form:

Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of Periodical Series Number. Volume Number. Issue Number. Date of Publication (for a scholarly journal, the year; for other periodicals, the day, month, and year): Pages. Medium of publication.

Magazine:

LaFrambois, Karen. "Why Do People Treat Their Pets Better Than Other Humans?" Vanity Circus Sept. 2003: 121-140. Print.

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Journal article:

Coxswain, Abraham D., Frederick Blursdale III, Thaddeus T. Landover, and Jose Sanchez. “Analyzing the Psychology of Odd Juxtaposition.” Name Technology 42 (1986): 121-342. Print.

ELECTRONIC SOURCES

The Basic Form:

Author/Editor (if available). “Title of Article (if applicable).” Title of Website/Database/Book. Version or Edition. Publisher information (the organization/institution affiliated with the site), date of publication. Medium of publication. Date of access.

Page on a website:

Mueller, Dawn. “How the Packers Won My Heart and Then the Super Bowl.” The Very Unofficial Packers Fan Site. 14 Mar. 2011. Web. 1 May 2011.

Online Database Article from a Library Subscription:

Langhamer, Claire. “Love and Courtship in Mid-Twentieth-Century England.” Historical Journal 50.1 (2007): 173-96. ProQuest. Web. 27 May 2009.

Entry in an online encyclopedia:

"Einstein, Albert." Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, 1999. Web. 27 Apr. 2009.

Article in an online scholarly journal:

Paulson, Robert. “Soapmaking: A Journey through the Dirty World of Saponification.” Journal of Pierce & Pierce 55.81 (1991): 21-48. Web. 14 April 2001.

E-Mail:

Rodgers, Aaron. “Re: I Am Your Biggest Fan.” Message to Dawn Mueller. 20 Mar. 2011. E-Mail.

E-book

Stoker, Bram, Dracula. London: Dover Publications, 2000. Kindle Edition.

Podcast

Author (Last name, First name). “Episode Name.” Title of Podcast. Year of publication. Web. Date of access.

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Song:

Mars, Bruno. “Just the way you are.” Doo-Wops & Hooligans. Elektra, 2010. MP3.

OTHER COMMON SOURCES:

Film:

Zoom: Academy for Superheroes. Dir. Peter Hewitt. Revolution Studios, 2006. Film.

Television program:

“Cooking with Chocolate.” Fancy Eats. The Food Channel. 6 June 2006. Television.

Interview:

McCabe, Adam. Interview by Larry King. Larry King Live. CNN. New York. 21 September 2009. Television.

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In-Text Citations

In MLA Style, referring to the works of others is done by using in-text citations (sometimes called parenthetical citations). Rules and Formatting for in-text citations Rule #1: Insert the appropriate information (usually author and page number) in parentheses after the words or ideas borrowed from another source. Quotation marks need to close before the citation, but ending punctuation needs to come after the citation. (See the next page for examples.) The only exception to this rule is when using block quotes (see Rule #5). Rule #2: Place in-text citations where a pause would naturally occur to avoid disrupting the flow of your writing (usually at the end of a sentence). Rule #3: For most papers involving research, you should have at least one citation per paragraph. If all the information in one paragraph comes from the same source, it’s OK to put one citation at the end of the paragraph. However, if you have different sources for each sentence, you should put a citation at the end of every sentence. Rule #4: All the sources you cite in your paper should be listed on the Works Cited page. All the sources on your Works Cited page should be cited in your paper. Rule #5: If a quoted passage is more than four typed lines long, you should use a block quote. A block quote is indented on the left side. It is double-spaced (like the rest of your paper). It does not include quotation marks. The citation goes after the final punctuation. (Note: If you are quoting a passage that is more than four lines long, try to shorten or paraphrase it. Some teachers may not allow you to use block quotes, while some teachers may limit the number of block quotes you may use. Be sure to ask.) Here’s an example of what a block quote would look like in a paper:

You will use in-text citations: □ When you use a direct quotation or the author’s exact words □ When you use an idea that is the author’s (paraphrase or summary) □ When you use statistics or data

For Charles Dickens, the eighteenth century was awash in contradictions. The opening lines of

his novel A Tale of Two Cities gives examples of these paradoxes:

It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age

of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season

of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of

despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct

to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way. (Dickens 13)

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In-Text Citations Cheat Sheet

A paraphrase (using the idea, but not the exact words):

Abraham Lincoln wrote the Emancipation Proclamation (Smith 152).

If the cited passage is a direct quotation:

“Abraham Lincoln wrote the Emancipation Proclamation” (Smith 152).

If an author is mentioned in the sentence, it is not necessary to mention the author in the citation:

Abraham Lincoln wrote the Emancipation Proclamation (152).

If the author is not given, use the title of the book:

Abraham Lincoln wrote the Emancipation Proclamation (Slavery in the United States 152).

If the author is not given, use the title of the article:

Abraham Lincoln wrote the Emancipation Proclamation (“Emancipation Proclamation” 78).

If no author or page number is given, use the title of the source:

Abraham Lincoln wrote the Emancipation Proclamation (Slavery in the United States)

If your source has 2 authors: Abraham Lincoln wrote the Emancipation Proclamation (Smith and Jones 152).

If your source has more than 2 authors: Abraham Lincoln wrote the Emancipation Proclamation (Smith, et al. 154).

If you cite more than one page:

Abraham Lincoln wrote the Emancipation Proclamation (Smith 152-154).

If you cite two or more books by the same author, indicate the specific book:

Abraham Lincoln wrote the Emancipation Proclamation (Smith, Slavery in the United States 154).

If you interview someone, just use his/her last name:

Abraham Lincoln wrote the Emancipation Proclamation (Smith).

If you quote or paraphrase a quote found in your source, use qtd in (“quoted in”) before the source you site:

Abraham Lincoln wrote the Emancipation Proclamation (Smith, qtd. in Jones 298).

If you site a web site that has an author (a web source usually has no page number):

Abraham Lincoln wrote the Emancipation Proclamation (Jones).

If you cite a web page with no author, use the web page title:

Abraham Lincoln wrote the Emancipation Proclamation (“Emancipation Proclamation of 1863”).

For two articles with the same title, add more information, such as the name of the subscription database:

Abraham Lincoln wrote the Emancipation Proclamation (“Emancipation Proclamation,” ABC-Clio).

For a podcast, just cite the author’s last name. Abraham Lincoln wrote the Emancipation Proclamation (Smith).

If an e-book has page numbers, cite it just like a regular book. If it doesn’t, cite the chapter or section number or title.

Abraham Lincoln wrote the Emancipation Proclamation (Smith Ch. 2).

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Fifteen Essential Academic Words The following pages were adapted from Academic Moves for College and Career Readiness by Jim Burke and Barry Gilmore. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, 2015.

Compare / Contrast Identify similarities or differences between items

Delineate, differentiate, distinguish

Identify the task: Am I being asked to compare, contrast, or both? Gather evidence: What are the key elements I should compare? Organize: Should I discuss one text and then the other or compare point-by-point? Check transitions: Is each point clearly introduced? Draw conclusions: What does this comparison reveal?

Describe Report what one observes or does

Illustrate, report, represent

Observe and research: What details do I need to include? Visualize and plan: What sensory information do I wish to convey? Consider your audience: What are my readers and what do they need to know? Organize: In what order should the details be presented? Revise: Does my language convey as strong and clear an impression as possible?

Argue Provide reasons or evidence to support or oppose

Claim, persuade, propose

Make a claim: What is my position? Support the claim: What evidence best supports this position? Anticipate the opposition: What might an opponent of my position claim? Consider your audience: What type of appeal will best convince my audience? Integrate: How will I structure my discussion of claim and counterclaims?

Analyze Break something down methodically into its parts

Break down, deconstruct, examine

Look closely: How is it made? What are its key elements? Select details: Which elements contribute most to its overall meaning? Find patterns: What repeats? What is the structure and how does it support key ideas? Infer: What is going on beneath the surface? Draw conclusions: How can I clearly explain the overall meaning?

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Determine Make a decision or arrive at a conclusion after considering all possible

options, perspectives, or results Establish, identify, define

Identify choices: What am I being asked to determine? Am I being given choices or is the question open-ended? Identify the task: What is the takeaway or product of this determination? What am I being asked to produce or decide? Find support: What evidence will help me make this determination? Organize: How can I explain my choice through the use of argument and counterargument or a structured presentation of evidence? Draw conclusions: What is the central meaning, idea, or message of this text, these data, or this information? What is my determination?

Develop Improve the quality or substance of

Formulate, generate, elaborate

Gather information: What has already been done? What evidence is available? Ask questions: What else do I want to know? Qualify: What are the gray areas? Where are the ambiguities? Make connections: How does this topic relate to other internal or external ideas or works? Organize and discuss: How will these pieces fit together into a meaningful presentation?

Evaluate Establish value, amount, importance, or effectiveness

Assess, figure out, gauge

Determine criteria: What are the elements I’m being asked to evaluate? Is personal preference involved? Comparison? Outcome? Identify strengths and weaknesses: Which pieces of this item are effective, and which are not? Consider improvements or alternatives: What could be done to make this item better? Gather evidence: Which details prove my assessment of the item? Draw conclusions: In the end, how do I judge this item according to the criteria of this task?

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Explain Provide reasons for what happened or for one’s actions

Clarify, demonstrate, discuss

Capture the big picture: What happened? What was the outcome? What is your topic or purpose? Who is your audience and what do they need or want to know? Reorder the events or steps: Where did the process begin? What steps did it go through? Look for causes: What events stand out as important shifts? Gather evidence: Which are the most important details? Summarize or draw conclusions: What did I learn from this examination?

Imagine Create a picture in the reader’s mind; speculate or predict

Anticipate, hypothesize, predict

Consider purpose: What is the problem, issue, or goal of my thinking? Visualize: How could this problem or issue be different? Generate multiple ideas: How many avenues toward a solution can I envision? Design and redesign: What works? What doesn’t? Commit: Which of my ideas am I willing to see through to its very end?

Integrate Make whole by combining the different parts into one

Combine, incorporate, synthesize

Consider your artifacts: What does each work I wish to integrate tell me? Construct a thesis: What is the purpose of integrating these works? What is the bigger picture? Gather evidence: Which details of each work will help make my point? Organize: In what order do I present my evidence? Draw conclusions: What have I learned from this combination of artifacts?

Interpret Draw from some text or data some meaning or significance

Deduce, infer, translate

Zoom out: Gauge your overall reaction: What emotions or thoughts does this work elicit? Zoom in: Look closely: Which elements of the work serve as the best evidence of its meaning? Consider the source: What might the creator of this work be trying to convey? Who was the audience? Consider ambiguities: What possible coexisting or conflicting messages might the work convey? Summarize the meaning: Using the evidence, explain the meaning or purpose of the work in your own words.

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Organize Arrange or put in order

Arrange, classify, form

Identify the task: What are the core details, items, or ideas the task asks for? How would I classify these? How are they similar or different? Determine what matters: Colors? Functions? Plot points? Themes? Types? Values? How do the assignment and the work itself suggest organization? List possible strategies: What are the options for organizing my work? Order of importance? Chronological? Problem-solution? Test it out: When I outline and write my introduction, does the strategy I’ve chosen support the point I want to make? Does it work at all?

Summarize Retell the essential details of what happened

Outline, paraphrase, report

Study the text: How is this material laid out? Are there clues such as headings I should use? Identify the main idea: What is the central point of this material? Identify key moments: What shifts, elements, or developments will help me organize my summary? Select details: Which details are important and which can I safely ignore? (Re)organize: What format—paragraphs, bullet points, headings—will best communicate a summary of this material?

Support Offer evidence or data to support your point

Cite, justify, maintain

Plan: What kind of evidence do I need? Will I paraphrase, quote, or use examples to illustrate? Collect: Where do I find this evidence? How do I keep track of evidence as I gather it? Organize: What’s a good way to present my evidence? Cite: How do I refer to my sources? Can my audience find the original source of my evidence? Discuss: Why is this evidence important? What does it prove?

Transform Change in form, function, or nature to reveal or emphasize

Alter, change, convert

Identify elements: What are the basic components of the work? Will I transform it into something simpler and clearer, or synthesizing them into something more complex and nuanced? Choose the elements to transform: Which of these elements do I wish to convert? Form? Ideas? Consider processes for transformation: Which methods could I use to alter this assignment? Envision the information reassembled: What will my product look like? Create a new product: What do I wish to say and how will I say it?

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Literary and Rhetorical Terms Active Voice – A sentence that follows the preferred structure of subject-verb-direct object. For example, in the sentence “Toni drove the car,” Toni is the subject, drove is the verb, and the car is the direct object. It is preferable to passive voice, where the subject comes after the verb or is omitted altogether, as in “The car was driven by Toni,” or “The car was driven.” Allegory - A story, fictional or nonfictional, in which characters, things, and events represent qualities or concepts. The interaction of these characters, things, and events is meant to reveal an abstraction or a truth. Animal Farm, by George Orwell, is an allegory. Allusion - An indirect reference to something (usually a literary text, although it can be other things commonly known, such as plays, songs, historical events) with which the reader is supposed to be familiar. Ambiguity—having two or more possible meanings Apostrophe—addressing someone or something invisible or not ordinarily spoken to Diction - Word choice, particularly as an element of style. Different types of words have significant effects on meaning. An essay written in academic diction would be much less colorful, but perhaps more precise than street slang. You should be able to describe an author's diction. You SHOULD NOT write, "The author uses diction...". This is essentially saying, "The author uses words to write." (Duh.) Instead, describe the type of diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain).

Colloquial - Ordinary or familiar type of conversation. A “colloquialism” is a common or familiar type of saying, similar to an adage or an aphorism.

Connotation - Rather than the dictionary definition (denotation), the associations suggested by a word. Implied meaning rather than literal meaning. (For example, “policeman,” “cop,” and “The Man” all denote the same literal meaning of police officer, but each has a different connotation.)

Denotation - The literal, explicit meaning of a word, without its connotations.

Jargon – The diction used by a group which practices a similar profession or activity. Lawyers speak using particular jargon, as do soccer players.

Didactic - A term used to describe fiction, nonfiction or poetry that teaches a specific lesson or moral or provides a model of correct behavior or thinking. Euphemism - A more agreeable or less offensive substitute for generally unpleasant words or concepts. Some examples include “restroom” or “bathroom” instead of “toilet,” or “vertically challenged” in place of “short.” Figurative Language - “Figurative language” is the opposite of “literal language.” Literal language is writing that makes complete sense when you take it at face value. “Figurative Language” is the opposite: writing that is not meant to be taken literally.

Analogy - An analogy is a comparison of two things. Similes and metaphors are sometimes also analogies. Hyperbole--Exaggeration. “My mother will kill me if I am late.”

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Idiom: A common, often used expression that doesn’t make sense if you take it literally. “I got chewed out by my coach.” Metaphor: Making an implied comparison, not using “like,” as,” or other such words. “My feet are popsicles.” An extended metaphor is when the metaphor is continued later in the written work. If I continued to call my feet “my popsicles” in later paragraphs, that would be an extended metaphor. A particularly elaborate extended metaphor is called a conceit.

Simile: Using words such as “like” or “as” to make a direct comparison between two very different things. “My feet are so cold they feel like popsicles.” Personification: Giving human-like qualities to something that is not human. “The tired old truck groaned as it inched up the hill.”

Foreshadowing – When an author gives hints about what will occur later in a story. Genre - The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, genres can be subdivided as well (poetry can be classified into lyric, dramatic, narrative, etc.). Imagery – Highly descriptive language. Usually this involves the five senses. Irony - When the opposite of what you expect to happen does.

Verbal irony - When you say something and mean the opposite/something different. For example, if your gym teacher wants you to run a mile in eight minutes or faster, but calls it a "walk in the park" it would be verbal irony. Dramatic irony - When the audience of a drama, play, movie, etc. knows something that the character doesn't and would be surprised to find out. For example, in many horror movies, we (the audience) know who the killer is, but the victim-to-be has no idea who is doing the slaying. Sometimes the character trusts the killer completely when (ironically) he/she shouldn't. Situational irony - Found in the plot (or story line) of a book, story, or movie. Sometimes it makes you laugh because it's funny how things turn out. (For example, Johnny spent two hours planning on sneaking into the movie theater and missed the movie. When he finally did manage to sneak inside he found out that kids were admitted free that day).

Juxtaposition - Placing things side by side for the purposes of comparison. Authors often use juxtaposition of ideas or examples in order to make a point. (For example, an author may juxtapose the average day of a typical American with that of someone in the third world in order to make a point of social commentary). Mood - The atmosphere created by the literature and accomplished through word choice (diction). Syntax is often a creator of mood since word order, sentence length and strength and complexity also affect pacing and therefore mood. Setting, tone, and events can all affect the mood. Motif – a recurring idea in a piece of literature. In To Kill a Mockingbird, the idea that “you never really understand another person until you consider things from his or her point of view” is a motif, because the idea is brought up several times over the course of the novel.

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Oxymoron – When apparently contradictory terms are grouped together and suggest a paradox – “wise fool,” “eloquent silence,” “jumbo shrimp.” Paradox - A seemingly contradictory situation which is actually true. “You can't get a job without experience, and you can't get experience without getting a job.” Parallelism – (Also known as parallel structure or balanced sentences.) Sentence construction which places equal grammatical constructions near each other, or repeats identical grammatical patterns. Parallelism is used to add emphasis, organization, or sometimes pacing to writing. “Cinderella swept the floor, dusted the mantle, and beat the rugs.” Parody - An exaggerated imitation of a serious work for humorous purposes. It borrows words or phrases from an original, and pokes fun at it. This is also a form of allusion, since it is referencing a previous text, event, etc. The Simpsons often parody Shakespeare plays. Weird Al parodies popular music. The Daily Show parodies serious news programs. Do not confuse with satire. Persona – The character and associated traits an author tries to create as the narrator or rhetor. Poetic device – A device used in poetry to manipulate the sound of words, sentences or lines.

Alliteration The repetition of the same consonant sound at the beginning of words. “Sally sells sea shells by the sea shore” Assonance The repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds. “From the molten-golden notes” Consonance The repetition of the same consonant sound at the end of words or within words. “Some late visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door" Onomatopoeia The use of a word which imitates or suggests the sound that the thing makes. Snap, rustle, boom, murmur Internal rhyme When a line of poetry contains a rhyme within a single line. “To the rhyming and the chiming of the bells!” Slant rhyme When a poet creates a rhyme, but the two words do not rhyme exactly – they are merely similar. “I sat upon a stone, / And found my life has gone.” End rhyme When the last word of two different lines of poetry rhyme. “Roses are red, violets are blue, / Sugar is sweet, and so are you.” Rhyme Scheme The pattern of a poem’s end rhymes. Stressed and unstressed syllables In every word of more than one syllable, one of the syllables is stressed, or said with more force than the other syllable(s). Meter A regular pattern to the syllables in lines of poetry. Free verse Poetry that doesn’t have much meter or rhyme.

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Iambic pentameter Poetry that is written in lines of 10 syllables, alternating stressed and unstressed syllables. “Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?”

Pun – When a word that has two or more meanings is used in a humorous way. “I was stirred by his cooking lesson.” Rhetor—a generic term sometimes used to refer to the writer or speaker of a text Rhetoric - The art of effective communication, or the study of effective communication.

Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle The relationships, in any piece of writing, between the writer, the audience, and the subject. All analysis of writing is essentially an analysis of the relationships between the points on the triangle. Many students of rhetoric have also added the consideration of intent and context. (Graphic below from https://acquista298.wordpress.com/2012/02/)

Rhetorical modes—This term describes the variety, conventions, and purposes of the major kinds of writing. Often, an author will shift modes several times in one text. This is called a modal shift. The four most frequently used modes are Exposition—explains and analyzes information by presenting an idea, evidence, and discussion Argumentation—attempts to prove the validity of an idea by presenting sound reasoning Description—recreates, invents, or presents a person, place, event, or action Narration—tells a story or narrates an event or series of events

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Rhetorical Question - Question not asked for information but for effect. “The angry parent asked the child, ‘Are you finished interrupting me?’” In this case, the parent does not expect a reply, but simply wants to draw the child’s attention to the rudeness of interrupting. Satire - A work that reveals a critical attitude toward some element of life. It targets human vices and follies, or social institutions and conventions. Although it can be humorous, it doesn’t have to be. Style - The choices in diction, tone, and syntax that a writer makes. Style may be conscious or unconscious. Symbol - Anything that represents or stands for something else. Usually a symbol is something concrete such as an object, actions, or character that represents something more abstract. Syntax/sentence variety - Grammatical arrangement of words. This is perhaps one of the most difficult concepts to master. First, a reader should examine the length of sentences (short or long). How does sentence length and structure relate to tone and meaning? Are they simple, compound, compound-complex sentences? How do they relate to one another? Theme - The central idea or message of a work. The theme may be directly stated in nonfiction works, although not necessarily. It is rarely stated directly in fiction. Thesis - The sentence or groups of sentences that directly expresses the author's opinion, purpose, meaning, or proposition. It should be short and clear. Tonal shift—a change in a single text from one tone to another. A tonal shift can be gradual or sudden, subtle or obvious. A writer might shift from a sentimental tone to a forceful tone, or from an angry tone to a desperate tone. Tone - A writer's attitude toward his subject matter revealed through diction, figurative language and organization. To identify tone, consider how the piece would sound if read aloud (or how the author wanted it to sound aloud). See the section on tone in this writing guide. Voice—How the rhetor presents him/herself to the reader determines the speaker’s voice. For example, the speaker could be personal or cold, compassionate or judgmental, authoritative or hesitant.

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Rhetorical terms specifically related to logic and argumentation

Argument An argument is a piece of reasoning with one or more premises and a conclusion. Essentially, every essay is an argument that begins with the conclusion (the thesis) and then sets up the premises. An argument (or the thesis to an argument) is also sometimes called a claim, a position, or a stance.

Premise: All Spam is pink Premise: I am eating Spam Conclusion: I am eating something that is pink

Premises: Statements offered as reasons to support a conclusion are premises. Conclusion: A conclusion is the end result of the argument – the main point being made. In an argument one expects that the conclusion will be supported with reasons or premises. Moreover, these premises will be true and will, lead to the conclusion.

Aristotle’s appeals The Greek philosopher Aristotle divided all means of persuasion (appeals) into three categories - ethos, pathos, and logos.

Ethos (credibility) means being convinced by the credibility of the author. We tend to believe people whom we respect. In an appeal to ethos, a writer tries to convince the audience the he or she someone worth listening to, an authority on the subject, as well as someone who is likable and worthy of respect. An argument that relies too heavily on ethos, without any corroborating logos, can become a fallacy. Pathos (emotional) means persuading by appealing to the reader's emotions. An argument that relies too much on emotion, without any corroborating logos, can become a fallacy. Logos (logical) means persuading by the use of reasoning, using true premises and valid arguments. This is generally considered the strongest form of persuasion.

Concession Accepting at least part or all of an opposing viewpoint. Often used to make one’s own argument stronger by demonstrating that one is willing to accept what is obviously true and reasonable, even if it is presented by the opposition. Deductive reasoning An argument in which the premises are true, so the conclusion must be true. In a deductive argument, the premises are intended to provide support for the conclusion that is so strong that, if the premises are true, it would be impossible for the conclusion to be false. It is sometimes called top-down logic. (also see inductive argument) Fallacy A fallacy is an attractive but unreliable piece of reasoning. Writers do not want to make obvious fallacies in their reasoning, but they are often used unintentionally, or when the writer thinks they can get away with faulty logic. Common examples of fallacies include the following:

Ad hominem: Latin for "against the man". Personally attacking your opponents instead of their arguments. It is an argument that appeals to emotion rather than reason, feeling rather than intellect.

Appeal to authority: The claim that because somebody famous supports an idea, the idea must be right. This fallacy is often used in advertising.

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Appeal to the bandwagon: The claim, as evidence for an idea, that many people believe it, or used to believe it, or do it. Clearly, the popularity of an idea is no guarantee that it's right.

Appeal to emotion: An attempt to replace a logical argument with an appeal to the audience’s emotions. Common emotional appeals are an appeal to sympathy, an appeal to revenge, an appeal to patriotism – basically any emotion can be used as an appeal.

Bad analogy: Claiming that two situations are highly similar, when they aren't. “We have pure food and drug laws regulating what we put in our bodies; why can't we have laws to keep musicians from giving us filth for the mind?”

Cliche thinking: Using as evidence a well-known saying, as if it is proven, or as if it has no exceptions. “I say: ‘America: love it or leave it.’ Anyone who disagrees with anything our country does must hate America. So maybe they should just move somewhere else.”

False cause: Assuming that because two things happened, the first one caused the second one. (Correlation is not causation.) “Before women got the vote, there were no nuclear weapons. Therefore women’s suffrage must have led to nuclear weapons.”

Hasty generalization: A generalization based on too little or unrepresentative data. “My uncle didn’t go to college, and he makes a lot of money. So, people who don’t go to college do just as well as those who do.”

Non Sequitur: A conclusion that does not follow from its premises; an invalid argument. “People love the beach. Beaches have sand. Therefore, we should put sand on the floor of every house.”

Slippery slope: The assumption that once started, a situation will continue to its most extreme possible outcome. “If we require background checks on guns, pretty soon the government will be coming into our houses and taking our guns from us in the middle of the night.”

Inductive reasoning An argument in which it is thought that the premises provide reasons supporting the probable truth of the conclusion. Inductive reasoning is often used to make predictions. (also see deductive reasoning) This section and the previous section were adapted from https://www.tracy.k12.ca.us/sites/khs/SiteCollectionDocuments/SummerAssignments/APEng3Glossary.pdf

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Some words that describe TONE

Tone is the prevailing attitude of a piece of writing as perceived by the reader, or the rhetor’s attitude toward the subject, audience, or both. When determining tone, it is sometimes helpful to imagine the piece being spoken aloud. Expect to use more than one word to describe tone. Informal Formal Light Humorous Comic Serious Grave Decorous Personal Subjective Impersonal Objective Academic Conversational Casual Offhanded Impassioned Loose Reasonable Rambunctious Reasoned Zany Experimental Controlled Reserved Plainspoken Simple Ornate Elaborate Ironic Sarcastic

Joking Mysterious Dark Didactic Mocking Condescending Shocked Threatening Pessimistic Flippant Light-hearted Familiar Businesslike Bitter Eager Colloquial Elevated Straightforward Offhanded Genial Playful Somber Cute Sincere Insincere Angry Relaxed Affective Elegant Loving Pitying Fanciful Solemn

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What do we mean when we talk about “style?”

Style = the choices that writers or speakers make in language for effect.

What stylistic choices can an author make?

An author could choose to write with a lot of description, or very sparsely.

An author could choose to use a lot of jargon, or to write so everyone can understand.

An author could choose to write in a sarcastic tone or an earnest tone.

An author could choose to write in first person, second person, or third person; the narrator could be

limited or omniscient.

An author could choose to write formally or informally.

An author could choose to write with a lot of long, loose, periodic, compound-complex sentences, or

could choose to write in simple sentences.

An author could choose to use complex (Latinate) words, or simple (Anglo-Saxon) words. Likewise, he

or she could use abstract or concrete diction.

An author could write humorously or straightforwardly.

An author could choose to write didactically (like he or she is trying to teach or instruct).

An author could choose to write passionately or in an objective-sounding tone.

An author could choose to write in a chatty style—like she’s sitting next to you—or in a formal style—

like he’s giving a speech.

An author could choose to write with a lot of metaphors and similes.

An author could choose to write with many symbols.

An author could choose to write with a lot of dialogue or very little.

An author could choose to write in a style representative of a certain literary movement, like Realism or

Post-modernism

An author could choose to write vaguely, or with clarity.

There are many, many more stylistic choices an author could make that aren’t on this list!

Style encompasses diction, syntax, tone, voice, organization, rhetorical devices, and literary devices. With every

sentence, phrase, and word, the author makes a choice about the style he or she wants to use.

Often, an author’s style is partially determined by the genre he or she is writing in; an author will change styles

depending on if he/she is writing a technical manual, a satire, or an editorial. Likewise, the audience helps

determine the author’s style; you will write differently for your teacher than you would for your friends, your

boss, or your grandma.

Often, writers will use a variety of styles within one text. You usually won’t be able to describe a writer’s style in

just one word.

Once you’ve determined some features of the writer’s style, it’s important to ask yourself, Why did the writer

make these choices? What is their effect? What is the author’s purpose, and how does the style help him / her

achieve her purpose?

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The Eight Parts of Speech: A Very Basic Guide

You probably know these already. If you don’t, use this page to help you learn. If you’re confused, ask your teacher. You should be able to define each part of speech and identify it in a sentence. Verb—expresses actions, events, or states of being. It explains what the noun is or does. (It can be in past, present, or future tense, and can be in the perfect form, too.) Ex.: Dracula bites his victims on the neck. Ms. Roberts is my favorite teacher. Susan will plant tulips in the spring. Noun—names a person, place, thing, or idea. Ex.: Last year, our neighbors bought a dog. Democracy is a political system. I felt joy on the last day of school. Pronoun—can take the place of another noun or pronoun. Ex.: She and I will go to the movies. Jim rode his bike to school. Carry it over there. Adjective—modifies (describes or identifies) nouns or pronouns. Ex.: Anna covered her kitchen walls with green paint. The coal mines are dark and musty. The dog lost its ball behind that tree. Adverb—modifies (describes) a verb, adjective, another adverb, phrase, or clause. Ex.: The seamstress quickly made the dress. We were shocked at the boldly spoken words. She told him to dial the number more quickly. Preposition—shows the relationship between two other parts of speech. An easier way to remember: a preposition is usually anywhere a mouse can go. Ex.: The mouse went around the door. The mouse ran into the hole. The mouse squeezed between the cracks. Conjunctions—link words, phrases, and clauses. Ex.: I ate the pizza and the pasta. Gerald had to rewrite his paper when his computer crashed. I don’t like the blue car or the red car. Interjection—is added to a sentence to convey emotion. Ex.: Ouch, that hurt! Wow, you got a great grade! Oh, no! The exam is today? Adapted from http://www.writingcentre.uottawa.ca/hypergrammar/interjct.html

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GRAMMAR FOCUS: PUTTING SENTENCES TOGETHER AND USING COMMAS

USE A COMMA IN A COMPOUND SENTENCE A compound sentence is when two complete sentences are joined together using a comma and a coordinating conjunction. You can remember the coordinating conjunctions by thinking of FANBOYS: For And Nor But Or Yet So Remember that you shouldn’t always put a comma before those words—only when you’re joining two complete sentences. Every day was a happy day, and every night was peaceful. --EB White, Charlotte’s Web Hiccup leapt out of the way, but the sharp point of the blade pierced his shirt and tore a neat slice out of it. --Cressida Cowell, How to Be a Pirate I found a snipe, and I followed it under your porch, but this snipe had a long tail and looked more like a large mouse. --Russel in Up Don’t make these mistakes: Leaving out the comma. This is a run-on sentence. I hated the way the water tasted like sea and salt so I didn’t let another drop get in my mouth. Leaving out the FANBOYS word. This is a comma splice. I didn’t like the salty water, it was fun splashing in the waves.

The Semicolon Sometimes, you may want to combine two complete sentences without a FANBOYS word. You can do this if you use a semicolon between the two complete sentences. You can only use a semicolon if you have two complete sentences with no FANBOY word. Tonight, though, there seems to be a delay; I pick up from the chatter that something special is going on. --Patricia McCormick, Cut Dad did everything he could to be a good father. He showed interest in everything my brother and I did. We joined the Boy Scouts; Dad joined the Boy Scouts. We became junior volunteer fireman; Dad became Junior Volunteer Fireman. --David Rice, Give the Pig a Chance and Other Stories I must say I have a great respect for the semicolon; it is a useful little chap. --Abraham Lincoln

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USE A COMMA AFTER AN INTRODUCTION OR OPENER If a sentence begins with a phrase or clause or transition, you probably need a comma to separate it from the independent clause (complete sentence) that follows it. When your sentence begins with an AAAWWUBBIS, you’ll need a comma. What’s an AAAWWUBBIS? After, although, as, when, while, until, because, before, if, since. Here are some examples of using a comma after an AAAWWUBBIS: When I was little, I ate cold Spaghetti-O’s right out of the can. --Jaime Lee Curtis, “When I Was Little” If you can’t annoy somebody, there is little point in writing. --Kingsley Amis, The King’s English After what seemed like forever, Royal finally slowed the team to a trot and then to a walk. --Jennifer Donnely, A Northern Light As he walked outside for recess, he was almost certain there’d be a gold star next to his name when he returned. --Louis Sachar, There’s a Boy in the Girls’ Bathroom Whenever Ms. Franny has one of her fits, it reminds me of Winn-Dixie in a thunderstorm. --Kate DiCamillo, Because of Winn-Dixie While he eats lunch, he talks about what he will eat for dinner. --David Klass, You Don’t Know Me Until then, Marian had never really thought much about vocal technique. --Russell Freedman, The Voice that Challenged a Nation Because she is holding the microphone so close to her face, each moment of contact sounds like a heavy blow. --Myla Goldberg, The Bee Season Before last summer, before the man every came to town, I figure I was getting ready for him. --Cynthia Rylant, A Fine White Dust Since fourth grade, she’d kept a running list of them and liked to reread it to see if she could get the stories to go further into her head. --Naomi Shihab Nye, Habibi

USE TWO COMMAS WHEN A GROUP OF WORDS INTERRUPTS A SENTENCE When a group of words interrupts a sentence, it needs to have two commas on both sides. Use two commas to set off nonessential information in a complete sentence. Interrupters add details to a sentence, but could be removed without disrupting the sentence: I even coaxed Rowdy, my bluetick hound, into helping me with this monkey trouble. --Wilson Rawls, Summer of the Monkeys

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I was stretched out on my back, my paws dangling at my sides, thinking nothing more of the meal I’d just eaten and the chocolate I hoped still lie ahead. Only Howie, who was growling as he chewed vigorously on a rawhide bone, seemed unable to relax. --James Howe, The Celery Stalks at Midnight And she didn’t want to sit next to Frank Pearl, who ate paste, in class. --Megan McDonald, Judy Moody Intricate mosaic tiles, handpicked by Baba in Isfahan, covered the four floors of the four bathrooms --Khaled Hosseini, The Kite Runner

USE A COMMA BEFORE ADDITIONS AT THE END OF A SENTENCE If there’s a complete sentence (independent clause) with information after it, put a comma after the complete sentence. The screen was coming away from the screen door in one corner, curling away from the metal frame like a leaf. The volume-control knob had fallen off the hi-fi, leaving a forked metal bud. --Suzanne Berne, A Crime in the Neighborhood There was a lot of posing going on, a kind of auditioning or something. --Francesca Lia Black, The Rose and the Beast I remember the precise moment, crouching behind the crumbling mud wall, peeking into the alley near the frozen creek. --Khaled Hosseini, The Kite Runner The massive thighs, which emerged from out of the smock, were encased in a pair of extraordinary trousers, bottle-green in color and made of course twill. --Roald Dahl, Matilda

USE COMMAS IN A SERIES Use commas to separate a series of three or more things. The soup was a masterwork, a delicate mingling of chicken, watercress, and garlic. --Kate DiCamillo, The Tale of Desperaux What I wasn’t used to was having his smell back, the smoke from his Camel cigarettes, his Old Spice aftershave, the shoe polish he used on his boots. All those father odors, filling up the house. My mother opened every window, waxed the wooden furniture, sprayed room freshener in every corner. She scrubbed the tiles on the bathroom floor, scrubbed the dog’s water bowl, scrubbed her hair, her hands, her face, shiny. --Kathi Appelt, My Father’s Summers

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The Semicolon Another use for the semicolon is when you have a list within a list. Use a semicolon to separate the big elements in the list, and a comma to separate the list within the list. Imagine how confusing it would be if there were only commas in the sentences below. Please buy the following items for the party: streamers; red, white, and blue plates; fruit, including watermelon, strawberries, blueberries, and kiwis; and napkins. Ships came and went; men and women did their chores, talked and sought relief from the heat and insects; the markets and shops hummed with activity; children played; and the city, state, and federal governments went about their business. --Jim Murphy, An American Plague But Baxter had temporarily lost his sense of smell; he feared and disliked the strange, shy creatures; the nightingale left him cold; and the only thought the towering castle inspired in him was that it looked as if a fellow would need half a ton of dynamite to get into it. --PG Wodehouse, Leave It to Psmith Below them stretched the brown cliffs, with a strip of sand at the bottom strewn with the wreckage of a disused quarry: a rotten wooden landing stage; two lopsided trucks; rusted rails, broken and uneven, leading to nothing. --Edmund Crispin, Holy Disorders

Adapted from Mechanically Inclined: Building Grammar, Usage, and Style into the Writer’s Workshop by Jeff Anderson. Portland: Stenhouse Publishers, 2005.

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GRAMMAR FOCUS: VERBS Use active verbs unless there is no comfortable way to get around using a passive verb. The difference between an active-verb style and a passive-verb style—in clarity and vigor—is the difference between life and death for a writer. --William Zinsser, On Writing Well

WHAT IS A VERB? WHAT IS A SUBJECT? A verb expresses action (walk, say, knit), existence / state of being (be, was), or an occurrence (become, happen, change). The subject is the thing that’s doing the action in the sentence. The dog walked. He was talking. Mary had been knitting.

SUBJECTS AND VERBS MUST AGREE Notice that the same verb will look different depending on the subject. I walk. She walks. They walk. He walked. We have been walking. You will walk. Here’s a chart to help you remember how subjects and verbs agree in the past and in the present.

“Right Now” or Present Tense Verbs

Point of View (Person) Singular Plural I/we voice (1st) I talk We talk You voice (2nd) You talk You talk

He/she/it voice (3rd) He talks; she talks (add –s or –es to the verb)

They talk

Notice the pattern: Use the base verb every time, except when using the he/she/it voice.

“Already Happened” or Past Tense Verbs

Point of View (Person) Singular Plural I/we voice (1st) I talked We talked You voice (2nd) You talked You talked

He/she/it voice (3rd) He talked; she talked They talked Notice the pattern: We always add –ed to the base verb to show that the

events already happened or are in the past.

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HELPING VERBS A helping verb is a verb that comes before the main verb in a sentence. A helping verb adds detail to the main verb. Sometimes a main verb can have more than one helping verb. There are twenty-three helping verbs (although some of them can also be main verbs depending on the sentence):

is, am, are, was, were be, being, been has, have, had do, does, did will, shall, should, would can, could may, might, must

In each example below, the helping verb is underlined while the main verb is italicized. I have always hated those upstart space toys. --Stinky Pete the Prospector, Toy Story 2 If we love our country, we should also love our countrymen. --Ronald Reagan We can stay up late, swapping manly stories. --Donkey, Shrek Nothing great was ever achieved without enthusiasm. --Ralph Waldo Emerson

Life has taught us that love does not consist in gazing at each other, but in looking outward together in the same direction. --Antoine de Saint-Exupery, The Little Prince

If he could type, he would write the great American novel. You may go to the movie. She can play golf extremely well. Will he win the race? Do you think he cares? --C. Edward Good, A Grammar Book for You and I—Oops, Me!

KNOW THE “BE” VERBS . . . The “be” verbs are all forms of the verb “be.” They are am, is, are, was, were, be, being, and been. These verbs change form more than any verb in the English language. Unless you’re answering a question (Who’s going to the movies? I am!), a “be” verb can’t stand alone.

“Right Now” or Present Tense Verbs

Point of View (Person) Singular Plural I/we voice (1st) I am talking We are talking You voice (2nd) You are talking You are talking He/she/it voice (3rd) He is talking; she is talking They are talking

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“Already Happened” or Past Tense Verbs

Point of View (Person) Singular Plural I/we voice (1st) I was talking We were talking You voice (2nd) You were talking You were talking

He/she/it voice (3rd) He was talking; she was talking They were talking

Why is it important to know the “be” verbs?

. . . SO YOU CAN AVOID THE “BE” VERBS Although sometimes they’re necessary, “be” verbs are weak. They make your writing wimpy, wordy and imprecise. Fortunately, it’s usually easy to avoid “be” verbs. Strategy #1: Change the “be” verb to another word in the sentence Change: He is running. To: He runs. Change: The author is arguing . . . To: The author argues . . . Change: Charles Schultz was the creator of The Peanuts. To: Charles Schultz created The Peanuts. Strategy #2: Change the “be” verb to a stronger verb Change: That apple pie is good. To: That apple pie tastes good. Change: She was happy. To: She felt happy. Change: I am at my desk. To: I sit at my desk. Strategy #3: Rearrange the sentence Change: The monster was creeping down the dark tunnel. To: Down the dark tunnel crept the monster. Change: The restaurant’s food is excellent. To: The restaurant serves excellent food. Change: There were some important findings from this experiment. To: This experiment resulted in some important findings. Strategy #4: Combine short, choppy sentences Change: The child was sad. She was feeling that way because of the depressing news story. To: The depressing news story saddened the sensitive child. Change: The food at the restaurant is excellent. The hamburgers are juicy. The onion rings are crispy. The pie is the best I have ever eaten. To: The restaurant serves excellent food, including juicy hamburgers, crispy onion rings, and the best pie I have ever eaten.

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Change: Jennifer Lawrence is the star of The Hunger Games. She was one of hundreds of actresses who auditioned for the role. To: Out of hundreds of actresses who auditioned for the role, Hunger Games director Gary Ross chose Jennifer Lawrence to star in the film.

PASSIVE VOICE In most types of writing, you should avoid passive voice. Passive voice is wordy, because it requires extra helping verbs; it’s weak, because it almost always requires those weak “be” verbs; and sometimes it can be dangerously imprecise, because it often leaves the subject out altogether. You already know that a verb is the main action in a sentence, and a subject is the thing doing the verb. To understand passive voice, you must also know what a direct object is. A direct object is the thing that’s receiving the action of a verb. While all sentences need a subject and a verb, not all sentences need a direct object; however, it’s important to know what it is. Notice that most sentences in English follow a basic order: subject, verb, direct object. This is called active voice.

Subject Verb Direct object

I ate my lunch.

Mary attended the prom.

My dog ran in the back yard.

The teacher assigned the homework.

Sarah sang

The baby cried

The reporter made mistakes.

In passive voice, the subject comes after the verb, or isn’t included at all.

Direct object Verb Subject

My lunch was eaten (by) me.

The prom was attended (by) Mary.

The homework was assigned (by) the teacher.

My lunch was eaten.

The homework was assigned.

Mistakes were made.

While writing in the passive voice is usually undesirable, there may be times when it’s OK, even preferred. For example, if you’re writing a lab report, writing The solution was mixed in the flask is preferred over I mixed the solution in the flask. In other cases, you may want to emphasize the verb or the direct object by putting it first, or you may not know what the subject is. For example, if you were writing a mystery about who ate your lunch, passive voice would create a mysterious tone: My lunch was eaten. This section on verbs was adapted from www.grammar.about.com, www.stlcc.edu, www.penningtonpublishing.com, and Jeff Anderson’s Mechanically Inclined

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What Gets Capitalized?

Names of people Thomas Jefferson, Tom Brady, Barack Obama, Lady Gaga Historical events and periods World War II, Neolithic, Victorian Abbreviations USA, BCE, FBI Organizations The Massachusetts Historical Society, the New England Patriots, the Red Cross Course names (but NOT subject areas unless they contain proper nouns) The Cold War in Film, Silk Painting 101 (Subject areas such as history, algebra, and biology should NOT be capitalized. Capitalize subject areas like English, Spanish, or European history because they are proper nouns.) The first word of each sentence My old dog can do two new tricks. He can roll over and beg. Geographic names Europe, Pluto, Haiti, New Jersey, Essex County, Mount Everest, the Mississippi River, the Great Lakes Regions of the country The East Coast, New England, the Midwest, the Pacific Northwest, the South Names of languages, nationalities, and religions Spanish, Peruvian, American, Irish, Judaism, Catholicism, Baptist, Islam Words used as names Are you going with Uncle John, Grandma, and Dad? (Do not capitalize these words when they are not being used as a proper name, such as my uncle, your grandma, his dad.) Days, months, holidays Thursday, July, Thanksgiving (Seasons such as spring and fall are not capitalized.) Specific companies and schools Hollister, Coke, Microsoft, Hudson High School, Assumption College Titles used with names President Obama, Senator Elizabeth Warren, Dr. Vivek Murthy Titles of artistic works (capitalize all words but articles, prepositions, conjunctions) The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Nighttime, “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening,” The Persistence of Memory, “Good for You” (see the next page for more information about formatting titles)

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How to Format a Title

The basic rule is to italicize titles of long works, and use quotation marks for titles of shorter works. Underlining can be used instead of italics, but only when italics are not available (like when you’re handwriting). You should never, under any circumstances, underline and italicize. You should also never use quotation marks and italics, for that matter. Here are some examples of long works, which should be italicized. Books—The Great Gatsby, the Twilight series, The Fault in Our Stars, Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone Movies—The Hunger Games series, Jurassic World, Citizen Kane TV & radio shows—Modern Family, CSI Miami, Survivor, This American Life, All Things Considered Plays, musicals, operas—The Crucible, Into the Woods, The Barber of Seville Websites & podcasts—The Internet Movie Database, The Huffington Post, Serial, Nerdist Newspapers, magazines, journals—The Boston Globe, The Hudson Sun, Billboard, Time, The Lancet Albums & long musical works—Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony, Views from the 6, The White Album Works of art (paintings, sculptures, photographs)—Mona Lisa, The Thinker, The Scream, Guernica Ships & space shuttles—The USS Arizona, the RMS Titanic, the Mayflower, the Endeavor, the Columbia Here are some examples of short works, which should get quotation marks Poems and short stories—“The Mending Wall,” “Phenomenal Woman,” “The Lottery,” “The Monkey’s Paw” Songs—“Mary Had a Little Lamb,” “Jingle Bells,” “Born This Way,” “Uptown Funk” Newspaper, magazine, and journal articles—“Driving the South’s Flag Divide” published in The New York Times, “Everything You Know about Boys and Video Games is Wrong” published in Time Chapters in a book—“The Boy Who Lived” from Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone, “Recalled to Life” from A Tale of Two Cities TV show episodes—“Ozymandias” from Breaking Bad, “Pilot” from Lost

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There are four kinds of sentences: declarative, imperative, interrogative, and exclamatory.

1. A declarative sentence makes a statement. Example: The assignment is due tomorrow.

2. An imperative sentence gives a command or makes a request. Examples: Please hand it in now. Stop.

3. An interrogative sentence asks a question. Example: Do you know him?

4. An exclamatory sentence shows strong feeling. Declarative, imperative, and sometimes interrogative sentences can be made into exclamatory sentences by punctuating them with an exclamation point. Examples: Oh no! The assignment is due tomorrow!

Stop!

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Numbers: When to use words and when to use digits

Write out numbers that are one or two words

long. For example, write out numbers like twenty, sixty-three, two, or one-hundred, but use digits for numerals like 110 or 1,002.

No matter how many digits are in the number,

write it out if it’s the first word of the sentence. Ex.: Twenty-one thousand citizens are registered to vote in that county.The exception: if the sentence begins with a year. Ex.: 1994 was a very good year.

Use numerals when describing a unit of measure, time, or proportion.

Ex.: 2 inches, 5-minute delay, 65 miles per hour, 23 years old, page 23. Again, the only exception is if the number is the first word of the sentence.

Use numerals for decimals and fractions. Ex.: 1/3, .52

Approximate figures should be written out. Ex.: About half the

students, a third of the time, four times as often.

Place a hyphen after a unit of measure when the unit describes the noun. Ex.: 10-foot pole, 5-year-old horse, 3-second rule.

The “%” sign should be written out as “percent.”

Write dates as numerals. Ex., February 14, 2010. (Note: don’t write “14th.”

Don’t include an apostrophe when talking about a decade or century.

That is, write “the 1960s” rather than “the 1960’s.” (Nothing belongs to the 1960s.)

Use numerals when writing out scores (110 to 98), addresses (221 Baker Street), finances ($35.50 per person), and time (7:15 A.M.) (Exception: when using “o’clock,” as in, “The train left at seven o’clock.)

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Words and phrases to avoid in formal papers Formal papers have standards that writers are expected to know. These include several words and phrases that shouldn’t appear because they are unnecessary, too informal, or show inexperience. However, if you’re writing fiction, a personal essay, a personal narrative, poetry, dialogue, or anything informal, it’s perfectly OK to use these words and phrases. As always, check with your teacher.

“you,” “your,” “yours” “I,” “me,” “my,” “mine,” “our,” “us,” “we,” “ours” “This quote shows. . .” “In conclusion” (instead, indicate with your paragraph structure that you’re about to wrap up) “A lot” (use “a great deal” instead) “In the play (or novel, story, poem, text, etc.)”—unless it’s not obvious what you’re talking about, don’t use it. It’s just filler! Slang Contractions Jargon (except in very specific instances) Texting abbreviations (UR going 2 B in big trouble if u do this!) “Etc.” An author or historical figure’s first name without his/her last name Clichés (“as strong as an ox,” “in a nutshell”) Abbreviations Colloquialisms (“guy,” “seeing as how,” “anyway,” “sort of,” “kid,” etc.) Overgeneralizations (“always,” “never,” “everyone,” “no one”) Exclamation points! Rhetorical questions “Things”

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Commonly Confused Words

Accept

verb: to take/to receive

Except

verb: to leave out preposition: excluding

Affect verb: to act upon/to influence

Effect verb: to accomplish noun: the result

Allusion noun: intentional reference to something

Illusion noun: false idea/misleading appearance

Among

prep: comparison of items within a group

Between

prep: comparison of two specific items Are

verb: present tense plural of “be” Our pronoun: possessive form of “we”

Beside

adj: by the side of

Besides

adv: in addition to Borrow

verb: to obtain or receive something Lend verb: to give out/allow the use of

Bring

verb: motion towards the speaker

Take

verb: motion away from the speaker Further

adj.: more distant in time or degree to help the progress of/advance

Farther adv.: more distant in space and time

Good adj.: used to modify a noun

Well adj.: to be satisfactory, healthy, etc. adv.: indicates something capably done

Imply

verb: to suggest something

Infer

verb: to interpret/get a certain something Its

pronoun: possessive form of “it” It’s contraction: shortened form of “it is/has”

Knew

verb: past tense of “know”

New

adj.: not yet old/fresh/recent/fashionable Lay

verb: to put or place something Lie verb: to rest/recline/stay/remain

Leave

verb: to go away

Let

verb: to permit or allow Lose

verb: unable to be found Loose adj.: not taut, not tight/calm, unruffled

Lead verb: to show the way

Led verb: past tense of “lead”

Principal noun: person or leader in charge

adj.: first, highest, foremost in rank

Principle noun: basic truths, fundamental laws

Stationary

adj: fixed position, not moving

Stationery

noun: writing paper Their

pronoun: possessive form of “they There noun: that place

To

prep.: in the direction of

Too

adv.: in addition, also, as well Than

conjunction: use to make comparisons Then adv.: time, space, or order, in addition

Weather

noun: the state of the atmosphere

Whether

conjunction: if it is the case, either Which

pronoun or adj.: what particular one Witch noun: woman who practices sorcery

Who’s

contraction: form of “who is”

Whose

pronoun: possessive form of “who” You’re

contraction: form of “you are” Your pronoun: possessive form of “you”

From: Prior Lake High School, Laker Stylebook. [online] January 25, 2010. http://www.priorlake-savage.k12.mn.us/

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Three Writing Modes

In alignment with the Common Core and other writing initiatives, Hudson High

School focuses on three different modes of writing. You’ll explore each of these

modes in different ways at HHS. Here is a simple way to look at all the knowledge

you’ll gain!

Mode of

Writing

Definition Examples

Informational Writing that is used to explain, describe, give

information or inform. This writing sticks to the

facts, and presents ideas in logical order or

sequence.

Textbooks

Brochures

Instructions

How-to essays

Math problem

explanations

Lab reports

Narrative A type of expository writing that focuses on the

author. The primary purpose of narrative writing

is to describe an experience, event, or personal

decision/story.

Journal writing

Personal Narrative

Memoir

Fiction / short stories

Newspaper stories

Argument/

Opinion

A persuasive text that presents a series of

logically organized reasons for a belief, attitude,

or proposed action. Presented in an analytical

way in order for the writer/reader to draw

conclusions.

Literary analysis

Argument

Persuasive Essay

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Reviews

Letters to the editor

Speeches

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Common Writing Elements for Assessment

When writing at HHS, there are common elements of writing that we work on. Most rubrics, guidelines, or check lists will include some combination of the language below.

The requirements will change depending on your mode of writing—for example, a personal narrative will have different areas of emphasis than an argumentative essay.

Structure Overall Studying the overall success of your written work.

Lead Focusing on the beginning of your written piece.

Transitions Checking to see that transitional phrases and words are used to guide the reader’s thoughts and help link to pieces of a story or an argument.

Ending Looking to see that your ending reinforces your point or makes a story complete.

Organization Making sure that your essay or story is organized in a way that suits your purpose and leads readers through your work. Often, your teachers will be looking for how you use the CER paragraph format.

Development Elaboration This refers to a variety of things, depending on your writing style. You

may want to add details and figurative language in a narrative, or facts, quotations, and definitions in an informational piece.

Craft Craft refers to word choice, tone, and style. It is what makes your writing yours alone. It can also refer to your ability to connect with the reader and make a clear argument or focus a main idea.

Conventions Spelling Do you use what you know about word families and spelling rules to

help you spell and edit? Are there editing errors in your final product?

Punctuation and Sentence Structure

This will often focus on particular grammatical or technical issues you are working on in the unit. It may include comma work, semi-colons, complex sentences, dashes, proper citations, etc.