human beings are information processors and that mental processes guide behavior.doc

1. Human beings are information processors and that mental processes guide behavior

Psychologists think that information that comes into the mind from the sensory system

The information is processed in the mind through pre-stored information in the memory

And that leads to a form of behavior Person's mindset is important in predicting his or her behavior People who have fixed ideas are stereotypes , and are more prone to

discriminate People's memories are not as infallible (incapable of failure or error) because of

reconstructive nature of memory People don’t store exact copies of experiences, only storing an outline that is

filled by recalled information People often have false memories, when individuals cant decide between what

they have experienced and what they've heard after the event Brain is able to fabricate illusions that are so realistic, and we tend to believe

that its true. Humans perception is the cognitive process that interprets and organizes

information with our senses to produce meaningful experiences of the world Context, frequency, or recency influences the way people interpret

events or objects What people think is objective experienced

2. The mind can be studied scientifically By developing theories and using scientific research methods Experimental tasks do not always resemble what people did in their daily lives Cognitive may not be isolated from our everyday experience Examples of using scientific research methods

PET, scanning method to measure important functions in the brain. E.g. glucose consumption, blood flow. It may also detect diseases like brain tumors

MRI, scanning method to provide 3-D picture of brain structures. It detects changes in the use of oxygen, and when the brain is active, it uses more oxygen. This could be used to see what areas of the brain are active when they are performing cognitive tasks (reading, problem solving)

Cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors Bartlett defines schema as a mental representation of knowledge

He looked at how cultural schemas may affect people's memory Humans may remember things according to what makes sense to them Memory has lots of distortions

Explain how principles that define the cognitive level of analysis may be demonstrated in research

Human beings are information processors and that mental processes guide behavior

People who have fixed ideas are stereotypes , and are more prone to discriminate

Research Study: Dweck and Blackwell 2007 Aim: whether intelligence is affected through student's mind sets Method: Half a group of students being taught that intelligence can be

increased through more exercises. Another half of students attended a neutral session on memory

Results: students that were trained to adopt a growth mindset about intelligence were more motivated - improvement in math results. The other students had no improvement in math results

Conclusion: telling students that intelligence can be developed has incredible impact on their motivate to education and learning

The mind can be studied scientifically Using scanning methods to have a insight of brain activity PET scans: measure important function in the brain (glucose consumption and

blood flow) It may detect tumors or memory disorders from Alzheimer's disease They can look for signs of the Alzheimer's disease before patients detect

it Lisa Mosconi

Aim: looking at metabolism rates of people, and its relationship to alzheimer's disease

Method: longitudinal study, following 53 normal and healthy patients, 9-24 years, then at the end of they study, they had a PET scan (measure important functions of the brain)

Results: individuals showing early signs of metabolism in the hippocampus were associated with later development of Alzhemier's disease

Conclusion: relationship between metabolism rates and Alzhemier's disease

results need to be replicated, however its useful to use PET scans to screen for Alzhemier's for people who don't have any symptoms just yet

Case Studies: Clive Wearing / HM Aim: Looking at the brain through MRI scans to see how their particular

disease / problem has in relation to the brain's activity Method: MRI scans Results: Clive wearing showed damage to hippocampus, and some of the

frontal regions, and HM showed damage in the hippocampus, amygdala, and places close to the hippocampus

Conclusion: the mind can be looked at in detail, therefore more research studies may be performed based on the clear insight images that scientists will now have of the brain of these patients

Cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors Research Study: Bartlett, The War of the Ghost 1932

Aim: to investigate whether memory is reconstructive, and whether schemas influence the participants recalling stories

First Method: Serial reproduction: one person reproduces the original story "The war of the ghosts (based on a Native American legend)" then the second person reproduces the first reproduction, and so on... And so on until there are 6 or 7 reproductions of the same story. (like the process of gossips and rumors)

Another Method: without telling the participants the aim of the story, they were told to read the story twice. Then after 15 minutes, the participants had to reproduce the story from memory. Then whenever they had the opportunity to, they were to go into Bartlett's memory to recall the story

Results: Story became shorter (after 6/7 reproductions, it went from 329

words to 180) Story had orderly content, because people interpret the story as a

whole when listening and retelling

Story contained details which share past experiences and cultural background to participants

Conclusion: it was difficult for western cultures to reproduce due to unfamiliar style and content.

People reconstruct past by trying to fit into existing schemas, as people try to find a familiar pattern in their own experiences

Story more complicated = more distortions and mistakes Memory is an imaginative reconstructive of experience according

to Bartlett Research Study: Rosenzweig and Bennett 1972

Aim: to investigate whether environment (social) had an effect on the rat's development of neurons in the cerebal cortex

Method: placing half of the group of rats in a stimulating and enriched environment with interesting toys to play with, and placing another half of the group into a deprived environment with no toys. The rats spent 30-60 days in the environment

Results: rats in the stimulating environment had increase thickness in cortex, and their frontal lobe ( associated with thinking, planning and decision making) was heavier

Conclusion: high levels of stimulation and numerous learning opportunities at the appropriate times lead to an increase in density of neural connections

Discuss how and why particular research methods are used by cognitive researchers

Introduction Range of qualitative and quantitative methods used to test and construct

theories relating to principles of CLOA Aim to have in-depth knowledge on mental processes that guide behavior

Paragraph 1- Lab studies The only research method showing cause and effect Artificial Single experiment lacks ecological validity Cannot be generalized outside the study conditions Other studies investigating same topic with same method = similar findings Not a major issue of lacking ecol. Validity if it fits larger body of research Ethical, as the procedures taken place must follow the codes of the APA, BPS Loftus and Palmer

Aim: Changing the verb in the question to see effects on speed estimate Method: the participants were shown a clip of a car crash, then they

were to guess the speed estimate when the cars "smashed / collided / bumped / hit / contacted "

Result: speed estimates varied, gentle words had slower speed estimates

Conclusion: interpretation of the results : different use of verbs activates different schemas in memory, and that hearing the word "smash" may allow the participant to think of the event as more severe compared to "contacted"

Independent Variable: change in word Dependent Variable: Change in speed estimates Control Variable: clip shown

Cause - change in word, leading to effect - change in speed estimate

Paragraph 2- Brain scanning PET, fMRI, CAT Looking at the brain and how it works when mental processing takes place Artificial environment Act under demand characteristics Useful, looking at brain activity, how the brain activity works Ethical findings on abnormalities in the brain - must have consent beforehand Expensive, and needs an expert Doesn't harm the subject However its not easy to find out levels of neurotransmitters in the brain,

therefore researchers are open to interpretation of the brain scans Some say that the colors may exaggerate brain activity, and it would

allow researchers to interpret it differently Detect blood flow, produce maps showing which parts of the brain is involved in

particular mental processes Lisa Mosconi






Paragraph 3- Field experiments

Natural environments to see the way that people react to situations Researchers still manipulate variables Ecological validity Cannot control all variables Wright et al

Aim: looking at whether memory is influenced by own race bias Method: approaching individuals with a black / white confederate at

different times in a mall in Cape town, S Africa, and Bristol, and was asked questions like "excuse me do you have the time?" then they had to select faces from photo line up with confederates in different clothes

Result: higher chance of someone getting it right with same race, and they were also more confident for own race (using likert scale), so there is correlation between high confidence and selecting someone of own race

Paragraph 4- Case studies Rich source of data Insight to unique phenomena / individuals behavior Include descriptions of personal experiences, feelings, thoughts, blood testings,

iq scores, survey data, interviews, Limited aspect on behavior Detailed research

Triangulation: using multiple methods of investigation to explore the same phenomenon

Combination of methods allows researcher to adopt different perspectives to look at the case study, so that its more than cognitive level of analysis

Highlights extraordinary behavior, stimulating new research Impossible to replicate findings of a case study, as its unique cases Reliability of the data is low (since it cant be replicated) Not possible to generalize results of a unique case to the general population

Individual is not a representative Aim: Looking at Clive Wearing's brain, a patient with anterograde(failure

to store memories after a trauma) and retrograde amnesia (failure to store memories before a trauma, trauma that disrupts consolidation of memory)

Method: MRI scan Results: Clive wearing showed damage to hippocampus, and some of the

frontal regions, Conclusion: the mind can be looked at in detail, therefore more research

studies may be performed based on the clear insight images that scientists will now have of the brain of these patients.

Conclusion Many researchers can now specialize into certain parts of the brain during their

research It has benefited many people Different methods must be used to have clearer insight

Must be ethical

Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the cognitive level of analysis

Introduction: Importance of ethics on human behavior

Ensure psych is well respect discipline, as psych is very important in finding new cures for different abnormalities

Ethical conduct Treating animals and people well

Unnecessary suffering is unacceptable May be risks to participants life If misused, genetic information can be stigmatizing, affecting one's ability to find

a job Follow BPS/APA code of conduct and key aspects to learn more about

Human's mental processing Human brain scientifically Influences on behavior from socio and culture

Paragraph 1- Laboratory research Doesn't harm the subject during Must follow standardized codes because it requires humans

British psychological society BPS, American psychological association APA, Hong Kong psychological society HKPS <- authorities for psychology in each country

Loftus and Palmer investigation on the use of different use of verbs activating different schemas in memory

All the participants must follow the main sets of guidelines (below)

Main sets of guidelines are

Informed consent, so they must agree and be informed about the study Only Slight deception used, so that the participants wont be affected by

what the researcher wants them to do. However deception must be explained to patients at the end

Debriefing, true aims and purpose must be revealed to participants, all deceptions must be revealed and justified, and participants must have no stress after experiment

Withdrawal, participants should be told that they can leave whenever, and whether they want to withdraw their results too

Confidentiality, information must be confidential Standardized instructions, all participants treated equally Protection from physical or mental harm

Paragraph 2- Animal Studies Animals have rights of protection and privacy much below levels granted to

humans Procedures not permitted on humans can be applied on animals

e.g. lesioning and ablation of the brain Ethical guidelines still exist in animal use during psychological research

Avoid / minimize stress and suffering of all animals consider possible alternative ways to perform animal research As economical as possible in the number of animals used

Although it helped researchers believe that the hypothalamus was a brake on eating, it is unethical

Potential harm to the animal cannot be determined Damage cannot be reversed Pain towards animals They were consuming food at unhealthy, dangerous rates Rats were sacrificed..

Many animal research do not result in further understanding Animals lives wasted Benefits should not be generalized, since further understanding is not

always gained Some see it as a sacrifice for the betterment of others Some see it as human's selfishness to gain knowledge at the price of others,

inhumane, cruel and dehumanizing It does have its advantages, many cosmetics company are still open because of

success in testing upon animals, as they are easy to increase in numbers too Only use when there is no alternative choice and the finding would balance the

loss Kandel

Aim: memory research on rats to see which area of the brain is involved in memory

Method: teaching animals to run through a maze, then because a memory is formed, Kandel would cut away brain tissue to find out which areas of the brain is involved in the task

Results: rats constantly had their brain leisoned till they couldn’t perform the task

Paragraph 3: Sensitivity Agreement before hand

Regards to incidental detection of brain abnormalities, whether the subject will be told or not

Investigations on EWT, flashbulb memory must be dealt with sensitively

Brown and Kulik Aim: supporting the flashbulb memory, that people have detailed

memories of highly emotional events Method: asking people to recall events

This must be dealt with carefully, as it’s a sensitive topic Unethical to study and use someone

CW had consent by his wife, so that’s acceptable HM had his name unknown till he died

These studies has benefited us because we can know which areas of the brain are affected when people have abnormalities

Therapy is a useful approach to cognitive problems Therapists have powerful role

Open to abuse Handling therapeutic relationships and data from research sensitively

Cognitive research in causes & effects of stress Careful handling with stressful patients

Conclusion: Ethics is important aspect in psychological research Maintain respect for discipline and the rights of subjects being tested Ethical codes must be followed to maintain good practice Useful researches done on cognitive may benefit many people, especially from

case studies

Evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies

Introduction Schema: mental representation of knowledge

Cognitive structure (mental frame) representing a person's knowledge about objects / people or situation

Assist recall Guides our behavior Experience and knowledge Schemas open the "topdown" way to help us interpret the "bottomup"

infromation reaching our sense Like a short cut to interpret information

Schema theory: what we already know will influence the outcome of information processing

New information is processed in the light of existing schema Schema will affect cognitive processing

Paragraph 1 (Arguments against schema theory) Representing general knowledge rather than definitions Not clear how schemas are acquired in the first place Not clear how they influence schema theory Cohen (1993) points out that "the whole idea of a schema is too vague to be

useful' andargues that schema theory provides no explanation of how schemas work

We only know that it exists as its coined as a term, but how it really works is unknown

Difficult to define schema, as there's no true findings of schema in the brain

Paragraph 2

People reconstruct past by trying to fit into existing schemas Bartlett considers memory as an imaginative reconstruction of experience Bartlett (1932)

Aim: to investigate how schema, specifically cultural schema, can influence memory

Method: Approached random participants, and brought them to a lab. Then they were told a complex and unusual story called ‘The War of the Ghosts'. He asked them to recall it six or seven times over various retention intervals.

Results: Recalled stories were distorted and altered in various ways making it more conventional and acceptable to their own cultural perspective.

Canoe was often substituted by boat Story became shorter Story remained coherent (people interpreting as a whole)

Anderson and Pichert ( 1978). Aim: how schema affects people's memory skills Method: Participants read a story from the perspective of either a

burglar or potential home buyer. After they had recalled as much as they could of the story from the perspective they had been given, they shifted to the alternative perspective and recalled the story again.

Results: On the second recall participants recalled more information that was important only to the second perspective or schema than they had done on the first recall.

Loftus and Palmer Aim: Changing the verb in the question to see effects on speed estimate Method: the participants were shown a clip of a car crash, then they

were to guess the speed estimate when the cars "smashed / collided / bumped / hit / contacted "



variable control allowed researchers to establish a cause-and-effect relationship how

schemas affectmemory processes.

Paragraph 3 ecological validity of the War of the Ghosts lab study

his use of a native American folk tale may have been complex to complicate one's memory

wasn’t a very well controlled study. Bartlett did not give very specific instructions to his participants some distortions observed by Bartlett may have been due to conscious guessing

rather than schema-influenced memory. Gauld and Stephen ( 1967) found that the instructions stressing the need for

accuraterecall minimizes almost half the errors usually obtained.

Performing research on memory in lab does not reflect how and what people remember in real life

Yuille and Cutshall: interviewing people who witnessed real robbery, and found that misleading questions did not distort one's memory

Wording had no effect on recall Those who were most distressed had the most accurate memory

Conclusion: enough research to suggest schemas do affect memory processes knowledge both in a positive and negative sense. Simplify reality, help us to make sense of current experiences. Schemas are useful concepts in helping us understand how we organize our

knowledge.

Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research studies

Introduction Reconstructive memory and multi storage MULTI STORE MODEL IS IT S NAME Models are attempts to describe complex behavior – STATE THAT THEY

INVESTIGATE HOW MEMORY WORKS – BE SPECIFIC ABOUT THE COGNITIVE PROCESS

Constantly changed and developed based on research findings May clarify how a memory might work, but it can never be more than a model

Evidence brings support to ideas of the model, nothing is proven

Paragraph 1 By Atkinson and Shriffin - MSM Memory is divided into 3 stores

Sensory, STM, LTM Sensory Memory

Information would exist for a brief period of time Unless information is needed, it is easily lost

Short Term Memory Attended information passed on from sensory memory Stores information for brief periods of time Temporary storage for incoming information Limited duration and capacity Lasting slightly longer than sensory

Long Term Memory Vast quantity of information Stored for long periods of time Information is diverse, wide ranging, Personal memories, general knowledge, and beliefs of the world

Glanzer and Cunitz Aim: investigation on memory models WHICH ONE? MSM Method: reading out a list of random words to a group of participants Results: beginning and end words reclled best Conclusion: early words move from LTM, and later information stored

in the STM, therefore different models exist Evaluation points:

Too simplistic LTM and STM are way more complex EVALUATE LIMITATIONS AND

STRENGTHS OF LAB RESEARCH HERE

Paragraph 2 LTM is more complex than it is described in MSM Case Studies: Clive Wearing

Aim: Looking at Clive Wearing's brain, a patient with anterograde(failure to store memories after a trauma) and retrograde amnesia (failure to store memories before a trauma, trauma that disrupts consolidation of memory)


frontal regions, LTM is more complex as it divides off to explicit memory - hippocampus

Fact based memories (semantic and episodic) implicit memory - amygdala

Memories that are not consciously aware of (procedural and emotional) he had damage to hippocampus and frontal regions of the brain

That’s why he still had affection for his wife, and could not form new memories GOOD WORK HERE

Paragraph 3 Reconstructive Memory MODEL People's memory are not that incapable of failure People do not store exact copies of their experiences

Outline of information when it is recalled People may have false memories Brain can fabricate illusion so realistically we believe its true Schema influence people's memory Memory is reconstructive with schema's influencing recall Bartlett (1932)


Method: Approached random participants, and brought them to a lab. Then they were told a complex and unusual story called ‘The War of the Ghosts'. He asked them to recall it six or seven times over various retention intervals.


Canoe was often substituted by boat Story became shorter Story remained coherent (people interpreting as a whole)

People reconstruct the past by fitting into existing schemas People try to find a familiar pattern in experiences Memory is an imaginative reconstruction of experience

Paragraph 4 Representing general knowledge rather than definitions Not clear how schemas are acquired in the first place Not clear how they influence schema theory Cohen (1993) points out that "the whole idea of a schema is too vague to be

useful' andargues that schema theory provides no explanation of how schemas work

We only know that it exists as its coined as a term, but how it really works is unknown

Difficult to define schema, as there's no true findings of schema in the brain GOOD

Conclusion Different models as to how our memory works Always remember that it can only remain as a model Models are useful attempts at discovering the complex cognitive process of

memory

Explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process

Brain research provides information of the biological foundations of memory to have a deeper insight into the nature of memory

The way that the brain works would affect memory learning is a formation of memory, that is growing new connections or

strengthening existing connections between neurons to form neural networks To find out which parts of the brain are involved in memory, rats run through a

maze, and the memory is formed. Then the researchers would cut away brain tissue, and the animal must run through the maze again. This procedure - leisoning - repeats until the animal can no longer perform the task.

This proves that long-term memory systems have different stores. Brain damage can affect one type of memory, but leaving the others

Long term memory is separated into: explicit(declarative) memory and implicit (non-declarative memory)

Explicit memory: fact based information that can be consciously retrieved Hippocampus is important in the formation of explicit memories

Implicit memory: memories that we are not consciously aware of Amygdala is important in storing emotional memories, because emotions

are used to evaluate experience Explicit memory branches into:

semantic memory (memory of facts - WHAT) Memory for general knowledge

and episodic memory (memory of events - WHEN) Personal experience of events

Implicit memory branches into: procedural memory (memory of how to do things - HOW)

Non conscious memory for skills habits and actions and emotional memories (memory of how emotional states- HOW)

Ledoux: Certain memories have emotional significance This is why emotional events are remembered better People suffering from post traumatic stress disorder have problems

forgetting, because emotional memories are difficult to get rid of When the prefrontal cortex is damaged, emotional memory is hard to eliminate,

and is hard to control emotional outbursts Background of Clive wearing

Episodic memory and semantic memory are lost Amnesia: caused by brain injury or infection

Contracted with herpes, but it changed from a cold sore to attaching the brain

Cannot transfer new information into long term memory Still play the piano and conduct music, that he knew before the illness -

skills of implicit memory

Proves that the brain has a distributed memory system, because implicit memory is linked to a brain structure other than the hippocampus

Still had emotional memory, as he shows affection for his wife Case Studies: Clive Wearing



frontal regions, Conclusion: the mind can be looked at in detail, therefore more research

studies may be performed based on the clear insight images that scientists will now have of the brain of these patients.

researchers have a better chance of testing areas of the brain related to which areas of memory and skill learning

Background of Henry Molaison After his operation, he could recall information from earlier life He cannot form new memories Suffer mainly from retrograde amnesia Have a normal conversation, but cannot recognize people who visit him

regularly who had brain injury at 9, leading to epileptic seizures. Doctors removed

tissue from temporal lobe and the hippocampus the areas affected by the operation was permanent, including the

hippocampus and amygdala and areas close to the hippocampus Case Studies: Henry Molaison by Corkin 2002

Aim: whether HM could still perform skills from his procedural memory Method: Given a picture an outline of a star inside a star, he was told to

draw the star between the two stars by looking at the mirror, he does this several times

Results: he could not remember doing the task after he's completed them, but after he a few tries, he comments that it was getting easier

Conclusion: damage in the hippocampus and amygdala had no effect on procedural memory, as he could still improve his motor skills

Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process

Introduction Socio cultural factors: the way that we think is affected by social (humans in the

society) and culture matters (beliefs that people have) Cognitive Process: the way that we think The extent to which digital tools affect the cognitive process of learning

Digital tools are: computer gaming, use of internet, and social networking

In the 21st century, it seems that digital tools shape society But the question is, does it shape the people in the society and

the way that humans think and learn?Paragraph 1

Nicholas Carr raises the question: whether technologies can reshape us? Neuroscience suggests that habitual practice can change neuronal

structures So would technology do the same?

Yes, there is a positive effect on learning James Gee's argument: positive impact of using digital tools in a

classroom Paul Howard Jones: games for children to boost motivation to help

learning Games would motivate children Motivation is great interest in education

demonstrable learning achievement. Yes, but there's a negative effect on learning

Nicholas Carr - people are being too reliant Google is making us stupid Obsessive use of internet may lead to depression Internet weakens ability to concentrate and contemplate

Paragraph 2 Gaming Theory James Gee:

Develop skills (problem solving, innovation) through games Digital tools in classroom Impact on education Believes that life is full of tasks and assessments

In games, its fun In reality, it’s a burden People like to get constant feedback in games

Some argue that writing is no longer used Gee argues that blogs, fan fiction sites are huge potentials for

students to write Constantly given feedback too!

However its risky to apply technology to all schools - hand written tests still exist

Paul Howard Jones: Intense engagement with computer games shows how under one

environment, all children are capable of intense levels of engagement Develop to learn and achieve better through games Aim: investigating whether there is a change in brain activity when

humans are engaging in games Method: putting brains under MRI scanners during gaming process Results: increase brain activity when: handling rewards in games, or

when the computer makes a mistake, and controlling cognitive response Conclusion: we are hardwire to learn about other’s mistakes Evaluation: lab study

we can then use games and challenges to trigger brain activity Evaluation:

May introduce gambling to children May lead to addiction towards computer for children Educational games are fun, but not if it leads to gambling

Evaluation of Gaming methods: Too much reward, that’s not a real representation of the world

However humans are adapting to challenges through practices in games in classrooms, therefore their environment that they live in may be more natural and enjoyable

Further research is required to see if there are long term effects if children are involved in long term exposure to learning games

Paragraph 3

Internet has positive effects towards education James Gee:

Older people who have used internet searches have been able to change brain activity patterns and enhance brain functioning what about

Teena Moody: Aim: Whether internet searching has enabled people to enhance

cognition Method: Group of participants aged 55-78, they had to perform fMRI

scan whilst doing internet searches (prior the experiment, they have little experience on computers). They were told to go away for 14 days, using 1 hour of internet searching and reading information a day, then to perform an fMRI scan again

Results: first scan: language, memory, visual, reading areas light up. Second scan: all those stated, as well as the area of working memory and decision making

Shows that brain exercise through searching and reading off the internet can enhance cognition

However this was done on older people, so it cannot be generalized with young people

Their degree of knowledge of internet may be affected through the results It was a laboratory study, people may act under demand characteristics

Paragraph 4 Changing and developing lifestyles because of social networking Having a second life gaming will influence people's lifestyle Social networking to learn more about others Christine DeCoursey: recommends people to use second life as a tool for virtual

travel Helps broadening the mind Encourages people that use the tool to select different gender and aged

avatars so that we can learn to empathize for others Evaluation points:

People may become addicted, leading to mental problems People may become too reliant on their second life, making it

hard to live in their reality life May lead to depression

Question of over-usage Social network may help explore interpersonal communication, prejudice, and

empathy

Conclusion Digital era is expanding and increasing usage has definitely effected on how we

think and process things in our mind The brain is constantly adapting As we rapidly transfer into a digital culture, we need to figure out its effects

towards cognition

Evaluate the extent to which a cognitive process is reliable

Introduction Cognitive process: memory Many different models supporting memory

Reconstructive memory, with schemas affecting the way that we recall things in our memory

Factors affecting memory Emotion Recency

Remember that memory may not be too reliable as humans have false memories Brain may fabricate illusions so realistic we believe its true Humans remember outline filled with information when recalle,

therefore it may only be a short memory outline Paragraph 1- Bartlett Bartlett (1932)


Method: Approached random participants, and brought them to a lab. Then they were told a complex and unusual story called ‘The War of the Ghosts'. He asked them to recall it six or seven times over various retention intervals. Emphasise that W of Gs was a story of a different – native Am Indian – culture. Why? He chose this story to see if schemas don t match – cultural context of story not familiar to ps – would they adapt memories to fit own cultural schema?


Canoe was often substituted by boat Story became shorter Story remained coherent (people interpreting as a whole) good

Memory of something is dependent on culture e.g. people in UK were not used to saying canoe, so they remembered it

as boat field experiment – stopped and asked people as he walked around Cambridge

Uni in 1920s/30s some distortions observed by Bartlett may have been due to conscious guessing

rather than schema-influenced memory People don’t store exact copies of experiences, only storing an outline that is

filled by recalled information People often have false memories, when individuals cant decide between what

they have experienced and what they've heard after the event Brain is able to fabricate illusions that are so realistic, and we tend to believe

that its true.

Paragraph 2 - Cultural variations (ORB) Wright et al

Aim: looking at whether memory is influenced by own race bias Method: approaching individuals with a black / white confederate at

different times in a mall in Cape town, S Africa, and Bristol, and was asked questions like "excuse me do you have the time?" then they had to select faces from photo line up with confederates in different clothes

Result: higher chance of someone getting it right with same race, and they were also more confident for own race (using likert scale), so there is correlation between high confidence and selecting someone of own race

People's memory is influenced by their culture Suggestion that EWT is not reliable

Loftus and Palmer Aim: Changing the verb in the question to see effects on speed estimate

Method: the participants were shown a clip of a car crash, then they were to guess the speed estimate when the cars "smashed / collided / bumped / hit / contacted "



Peoples memory are affected by the wording of the question Memory recalling is NOT reliable

Different words had an effect on the estimation of speed as well as perception of consequence

e.g. smash provides participants with verbal information activating schema for severe accident

Laboratory study - lacks ecological validity Good Yuille and Cutshall: interviewing people who witnessed real robbery, and

found that misleading questions did not distort one's memory Wording had no effect on recall Those who were most distressed had the most accurate memory This argues that cognitive processing is reliable to those who are most

distressed Memory is not affected by change in question greater eco validity - experiment than Loftus, because it was a real

environment, compared to Loftus that was a lab

Paragraph 3: Flashbulb memory by Brown and Kulik Memory is affected by emotion Emotional, vivid and detailed memory of highly emotional events that are

recorded in the brain People are clear of major events that affects them emotionally Use Conway here - Experimental support for FB memory theory also exists. Conway

– resignation of Margaret Thatcher. Year later 86% of ps still giving accurate accounts.Follow up 15 months after that still pretty accurate.

Flashbulb memory is reliable because it is suggest that: Neural mechanism triggers emotional arousal because event is

unexpected / important Emotional events better remembered

Role of amygdaleBefore going into N & H s study – explain that research does not always support this theory – link sentence needed

Neisser and Harsch Aim: investigating people's memory of accuracy of the incident where 7

astronauts in space shuttle challenge were killed Method: asking them to recall events 24 hours later, and 2 years later Results: they were certain of their results, but 40% of the participants

had distorted memories Possible that post-event information influenced memories Inaccuracy of emotional memory is common

Conclusion Cognitive process: memory must be noted that it is sometimes unreliable Cultural bias

Emotional memory may be inaccurate, even though some say that emotional memory is harder to forget

Implications for society? People imprisoned based on EWT – research in this area one of most important contributions of Psychology to law and judicial system. Profound changes to questioning techniques developed as a result – Cognitive interviewing – avoid saying too much as a questioner – let the person speak. Contextual memory – crime reconstruction – “reliving” the scene of crime to generate more accurate recall. Developed out of psych research on this subject.

Discuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes

Introduction Looking at the brain and how it works when mental processing takes place Useful, looking at brain activity, how the brain activity works Ethical findings on abnormalities in the brain - must have consent beforehand Expensive, and needs an expert Doesn't harm the subject Researchers are open to interpretation of the brain scans

Some say that the colors may exaggerate brain activity, and it would allow researchers to interpret it differently

Detect blood flow, produce maps showing which parts of the brain is involved in particular mental processes

Paragraph 1- PET Lisa Mosconi






PET scan of hippocampus that it will be possible to see the first signs of Alzheimer’s disease long before it has spread to the cerebral cortex, which damages cognitive function and impairs the memory

Hippocampus- area used for fact based memory

Paragraph 2- MRI Useful for memory research Case Studies: Clive Wearing



frontal regions,

Conclusion: the mind can be looked at in detail, therefore more research studies may be performed based on the clear insight images that scientists will now have of the brain of these patients.

researchers have a better chance of testing areas of the brain related to which areas of memory and skill learning

MRI scans showed the areas that doctors have removed to cure his epilepsy Teaches us how different parts of the memory are responsible for what Proves explicit and implicit memory

As long as there was consent, you're allowed to look at one's brain through scan CW had wife's agreement to study his brain However some say its unethical to use a patient as a study

Paragraph 3- fMRI Teena Moody:

Aim: Whether internet searching has enabled people to enhance cognition

Method: Group of participants aged 55-78, they had to perform fMRI scan whilst doing internet searches (prior the experiment, they have little experience on computers). They were told to go away for 14 days, using 1 hour of internet searching and reading information a day, then to perform an fMRI scan again

Results: first scan: language, memory, visual, reading areas light up. Second scan: all those stated, as well as the area of working memory and decision making

Shows that brain exercise through searching and reading off the internet can enhance cognition

However this was done on older people, so it cannot be generalized with young people

Their degree of knowledge of internet may be affected through the results Artificial environment Act under demand characteristics

Conclusion Scanning methods has helped researchers be more focused in their research Now we can identify symptoms of diseases, e.g. Alzheimer's disease, which

affect's ones memory skill if they have that disease However its expensive, and at times the results are open to interpretation

human beings are information processors and that mental processes guide behavior.doc

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