human capacity development.pdf

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3. PAST APPROACHES AND LESSONS FOR HUMAN CAPACITY DEVELOPMENTThis section provides comment on historical approaches to capacity development, and on successesand failures in attempts to build capacity

6. Although our focus is on fisheries, we have not restricted

our thinking to this sector, as much valuable experience can be gained from looking outside the sector.

3.1 Historic approachesGiven our previous categorization of capacity development needs into the three key pillars/groupings

of capacity development as shown in Figure 2-1 on page 11, the following review also describes

historical approaches based on this categorization. The review draws from an extensive literature

review together with telephone interviews with key players, both within FAO and in other agencies. Afull list of persons contacted is included in Appendix C (numbered to cross-reference personal

communications noted below) and a summary of some of the main HCD initiatives reviewed is also

provided in Appendix D (cross-referenced to the appropriate section in the Appendix).

Within fisheries

Fisheries science, research and development: a primary objective of FAO and donor-funded fisheries

technical assistance (TA) projects, as well as of developing countries themselves, has been the

development of a science-based approach to fisheries management (7, 18, 25). This has traditionallyfocused upon standard fisheries science such as stock assessment and population dynamics, as well as

on technological development of catching and post-harvest methodologies. The needs were usually

defined during project preparation by donor representatives, usually consultants, often with only

limited or informal participation from the client institution (18, 20, 25). The clients themselves were

usually Government research institutions (20), with training focusing on mid-ranking scientists (20,

25). The training itself was usually delivered by short or long-term specialists attached to the

institution and was often reinforced by sending key host country individuals to post-graduate level

courses overseas in developed countries (typically Masters level) or to complete a doctorate (20).Training was therefore fairly long-term (i.e. one year plus) and related to technical capacity

development. In addition a number of developing countries e.g. Indonesia, China, and countries in the

South Pacific, have instigated university programmes aimed at developing marine science capabilities

(Soegiarto and Stel 1998, South and Veitayaki 1998).

Fisheries sector management: as with fisheries science, the historical approach to HCD in the area of

sector management has been very much project-based, with most larger fisheries projects over the

1980s and 1990s containing some element of institutional strengthening. Again this has been largely

donor-driven, focusing upon the institutional capacity of recipient Governments to develop andimplement sectoral policy. In many cases management training has been provided as an add-on to

more traditional technical assistance, to address management weaknesses that the donor considers

might threaten the success of the main programme (18, 20). Traditional clients have sometimes

resisted such assistance, possibly indicating insufficient donor-client engagement in agreeing the needs

for the reform. Again, training has traditionally been conducted by international specialist assistance


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Societal Skills and knowledge: as already mentioned, donor attention prior to the early 90s was very

much focused on technical skills and knowledge and improving mid-level management in the public

sector. However over the 1980s there tended to be a broadening in skill areas, especially into cross-cutting issues such as gender mainstreaming, environmental impact assessment (EIA) and

environmental awareness (25). There was increasing awareness of the need for stakeholders to engage

in fisheries management, both in terms of participating in decision-making as well as enabling their

ability to respond to changing circumstances. The main capacity-building focus was on community

mobilization and empowerment of fishing communities, largely through NGO intermediaries (27).

Outside fisheries

Integrated coastal area management: over the last decade, integrated coastal area management (ICAM)has become an important component of multi-sectoral planning and co-ordination in coastal areas,

integrating coastal fisheries and aquaculture with other coastal users such as tourism, urban and

industrial development, marine transportation and, increasingly, maritime biodiversity conservation.

Although ICAM courses are often driven by the need for a multi-sectoral commitment to natural

resource management, they also echo a need to respond to better physical planning in a potentially

high conflict geographic zone. For instance in the UK, the Royal Institution for Chartered Surveyors

(RICS) have been an important driver in formulating ICAM capacity-building needs (24). This

discipline provides some interesting lessons for the ecosystems approach to fisheries, as both havebeen recently introduced and require a considerable widening of skills and knowledge and

strengthening of capacity.

Dedicated ICAM courses, as apposed to technical courses with a multi-disciplinary leaning have only

really appeared over the past decade (Balgos 1998). The skill sets involved are relatively novel,

involving a combination of physical planning, institutional and conflict management, law and policy

development. In additional, some technical skills are also required, such as geographical information

system (GIS) development and use. Course designs have responded to perceived market needs,

although real needs assessments against practical ICAM capability limitations are rarely conducted(24). Training recipients are mainly senior to middle-level management from Ministries, but also

researchers from academic institutions involved in coastal management, municipal agricultural

officers, development workers from NGOs and project staff from foreign funded projects (Balgos

1998). It has often been difficult to identify appropriate individuals for ICAM training due to the lack

of permanent positions available (often ICAM is donor-driven with staff drawn from single sectors for

only the project duration), although it is recognized that awareness-building amongst different coastal

sectoral players is key to promoting a culture of integrated management. The majority of courses are at

Masters level (1-2 years), although a regional capacity for training, especially in Asia, has given rise toincreasing numbers of bespoke ICAM short courses and workshops (1-2 weeks). At present there are

very few undergraduate courses in the ICAM disciplines (24).

Agriculture and forestry: historical experience of HCD in the agriculture and forestry sectors appears

similar to fisheries (see previous section) in that it has been largely donor-driven, with training needs

being identified quickly at the project formulation stage rather than through more detailed and formal


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3.2 Successes and failures in capacity development3.2.1 What is success, and who defines it?How successful have these previous approaches to capacity development been? This immediately

raises three important questions. Firstly, what aspects of capacity development can be measured?

Secondly, who defines success or failure? And thirdly, what is capacity development for?

Capacity development as a theme now pervades the work of most donors, yet it is difficult to find

good examples of indicators that have been used to assess capacity development initiatives that extend

beyond measures of inputs e.g. number of staff trained, or outputs e.g. number of smallholders visited

made by extension staff (Morgan, 1997). In part this is because at one level capacity development may

involve improvements to administrative procedures or organization skills of individuals. But, it mayalso involve changes in the pattern of societal politics, the growth of social capital, or improvements in

the enabling environment as described in Figure 1-1. At this level, capacity development almost

becomes synonymous with development itself. Some of the results of capacity development such as

attitude change, organizational behaviour and the ability to develop and adopt new ideas are not easy

to measure. Because capacity development must be considered in terms of systems and an overall

development context, capacity constraints often stem not from a single cause but from a more

profound pattern or structure in the enabling environment (Morgan, 1997). This means that while

capacity in individuals may be enhanced and measured as having been so, the potential of theseindividuals to utilize such new capacity may be limited by other factors within the broader system. So

input or output indicators may not be reliable as measures of overall success. Furthermore, the link

between cause and effect are often unclear because of complex relationships operating in uncertain

and rapidly changing environments, and it is frequently difficult to follow clear results chains or to

have great certainty that indicators explain complex systems.

Morgan argues for a more integrated and balanced approach to capacity development and its

measurement through indicators of process (i.e. the efforts to induce improved capacity), product

(i.e. the actual new capacities or abilities produced), performance (i.e. the substantive developmentoutcomes and impact that result), and permanence (i.e. its sustainability).

Historically the measurement of success in capacity development projects has largely been conducted

by, and for, donors. This has resulted because of the need for donors to demonstrate value for money,

and because officials in developing countries are often more concerned with conducting their day-to-

day line functions under numerous constraints in their external environment, than with strengthening

internal abilities. This has led to a focus on performance and product aspects of projects in both

design and monitoring, with less attention on process issues such as effective ways to achieve

development of staff skills and knowledge, levels of decentralization, aspects of the enablingenvironment and so on. In addition, while sustainability is often considered in some token form in

project evaluation, the timing of evaluation missions on immediate completion of project activities,

does not allow for adequate time to have elapsed so that a true level of sustainability can be assessed7.

Furthermore, even if a wide range of stakeholders are involved in an assessment of success,

interpretation of success is likely to be very different based on the differing viewpoints of such


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Success in social terms may be realized if capacity is developed so that the cultural values are

maintained, communities remain sustainable, social benefits are equitably distributed, and so on. In

economic terms, success may be realized if the fishery is managed to maximize the economic benefitsfrom the resource, and the levels of resource rent being generated. Finally, there may be a more

general developmental objective, whereby fisheries are managed with the intention of maximising

benefits to overall development levels in a country as a whole (Bennett, 2003). Fulfilling different

objectives will require different aspects of capacity development, and if the objective of an initiative is

to development capacity for better fisheries management, the view about its success will depend

greatly on different perspectives of success generated by different objectives. But more than this,

capacity development is valuable in its own right, over and above the changes in performance

(whether economic, biological, social or developmental) that it may bring about. As Morgan pointsout, policies, goods and services may change and become obsolete, but living capacity can mutate

and survive (Morgan, 1999). As such, capacity development is therefore both a means to an end, but

also and end to itself and assessing success requires a balanced approach between these views

(Lavergne and Saxby, 2001).

3.2.2 Evidence of successes and key lessonsAs part of the preparation of this paper, we reviewed nine evaluation reports completed in the last ten

years. The reports were provided by the FAO PBEE Service and covered projects in different sectors

(e.g. forestry, horticulture/agriculture, eco-development, fisheries), in India, Bhutan, Gambia, SriLanka, Sudan, Kenya, and Eritrea, but all focused specifically on strengthening of institutions or

capacity for management. The review highlighted a mixture of success and that initiatives are rarely

either judged as completely successful or unsuccessful, and that successful capacity in individuals,

institutions or sectors involves some or all of the following:

ability to adapt behaviour and attitudes based on learning; desire and ability to establish new relationships with other projects, groups or

organizations;

the ability of institutions to recruit and maintain staff to conduct necessary functions basedon their core capabilities, and to have sufficient facilities to undertake functions;

the ability to be taken seriously by other actors, and to have a degree of political cloutwhich enables them to effect change within the overall societal context;

the ability to plan and strategize, to set objectives, and implement solutions; the ability to disseminate knowledge, information, and capacity skills.

In the early 1990s the UNDP published the results of a review of the effectiveness of technical

cooperation (Berg and UNDP, 1993). Most of the reviews from 30 countries in Africa reached similar

conclusions: that technical cooperation had proven effective in getting the job done, but less effective

at developing local institutions or strengthening local capacities; and that it was expensive, donor-


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Table 3-1: Lessons from capacity development initiatives

Country Key lessons and initiatives

Philippines Lack of sustainability due to weak ownership and too donor driven. Projects now working at

individual, organizational and societal levels.

Ethiopia Government recently developed a 5-year national capacity development strategy to

accompany the implementation of the countrys PRSP, and has developed a Ministry forCapacity Development. Development of the PRSP used as a vehicle to enhance civicparticipation and a re-building of relationships between government and civil society,although some concerns expressed about too strong donor role in preparation of the PRSP.

Jamaica Lessons about the need for demand driven approaches have resulted in a nationally drivenprogramme to promote sustainable development through activities to strengthen capacity atthree levels the enabling environment, strengthening organizations, and building skills adopting a long-term and flexible approach.

Viet Nam Government capacities in aid management have not proven sufficient to deal with donor

programmes in the past and have affected the quality of programme design andimplementation. Efforts are now underway to enhance democratic principles at the grassrootslevel, to improve transparency of government, and to strengthen project management skills.

Bolivia National ownership of initiatives is derived from consensus that is built up among different

stakeholders, and capacity is itself needed for this. Donors need to facilitate assistance, ratherthan deliver it. Leadership skills of key individuals are fundamental.

Kazakhstan External aid in capacity development has played a key role in the first stages of development.Project success depends on shared ownership and key political will/support, which can easily

be eroded if donor involvement is too heavy-handed.

Central Asian

Region

Developing NGO capacities has been crucial in assisting them in taking up service delivery

functions as a partner of government, as well as in promoting and managing localpartnerships.

Lebanon There have been relatively few positive reform experiences particularly with respect to the

public sector in the country, largely because efforts are improving public sector performancehave focused on improving infrastructure and technology while investments in humanresources development and policy management have generally been neglected. The publicsector has become increasingly politicized, with capable individuals leaving for otheractivities. There have been too many repetitive consultant reports with not enough focus on

implementation. Rapid turnover of staff, and isolation of project implementation units withininstitutions as part of project-based approaches, has meant that there is little institutionalmemory of previous initiatives and this has encouraged a donor-driven agenda.

Ghana While there is a general shift to sector-wide programme approaches, projects can continue to

play an important role in testing innovative practices, and by providing a framework for one-to-one learning between technical assistants and local professionals. Flexible approaches arecrucial, and there is a need to combine programme based approaches with project approaches.

Sector-wide approaches have merits but their application assumes that there is transparent andaccountable government, that checks and balances on government performance are in place,and that the policy of government necessarily reflects the will of the people.

One such project is a sub-programme of the DFID-financed Improving support for


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Table 3-2: Summary of key lessons learned from previous initiatives

1. The process of human capacity development itself can add value to overall capability, aswell as result in the improved performance of the individuals, groups and organizations.

2. Initiatives should take account of, and be tailored to, existing levels of core capacities andinvolve a two-way process of knowledge transfer and acquisition.

3. Human capacity development initiatives need to identify the individuals andorganizations that will champion the process and can adopt and lead human capacity

development.

Capacityassessment

4. There is a need for better integration of human capacity development initiatives withnational planning processes, and especially between policy, management and research.

Needs

analysis 5. Capacity development initiatives should establish an adequate level of participation in

their needs assessment, design, implementation and monitoring.

6. Initiatives should provide adaptive, flexible and suitable learning pathways, taking intoaccount the individuals work environment, lifestyle and aspirations.

Delivery

7. Incentives and mechanisms should be provided to support recipients of human capacitydevelopment.

8. Human capacity development is a long-term process that requires continued supportthrough national initiatives and partnerships.

9. Efforts should be made to retain capacity investment within the fisheries sector.

S

ustainability

10. Those delivering human capacity development initiatives should themselves have thenecessary knowledge, skills and abilities to provide human capacity development.

11. Approaches to capacity development should take greater cognizance of the overallsocietal context and the political influence of supported institutions and sectors.

12. Approaches should ensure an adequate focus on the social, economic and environmentalcontext in which technical solutions are being implemented.

13. Initiatives should capture and enable attitudinal changes and skills that are likely to resultin a collective sense of purpose and progress.

14. Initiatives should recognize the need for an enabling environment that provides theincentive to promote the use and further development of the enhanced capacity.Enablingenvironment

15. One size does not fit all - planning of human capacity development should take intoaccount the realities of the overall environment under which capacity enhancement will

take place.


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Lesson 3: Human capacity development initiatives need to identify the individuals and

organizations that will champion the process and can adopt and lead human capacity

development. Success of capacity development initiatives may depend to a large extent on theavailability of just one or two key individuals who are sufficiently motivated. But it should also be

noted that all the necessary skills and knowledge for successful capacity development can not exist in

one person (UNDP, 2003; FAO, 1998; Nchinda, 2002; Jodice et al., 2003).

Lesson 4: There is a need for better integration of human capacity development initiatives with

national planning processes, and especially between policy, management and research. This

applies to integration of initiatives with overall governmental planning, with other initiatives and

projects, and at the local, regional and international levels through the use of partnerships. Approaches

relying solely on a project-based approach, without support for capacity development at thesector/planning level may have limited success. Support must also be provided for better links

between a) research and policy makers in developing countries, b) between researchers in developed

and developing countries, and c) peoples in developing countries. There has often been a failure of

researchers to provide information in a form that is useful to policy makers, and an indifference to

their work by staff in Ministries. Strengthening of research links between developed and developing

countries can also be beneficial and favoured to both groups so that developing countries are better

informed of recent international developments, and developed country researchers are provided with

opportunities for conducting research in interesting settings from which they can publish. Greatercooperation between developing countries is also important with respect to sharing of tacit knowledge

among peoples who have encountered similar development challenges and circumstances. (Nchinda,

2002; Jansky et al., 2003; Bolger, 2000; Chakalall et al., 1998; Okemwa, 1998; Snoussi and Awosika,

1998; UNDP, 2003; Montero, 2002; FAO, 2000; Morgan, 1997; UNDP, 1996; UNDP, 1995;

Hondandale and Cooper, 1989; South and Veitayaki, 1998; Akiwumi and Melvasalo, 1998).

Needs analysis

Lesson 5: Capacity development initiatives should establish an adequate level of participation intheir needs assessment, design, implementation and monitoring. One of the main lessons learned

over the past decade is the benefit of a formal needs analysis process in setting training objectives and

subsequent curriculum development. There is a need for a broad-spectrum, strategic approach to

assessing capacity-building needs at relevant sectoral and geographical scales (20, 24). Making this

participatory would ensure greater success in projects, and wider ownership of projects itself

considered a crucial factor in success. On a practical level, it would help for example to ensure that the

length of a training course suits an individuals needs and is acceptable to institutions that may have to

release staff for such training. It would also help to ensure that sufficient staff are available fortraining, and that clients have the opportunity of providing input into the definition of course contents.

However, greater participation by recipients in project design, itself often requires capacity

development, and there is still an important role for widely-experienced specialists from both in-

country and overseas in training needs analysis (TNA) to provide an external perspective (17, 18, 19,

20, 25, 27). PRSPs provide an opportunity to examine the extent to which capacity development

principles especially in terms of participation are being implemented Whilst PRSPs are intended to


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Lesson 7: Incentives and mechanisms should be provided to support recipients of human

capacity development. Formal training processes are frequently disruptive and may take recipients

away from their livelihoods and families. It is important therefore to ensure that sufficient support isprovided to ensure that capacity development opportunities are not hindered by prolonged income loss

or reduction in quality of life.

Lesson 8: Human capacity development is a long-term process that requires continued support

through national initiatives and partnerships.Ittherefore requires long-term support and linking of

short-term and long-term strategies (UNDP, 2003; FAO, 2000; Bolger, 2000; Stel, 1998; UNDP,

1996; Nchinda, 2002; Crawfordet al., 1993).

Lesson 9: Efforts should be made to retain capacity investment within the fisheries sector.

Whilst it is appreciated that the impacts of capacity development should not necessarily be contained

within the fisheries sector, where possible efforts should be made to retain a sufficient skills and

knowledge base within the sector.

Lesson 10: Those delivering human capacity development initiatives should themselves have the

necessary knowledge, skills and abilities to provide human capacity development. This requires

donors, NGOs, and government departments assisting others to develop, to themselves undergo

change, acquire new skills and knowledge, and adopt new approaches. This will ensure that capacity

development is not stuck at the conceptual level, and can be successfully delivered to those in need . Enabling environment

Lesson 11: Approaches to capacity development should take greater cognizance of the overall

societal context and the political influence of supported institutions and sectors. Initiatives must

recognize that capacity constraints are likely to stem from more than a single cause and will

possibly/probably be strongly influenced by factors outside the realm of project activities. High-level

political support for capacity development is likely to be essential if efforts are to prove successful

(UNDP, 2003; Allison, 2003; IDDRA, 2003; UNDP, 1996; Morgan, 1997; FAO, 1996; Bossert, 1990;

Soegiarto and Stel, 1998; Snoussi and Awosika, 1998).

Lesson 12: Approaches should ensure an adequate focus on the social, economic and

environmental context in which technical solutions are being implemented. i.e. are more systems-

based approach, as these factors may have at least as much importance as technical issues themselves

in project success (Young, 1998; UNDP, 1996; UNDP, 1995; UNDP, 1996).

Lesson 13: Initiatives should capture and enable attitudinal changes and skills that are likely to

result in a collective sense of purpose and progress. Certain initiatives can put forward new ideas

and values which create of a new flow of legitimacy, information and expectations that in turn result ina collective sense of purpose and progress (Morgan, 1997; FAO, 1996).

Lesson 14: Initiatives should recognize the need for an enabling environment that provides the

incentive to promote the use and further development of the enhanced capacity. Capacity being

developed in individuals must be rewarded in some way, whether it is through increases in

salary/income job responsibility career progression or promotion This requires good management


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Finally, Bianchi (FAO/FIRM, pers. comm.) argues that whilst there have been many examples of

successful capacity development programmes that have brought both individuals and institutions

forward, a key important issue is that ofsustainability of capacity development efforts. Experiencesshow that capacity can be developed at the individual/institutional level, but often this is not

sustainable because:

Individuals use their new capacity to move away from institutions to higher or morelucrative positions (and not always within the same sector).

There is often no mechanism (e.g. local university courses or on-the-job traininginitiatives) for replenishing trained personnel that move out (particularly in the case

the development project that provided training means).

The enabling environment is basically the societal situation that does not depend oncapacity development only, but on the overall socio-economic situation in the country.

Well functioning institutions can only develop in well functioning societies. However

appropriate and efficient the capacity development is, sustainability will only take

place in an appropriate societal context. Unfortunately such context does not exist in

many developing countries.

Institutions in developing countries have often been the target of capacitydevelopment projects by various bilateral and multilateral agencies, both in fisheryscience and management. The lack of a coherent framework for priority issues and

solutions often creates confusion.

4. CURRENT APPROACHES TO HUMAN CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT AND AREVIEW OF DELIVERY MECHANISMS

In addition to a review of literature and interviews which generated the findings above, we have also

interviewed a wide range of donors to establish up-to-date information on current approaches to

capacity development initiatives, to assess how the lessons learned as described earlier are impactingon current initiatives.

This section is divided into three parts. Firstly, we present an overview of the current direction of

capacity development in the fisheries and other sectors with personal communication referenced by

number to Appendix C (Persons consulted) and Appendix D (Review of HCD Approaches). Secondly

we discuss an assessment of training needs assessment and curriculum development as already

identified, the ability to successfully target training needs has proved an essential element in

successful capacity development. In the third section we review a wide range of different mechanisms,

all in use to varying degrees, and highlight some especially interesting examples in the text.

4.1 Overview4.1.1 Fisherie sectorsFisheries sciences, research and development: the adoption of the ecosystem approach to fisheries

h h d h i f h i l kill i b f i l i h


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recognition that this needs to operate within an improved framework of good sectoral management and

better understanding of livelihoods and poverty issues that fisheries are managed for people, not for

the fish. This in turn has led to more emphasis on sector planning, policy issues, poverty assessments,and the use of the SLA to enable a greater understanding of the many factors affecting peoples

livelihoods. There is also greater recognition in theory, and in practice, of the importance of the need

to involve and consider the impacts of other sectors on fisheries. This is all representative of a more

holistic approach being taken.

Whilst the SLA has been targeted at traditional public sector clients, it has tended to focus on niche

groups responsible for artisanal fisheries development rather than mainstream fisheries planning and

administration. The reluctance of some fisheries administrations to integrate the sustainable livelihood

approach SLA into their sector management responsibilities has meant that a number of donors haveincreasingly concentrated human capacity development initiatives on proven non governmental

organizations (NGOs), especially through short, in-country training of trainers courses (24, 25).

With the advent of the SLA, capacity development of societal actors has necessarily gained

considerable donor support. Operating largely outside the traditional public-sector client base, this has

focused upon community groups and their champions such as NGOs. Many capacity development

initiatives are implemented through locally-based NGOs, who are able to rapidly build trust with

fishers and mobilize recipient groups. As a result, the NGOs are usually the primary human capacity

development recipients in both direct skill development (i.e. stakeholder identification andconsultation, relationship building and empowerment) as well as a conduit through training of trainers.

As mentioned above, these are usually applied through workshops (3-5 days) as well as in-country

training.

In aquaculture too there is now a recognized need to move away from capacity development based

purely on biology and technical issues, to cover subjects such as (i) social and economic aspects, (ii)

communication skills, (iv) human resource and business management, (v) issues concerning

environmental sustainability and (vi) development planning, policy and regulations (De Silva, 2000).

Societal skills and knowledge: Good governance and policy development (see Box 2) in particular

have emerged as key concepts (19, 25), driven by globalization, emerging international agreements,

greater cooperation8, emerging technologies and the recognition that in most cases, present systems of

fisheries governance have failed to ensure resource conservation and economic efficiency (Swan,

2000).

Box 2: Governance in fisheries

Governance is often incorrectly equated with management. In fact, the term is intended to makepeople stop and think about non governmental roles in fora where the word management is too often

taken to refer to purely governmental action (Adams, 1996). Governance relates to government, civil

society and the private sector. Under most of the definitions recently put forward, good governance is

used to describe a particular philosophy of management that is not purely top-down, but which

emphasizes the word community and, like all good management approaches, makes extensive use of

di l d t l t b f t ki ti Fi h i i d fi d ti i


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Rural power structures can have a strong influence on the success of fisheries development initiatives

in coastal and inland artisanal areas as entrenched interests may overcome the common good.Approaches to address this at community level, such as the World Bank and DFID Fourth Fisheries

Project in Bangladesh or the Integrated Lake Management (ILM) project in Uganda have focused on

local empowerment by enabling stakeholders to take responsibility for the development, monitoring

and enforcement of fishing rules through co-management. Many initiatives are now beginning to focus

conflict resolution as a key issue.

However, while there is certainly greater awareness now of the need for individual fisheries managers

(in the broader sense of fisheries managers) to possess the skills and knowledge listed in the third

pillar/grouping in Figure 2-1 on page 11, so far there has been little actual implementation and

delivery of capacity development in these areas. The challenge will be to train managers who

recognize the value of different areas of expertise and who possess the necessary professional skills to

lead a team towards a management solution. A recent workshop assessed the skills and knowledge

required by future fisheries managers and considered that leadership, followed closely by

communication, conflict solving, critical thinking and problem solving were the five primary

requirements. ( see Figure 4-1 and Box 3).

Figure 4-1: Skill requirements for twenty-first century fisheries managers

Source: Jodice, L. et al., 2003. Based on a pre-workshop survey where participants were asked to

identify three to five skills essential to the modern fisheries manager


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Box 3: Training managers for the twenty-first century fisheries initiative

The inaugural Training Managers for twenty-first Century Fisheries international workshop was heldDecember 5-7 2001 in Queenstown, New Zealand and brought together 63 recognized leaders from government,

industry, academic and non governmental organization (NGO) leaders from Oceania, North America andEurope.

The conference was motivated by the need to build human capital to manage complex twenty-first century

fisheries. Participants discussed the challenges for fishery management and defined the training, education, andprofessional working environments necessary to produce twenty-first century fishery managers who are problemsolvers, leaders, and innovators. Participants generated a wide range of ideas from which they formed acollective vision and strategies for improving the education of fishery managers.

Potential strategies

The workshop discussions were based around six sector work groups who developed recommendations about

improving fishery management education. Work is continuing to address these strategies:

1. Develop creative partnerships2. Use the management process as a leaning experience3. Broaden and strengthen the fishery management career path4. Conduct GAP analysis of curriculum needs5. Development of an international fishery management education and training website6. Design industry scholarships for fisheries managers7. Develop a library of fishery management case studies8. Organize a network of training providers and users

Barriers and strategies for overcoming barriers

A number of barriers to achieving the above strategies were discussed these were not considered

insurmountable provide a committed effort by national and international organizations.

Institutional inertia within (e.g., work overload) and between sectors Lack of understanding of importance by stakeholders Financial support Leadership Time and practicality Accessibility (local, global, time) Difficulty in determining appropriate service providers for training Cultural issues and diversity Institutional framework and terms of reference

Agreed strategy development plan over the next 12-18 months: Establish an international steering committee. Steering committee meets at IIFET to discuss next steps in implementing actions. Develop initial terms of reference and funding possibilities Develop case study concept Complete website to coordinate activities and act as clearinghouse for programmes


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4.1.2 Other sectorsOver the past two decades capacity development efforts have had to address an increasingly

complexity of issues including embedding gender equality, environmental awareness and othersocietal skills in development. Like ICAM above, these tend to respond to a number of cross-cutting

needs and have therefore required a strong pan-sectoral or even non-sectoral approach, often at odds

with previous mainstream HCD methodologies. FAO has been at the forefront of developing these

new approaches, initially as a unilateral requirement from co-funders but increasingly at the request of

recipient countries. For instance the FAO Socio-economic and Gender Analysis programme (SEAGA)

promotes a gender sensitive approach to sustainable development at three levels - macro

(programmes and policies), intermediate (institutions) and field (communities, households and

individuals), focusing on policy makers, development planners and field workers respectively (seeBox 4 below). The SEAGA programme works with a number of FAO divisions but, significantly, not

yet fisheries (22).

Box 4: FAO Socio-economic and Gender Analysis Programme (SEAGA)

Aims

To increase awareness of and sensitivity towards gender issues, as well as to strengthen the capacity of

development specialists to incorporate socio-economic and gender analysis into development planning.

Goal

To incorporate socio-economic and gender considerations into development projects programmes and

policies in order to ensure that all development efforts address the needs and priorities of both men andwomen.

Approach

SEAGA emphasizes the socio-cultural, economic, demographic, political, institutional and

environmental factors that affect the outcome of development initiatives and the linkages betweenthem from a gender perspective. SEAGA examines the linkages among these factors at three levels -

macro (programmes and policies), intermediate (institutions) and field (communities, households andindividuals).

The programme:

Has developed a set of handbooks (Field/Intermediate/Macro Level) and guides and it continuesto revise and update these publications based on feedback and experiences from its users;

develops guides that incorporate socio-economic and gender analysis into a specificsector/technical field;

disseminates its publications to development specialists. organizes workshops in "Socio-economic and Gender Analysis" and "Training of Trainers"

worldwide;

collaborates with other projects and programmes within FAO and with other external


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Recent developments in forestry, at least within FAO, suggest that the previous provision of capacity

development assistance at local level was not as effective as hoped, due to the failure of such efforts to

get to grips with the overall political and enabling environment which was hampering developmentefforts. FAO is thus now beginning to re-concentrate on initiatives at a higher level to effect change in

capacity at the sector and enabling environment level (3). At the international level, there has been an

initiative to build a solid institutional framework and guidelines for forest-sector-based development

under the auspices of the United Nations Forum on Forests, the Intergovernmental Panel on Forest and

the Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IPF/IFF). The IPF/IFF proposals urge countries to include

capacity development as an objective of their national forest programmes. Allied to this, are current

initiatives to establish the necessary linkages between forest policy, research and education, such as

the project Training and Research Capacities for Forestry Policy Development in Countries with

Economies in Transition, jointly run by the United Nations University (UNU), the European Forest

Institute (EFI) and the SILVA Network (Jansky et al., 2003).

Table 4-1 overleaf provides a summary of other current approaches to capacity development

researched through personal interviews (listed in Appendix C) and the literature review (summarized

in Appendix D.


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Table 4-1: Summary of current approaches to human capacity development

Donor /

organizationDelivery mechanisms now favoured Focus of HCD efforts Comment on changes / trends

Asia-PacificEconomicCooperationProgram

E-learning Cross-cutting issues based around (i) capacitydevelopment, (ii) education and (iii) socialprotection.

Developing interoperability of e-learningsystems in Asia

Trade liberalization through cooperation Increased mobility of skilled workers

Centre for Disease

Control andPrevention

Short-courses developed in partnershipwith target institutions

Internet-based information databases forinformed decision-making

Decision-makers and their advisers Training of trainers

Development of Internet-based decision-support tools

Development of training partnershipsConserve AfricaFoundation

Internet-based secretariat, providing apartnership list and information database.

Advocacy programme for capacity developmentwith a focus in nature resource management andconservation

Internet-based to reduce overheads andproved an e-literate forum

Resource and skill base for partnerships.FAO

Development of materials in Rome withInternet-enabled distance learningfacilitated via regional offices

Short, interactive workshops with clearproblem-solving aims

Twinning and attachments for professionals

Awareness building and enabling co-management

Integration of natural resource sectors with widersociety

Building indigenous training capacity throughtraining of trainers

Governance and administration at societal level

Focus on indigenous training capacity andsupport through distance learning andshort, intensive workshops / seminars

Centralized development of capacitydevelopment tools with regionalcustomization and delivery, facilitated byinternet-enabled distance learning

Indo-PacificConservationAlliance

Embedding trainers with NGO partners Building NGO management and administrationcapacities

NGO policy and strategy development NGO capacity-building for natural

resource management.

UN Division forSustainable

Development

Voluntary, non-negotiated partnerships Cross-cutting issues e.g. poverty alleviation,sustainable development, institutional capacitydevelopment, gender equality & education

Focus on youth empowerment andenhanced decision-making

Partnership development

26


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4.1.3 Training needs assessment and curriculum developmentCurriculum development is central to the teaching and learning process, and includes all the planning

and guiding of learning by a training or teaching organization, whether it is carried out in groups orindividually, inside or outside a classroom, in an institutional setting or in a village or field. (Rogers

and Taylor, 1998). The Develop a Curriculum (DACUM) approach, developed by Ohio State

University, is an innovative approach aimed at allowing corporate entities to determine the main tasks

and accompanying skill requirements for a particular job or cluster of related jobs (see Box 5). It relies

upon a short, intensive session, facilitated by a DACUM specialist to identify the tasks competencies

involved, followed by a process to determine the specific skills, knowledge and abilities required as

such it is similar to the process described by Harte in Section 2.1.

Box 5: The Develop a Curriculum (DACUM) approach

Outline

The DACUM process identifies approximately 8 to 20 duty areas and 50 to 200 competencies that

outline what a successful worker in a particular job or cluster of related jobs must be able to do. The

occupation profile chart that results from DACUM analysis details the major job functions and the

competencies involved in the occupation or job being studied.

The DACUM analysis is used to:

Create descriptions for new or emerging occupational areas Update existing job descriptions Identify new technology competencies Update existing academic programmes

The process:

A carefully chosen group of 8 to 12 workers from the relevant occupational area form the DACUMcommittee. Committee members are recruited directly from business, industry or the professions. The

committee works under the guidance of a qualified facilitation team for approximately 2 days.

During the instructional development phase that follows the DACUM process, the competencies

undergo a task analysis to determine the specific skills, knowledge and abilities the worker needs to

perform each task. The information resulting from the task analysis is then incorporated into learning

outcome statements, learning activities, instructional materials and detailed assessment criteria.

Experience of applying the DACUM approach to public sector support to fisheries is limited, but has

been used in Viet Nam (Saskatchewan Institute of Applied Science and Technology, undated), Gaza9

and Canada. In the latter case the Newfoundland Aquaculture Industry Association (NAIA) conducted

a Standardized Occupational Analysis for Aquaculture in order to develop and deliver programmes

and courses which meet the human resource development needs of all sectors in the Newfoundland


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Another new approach, which may include the DACUM process, is that of Participatory Curriculum

Development (PCD). The PCD approach aims at developing a curriculum from the interchanges ofexperience and information between the various stakeholders in an education and training programme.

Building on lessons learnt from field-based practice, a critical element of PCD is the identification of

stakeholders, who may include educationalists, researchers, policy makers, extension workers, fishers

and aquaculturists. Rather than belonging to a small select group of experts, PCD involves a wide

range of stakeholders in a meaningful way, drawing upon their experience and insights in a structured

approach to curriculum planning, implementation and evaluation (Taylor, 2000). They may help

identify needs for training, set aims and learning objectives, contribute to the development of the

subject matter to be taught, and participate in delivery and evaluation of the curriculum.The recently completed Fisheries Training and Extension Project (Phase II) project in Bangladesh

adopted the SLA approach to assist the Department of Fisheries in increasing aquaculture production

by poor farmers. A key activity of the project is supporting and developing Human Resources

Management (HRM) and the ability of the Department to plan and manage training (Brown, 2001).

This included adoption of systematic TNA methodologies for both staff and beneficiaries. An

important TNA tool was the development of a database containing skills, training and career records

and information on all Department of Fisheries officers which allowed for a screening of all proposed

candidates to ensure that their basic skills, aptitude and career requirements matched trainingopportunities.

In the Asian Pacific region, a regional expert consultation examined the needs for capacity

development for aquaculture education (De Silva, Sim and Phillips, 2000).

The development of curricula, training materials and other tools to support aquaculture education was

considered to require:

Developing databases cataloguing existing curricula and training materials for AE in the Asia-Pacific region, with the scope for timely update;

Preparation of modules based on existing curricula and training materials for disseminationthrough a regional Aquaculture Education Program;

Translation of relevant materials as appropriate; Improving existing vocational curricula; and Developing separate training streams for extension officers particularly to fulfil the need for

training in extension skills as dedicated vocational stream. Such an approach would underpin aspecial recognition of the need to support more effective extension within aquaculture.


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Table 4-2: The ten stages in participatory curriculum development (PCD)

Activity description Aim of activity

1. PCD awareness-raising workshop forkey stakeholders

Identify main reasons for, and purpose of, curriculum development, and key areasfor curriculum change.

Identify expected constraining and enabling factors inside and outside theinstitution.

Introduce concept of PCD. Carry out initial stakeholder analysis and identify specific potential stakeholders and

their likely role in the process.

Discuss potential for application in institution. Outline main steps for action.

2. Follow-upworkshop with widergroup of stakeholders

(identified in step 1)

Validate main reasons for, and purpose of, curriculum development and key areasfor curriculum change.

Discuss expected constraining and enabling factors inside and outside the institution. Introduce concept of PCD; validate list of stakeholders in the PCD process and

identify their roles.

Discuss potential for application in institution. Identify organizational issues which need to be addressed for curriculum change to

go ahead.

Develop first version of a monitoring and evaluation system for PCD. Validate and revise main steps for action.

3. Training needsassessment

Plan and carry out Training Needs Assessment (TNA), consolidate results, obtainfeedback on results.

Identify range of Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes (KSA) required.4. Development of

curriculumframeworks within

the wider fisheriescurriculum

Review the existing curriculum based on results of TNA.

Development of curriculum aims, main learning objectives, main topics, maincontent areas.

Provide overview of the methods to be used and resources required. Gather and review existing learning materials.

5. Develop detailedcurricula

Based on curriculum frameworks: develop specific learning objectives, develop/write detailed content, identify and prepare/adapt learning materials, identify learning methods, develop assessment/evaluation instruments.

6. Learner-centred

teaching methodstraining (ToT)

Develop capacity of trainers to plan and apply new, learner-centred teachingmethods.

7 Learning materials D l it f t i t d l d l t d t i l f


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4.2 Delivery mechanismsAs already hinted at in the preceding text, there are a wide variety of different delivery mechanisms

that can be used to assist capacity development, and which have been adopted. These are exploredfurther and summarized in the text below, along with a summary table/schematic with the key

attributes of different forms of delivery mechanisms. The Boxes and Figures in this section also

provide some interesting examples of current/practical application of different mechanisms.

An evolution of delivery mechanisms has been facilitated, which increasingly allows recipients to:

use flexible tools to enhance capacity; increase networking and possibilities for information exchange and mutual learning; identify and consequentially solve problems; develop information processing skills, rather than rote learning; learn from real world practical experiences, rather than just based on theoretical learning.

Different types of delivery mechanisms can usefully be divided into those that rely on face-to-face

contact, and those that can be delivered remotely. While it is certainly true that developments in the

internet and electronic communications have given rise to new and exciting forms of delivery

mechanisms for capacity development using remote mechanisms, it would be wrong to ignore all other

traditional face-to-face mechanisms as outdated and irrelevant. The use of remote mechanisms ofcapacity development are likely to require greater levels of motivation by recipients to respond to

opportunities and to engage in the capacity development process, although may enable better access to

greater numbers of people at better value for money.

The following text highlights that all delivery mechanisms may have a role to play in particular

instances depending on the capacity development requirements, and that the selection of an

appropriate mechanism(s) must be carefully based on case-specific needs.

4.2.1 Face to face mechanismsClassroom-based training/education. This represents perhaps the most one-way delivery mechanism

with experts imparting knowledge, information etc to recipients. Programmes may be either long- or

short-term e.g. lectures, diploma courses, undergraduate courses, PhDs, and may be delivered in-

country or overseas. Criticism has been based on:

the over-reliance on such training and the insufficient complementary use of alternativemechanisms;

the fact that course content is seldom user-defined;

the focus of such courses on (often outdated) technical issues and facts, and not on wideraspects of capacity development as discussed in this paper;

removing staff from job functions, especially for long periods of training, can disrupt thefunctioning of institutions.


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What is important however is to carefully match the skills and knowledge required in any country for

successful management, with the numbers of staff available and their current capabilities. It may be

necessary to provide more long-term classroom training with an emphasis on sector and overall

societal skills and knowledge listed in Figure 2-1, along with new science and research skills required

given recent developments such as an ecosystems approach to fisheries, rather than just the traditional

technical science and research skills. It may also be necessary to complement such training with other

delivery mechanisms. Of great importance is the need to place strong emphasis on how the

training/education is structured and delivered, as well as how participatory course contents are, so that

courses are more relevant and useful for the recipients.

Recent discussion in the US on reform of natural resource management education (Rassam and Eisler,

2001) has focused strongly on syllabus change, but how courses are taught can also add many of thedesired skills and knowledge to fisheries curricula without adding courses (Berkson, 2002). The use of

cooperative learning, writing across the curriculum, discussion groups, and other approaches should

increase the ability of students to deal with interpersonal interactions, problem solving, and other

societal skills (Allison and McBride, 2003). A key lesson appears to be that while training should be

flexible and participatory, it must still be carefully planned and not improvised.

Box 6: The SUFER project

An ongoing DFID project on Support for University Fisheries Education and Research (SUFER) has

been working in Bangladesh to evaluate teaching practice, course content and student capabilities, aswell as to develop clear indicators to evaluate teaching quality and student performance. The project isalso assisting with off-campus practical training for students to complement classroom-basedapproaches. Allison (2003) outlines clear progress over the last three years in:

-The development of course and programme outlines that incorporate clear statements of rationaleand course aims, content and expected learning outcomes.

-The widespread use of locally-relevant examples in teaching-The revitalization of field and practical work, including opportunities for independent work, and for

contact between students, aquatic resource users and potential employers in government, NGO andprivate sector

-The incorporation of social science elements of fisheries, aquaculture and environmentalmanagement in relevant courses

-The widespread use of means of obtaining student feedback on teaching quality- Improved efficiency in the delivery of material by use of overhead projectors, lecture handouts and

other teaching aids

- Increased use of participatory teaching methods, including seminar and group work- Improved design of field and practical work, and improved provisioning of that work through

refurbishment of facilities.-An awareness of the skills required of graduates by their employers through increased contactsbetween teachers and employers

-An increased awareness of poverty relevant technical issues among teachers this seems to have


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Seminars, conferences or workshops. This group of delivery mechanisms are more two-way and

participatory than the classroom-based training discussed above. As such they may often be more

effective in helping to develop capacity related to attitudinal change, as well as in imparting

information. They may also be especially effective in establishing networks and communication

between different development actors and practitioners, fishers etc, itself an important factor in

capacity development. Sometimes the lack of any immediate impact and the failure of such initiatives

to necessarily follow-up with implementation is a cause of criticism in terms of value for money.

These mechanisms may be conducted overseas or locally-run, but by definition are usually short-term

in nature lasting not more than a couple of days. They are usually supported by academic institutions

(in the case of seminars and conferences), NGOs (in the case of workshops) or donors (who support all

three forms)

Research programmes. The completion of research programmes should and can play a vital role in

capacity development. Sector planning and development must be based on good scientific

understanding and evidence, which can be provided by such programmes. What is necessary, but what

is unfortunately often lacking, is a good linkage between research and management/planning

institutions, and between research institutions in developed and developing countries. Also important

is to ensure that research is tailored to meeting the development needs of local populations. Allison

and McBride (2003) report that in Bangladesh less than 10 percent of published research work by

fisheries faculty in five participating universities is concerned with research on issues faced by rural

fish farmers. Research programmes are usually long term in nature lasting between 6 months and 3

years, may be lab- or field-based, and usually conducted by academic institutions or state-funded

specialist research institutions. There are few, if any, private-sector research institutions in the fishery

sector being able to support themselves by selling the results of their research. Research is generally

therefore an activity that must be strongly supported by the State or by donors.

Exchange programmes. Exchange programmes may involve actual job-swaps, or individuals being

provided with an opportunity to observe someone elses activities and job context. Such programmes

may be used simply to facilitate information/knowledge exchange, whereby individuals with differentcapabilities and skills can share these with others. However, they may also be especially effective in

enhancing societal skills and knowledge, and in bringing about awareness of different cultural values

and attitudinal change. As a result they can be useful for conflict resolution when applied in a practical

job-based setting and can assist in increasing understanding and empathy between

individuals/institutions previously opposed to each others viewpoints or who may be operating from

different perspectives. Examples might include a fishers representative spending time in a fisheries

management authority to gain a better understanding of the need for fisheries regulations and controls,

with government officials being exposed to a business operation and the commercial pressures of

running fishing vessels. They are generally fairly short-term in nature, but may last up to a year or

more in the case of swaps of academic posts. Given increasing emphasis on conflict management as an

important issue in fisheries, it might be expected that the use of exchange programmes be more widely

adopted in the future.

Demonstration trials. The principal of this mechanism is usually to get the private sector to adopt


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or office-based. It usually attempts to develop capacity by providing one short-term input, or a series

of more than one short-term inputs spread over a period of time. On-the-job training is generally

provided through donors for project-based initiatives or programme efforts with donor staff assisting

counterparts, or by NGOs, volunteer programmes, or government extension workers. Such training

may be supported/complemented by short-term classroom-based training, but conducted in a practical

setting that has relevance to the recipients.

Mentoring may be an especially useful form of on-the-job training, as it enables assistance to be

provided to deal with specific problems, or just to provide overall advice about career paths.

Mentoring as a practice has been used extensively in private sector businesses for some time and may

involve one-to-one relationships with an experienced figure guiding and assisting a more junior

person, or groups of people mutually supporting each other with advice. They may take the form of amentor and a mentee within the same organization, or of from different institutions. Such initiatives

are generally found to be very productive if carefully structured and planned, and have the strong

advantage that they generally just involve the giving of time, rather than the commitment of large

financial resources. Mentoring can be delivered face-to-face or remotely.

Box 7: Mentoring

What is mentoring? According to Homer, when the King of Ithaca was leaving to fight in the TrojanWar, he asked a good friend to oversee his household, and to look after and counsel his young sonTelemachus. When the king returned ten years later, he found his son had become a skilful andperceptive man. The credit, the king concluded, belonged to the relationship his friend had developedwith his son, and this started the Greek custom of pairing young males with older men so the youngerman could learn from the skills and wisdom of the older man. The friends name was Mentor so therelationship became known as mentoring. Today, mentoring takes many forms and is used for many

different reasons. We can see it in the relationship between master and apprentice, or in relationshipsbetween groups. Equally, we can see mentoring in the relationship between a successful entrepreneurand his/her protg. Common to all these relationships is: a partnership between two people, wherethe mentor(who possesses a greater amount of skills, knowledge or experience) works collaborativelywith a mentee (who is looking to enhance his or her knowledge, skills and experience) in a mutuallybeneficial process. While there is, by definition, a certain inequality in the mentoring relationship,

there is also a necessary equality. Both the mentor and the mentee bring different but valid perspectivesto the process, both gain from the relationship, and both parties are equally accountable for success.

Source: Mentoring for Business. http://www.e-mentoring.com/

4.2.2 Remo e me hanismst cBudget support. General programme-based support can be provided for sector capacity development

through budgetary support, and can be especially effective if institutions face severe budgetary

constraints which inhibit capacity development. Provision of finance can at the most basic level enable

institutions to function more effectively and to have a greater impact. However, as noted above

(UNDP 2003) h h i th t th i t t d t bl t th t


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Case study information can also be of great benefit, and it is thought likely that both small-scale

fishers and consultants have considerable experience that could be written up, or which is lost in

consultancy reports. Given the pressure on academics to publish papers, interesting information tends

to originate more from this sector, rather than from consultants who are often under pressure to move

on to other fee-paying work. Likewise, small-scale fishers are occupied with the business of making

money from fishing, and often have little incentive to prepare case study information that could be of

great interest. Furthermore, requirements for particular styles/formats required by respectable

fisheries journals often preclude small-scale fishers from being able to present case study material (and

provide a considerable disincentive for consultants). Nevertheless, it appears a shame that the

experiences of such groups are not more widely drawn upon, and more thought could perhaps be given

to how it could be. Ideas might include a forum for case studies and subsequent dissemination,

prepared in a less formal/polished fashion, perhaps with a simple form with sections covering keyareas of interest and lessons learned from the particular case study. This could be Internet-based with

the use of categorization / key words to allow searches according to geography, sector, issues etc.

Manuals/training material. The use of training manuals, while relatively costly and time-consuming

to prepare, then provides a cost effective method of capacity development, as individuals (depending

on their current capacity and the level at which the manual is targeted) may be able to use such

material with little or no further supervision. Manuals may cover all topics and provide information on

specialist technical areas such as HACCP, or more management and process-related advice on how to

develop and prepare fisheries sector management plans (see http://www.idrc.ca/cbnrm/documents/

CBNRM_Toolkit/manuals4.htm for an interesting list of selected training manuals on accessing and

building on indigenous knowledge for fisheries management). FAO has also recently been developing

a manual on participatory planning for improving artisanal fisheries landing sites. It is interesting in

that it takes the approach of the new role of a fisheries officer, namely as a facilitator for

development processes, rather than someone who just collects data and provides expertise. The

ongoing FAO Sustainable Development Department project on conflict management (see Figure 4-2)

has already prepared conflict management manuals. These recent activities highlight the importance of

the need to update and/or prepare new manuals and training material to reflect current developmentthinking. The static nature of the material once prepared can easily lead to their use for many years

longer than is ideal.

Radio. Radio has been used extensively in fisheries and other natural resource sectors as an effective

method of extension to impart knowledge and to change attitudes. It is especially useful in terms of

access to the poor in developing countries given that most people, even if not wealthy enough to have

access to televisions or the internet, usually have access to, and listen to, radio. Local or national radio

stations may be used as may specially established community radio stations. Communication

strategies have generally moved from top-down to more grass-roots approaches using tools such as

PRA. The problem for communication is that it is often left out of budgets and usually used as a crisis

management tool, rather than programmed into projects at the outset.

Mentoring. Mentoring may be delivered remotely as well as face to face. Discussion on this

mechanism is presented above under on-the-job training. As far as we are aware, mentoring in the


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difficult because of distance, practical or cost implications. However the motivation and supervision

of distance-learning students is variable and have a profound influence on the outcome of the training.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT). ICT is generally a remote capacitydevelopment mechanism, but may also be delivered face to face. It cannot act as a panacea for all

development problems, but by dramatically improving communication and the exchange of

information, it can create powerful social and economic networks, which in turn provide the basis for

major advances in development. By enabling these new networks to collect and share local knowledge

and information, ICT can provide new and more efficient methods of production, bring previously

unattainable markets within the reach of local producers, improve the delivery of government services,

and increase access to basic social goods and services (International Institute for Communication and

Development, IICD, 2002).The development of ICT requires development practitioners to think creatively about its uses for

capacity development, as well as the practical requirements. For example, a community may have just

one PC, but this PC may be able to be used by, and to serve many people in the community. But

practical requirements are as important as exciting opportunities. One needs good bandwidth for on-

line web-based distance learning and many small-scale coastal fishing communities wont have it,

although they may have access to a PC. This means that the use of CD-ROM-based training may be

especially appropriate in such cases see Box 8 for an interesting example of CD-ROM training. It

also requires initiatives to involve/encourage those with the ability to use ICT to access those whocant for example, most NGOs are likely to have access to internet-based information, and can then

act as a conduit for passing information to those in the field who may not have access.

The internet may facilitate distance-based learning (see above), as well as networking and information

exchange based on email-contact, list-server mailing/e-bulletins (e.g. fishfolk), search functions and

storage of documents/information, and discussion boards. The ability to establish servers with large

information storage capacity offers exciting potential.

Whilst most institutions have developed an Internet presence, greater potential certainly exists for use

of the internet as a training and capacity-building tool. FAO have been one of the more innovative

organizations and have developed proven approaches for internet-based distance learning, where a

number of generic tools are developed centrally in Rome and then made available to regional offices

for adoption to local circumstances. This has proved versatile, cost-effective (22) and allows material

to be developed in a number of different languages. FAO also supports distance learning initiatives

though short (


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Box 8: The FAO Information Management Resource Kit

The Information Management Resource Kit is a partnership-based e-learning initiative based oninternet technologies being developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nationsand partner agencies and institutions with the goal of strengthening information management andexchange in agencies, institutions and networks world-wide, allowing them to work together moreeffectively. The Resource Kit is being developed with the common goal of mobilizing and buildingupon existing resources to create a comprehensive suite of distance learning resources for informationmanagement and exchange. Different modules, to be available on CD-ROM and downloadable from

the internet, offer a series of lessons on topics such as electronic document management, and introducebasic concepts and describe specific workflows and topics. Lessons are delivered using an interactive,

self-paced learning environment. In the Electronic Document Management module for example, thetotal curriculum consists of 27 lessons, of approximately 30 minutes duration each, grouped into sixunits, for a total of 13.5 hours of self-paced instruction. Other modules are to include Investing inInformation, Building Electronic Communities and Networks, Management of Statistical Data, and

Management of Spatial Data. Each lesson achieves a specific set of learning objectives, usinginteractive step-by-step instruction and exercizes, which help reinforce what is being taught. Each

lesson includes a list of relevant resources and additional reading. Learners can consult a glossaryspecific to the Module, and search within the course materials for specific terms. A series of non-proprietary software applications and methodological guides are also provided.

Users can create a tailored course to meet their specific learning needs by developing their ownpersonal learning path (PLP). Lessons can be combined to form a curriculum which covers only theareas and topics in which users have specific interests or need training, often saving significant studytime. PLPs can be set up when users begin the course, or at any time during it. The Resource Kit will

be supplemented by an Internet-based On-line Community, providing a virtual discussion forum forcontributors and learners to exchange views and request help from each other. The On-line Community

will provide collaborative workspaces in which to initiate language and/or topic specific discussions,upload and download documents, and to point to other Web resources.

Source: FAO WAICENT

In a workshop organized by the Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific (De Silva et al.,

2000), the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) provided a paper on their experience of the use of their

Intranet in aquaculture education. This shows that whilst some students (and staff) have problems

adapting to an electronic interface, it has provided an important new medium to teaching which has an

increasing appeal to new generations of computer-literate and Internet-aware students (see Box 9

overleaf).FAOs Fisheries Department and SIFAR, (Support unit for International Fisheries and Aquatic

Research), in cooperation with the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) Secretariat and the European

Commission (EC), are undertaking a feasibility study for an initiative aimed at supporting the

development of fisheries policy and of fostering improved institutional capacity for fisheries

management. The initiative is entitled A programme for Strengthening Fisheries Management in


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beyond one-way information and service delivery, towards a two-way or many to many system that

facilitates the exchange of information, knowledge and experience. In this regard, it is envisaged that

the ACP Fish II programme will need to adopt a neutral yet responsive and facilitatory role, rather

than becoming an expert gatekeeper. An important goal will be to create communities of practice

around key themes.

Box 9: Experience of intranet use in aquaculture education

Potential pedagogical help from the internet and intranet

1. Use of html format to provide student with class notes2. Provide students with mathematical simulation methods for independent practises of analytical

techniques.3. Simulating the classroom environment by providing lecture notes with audio or video

instructions.

4. Internet conferencing: real time delivery.Perceived advantages

Academic administration:

To use as an electronic library (text/ graphics/ photos/ videos) Instructors are encouraged to prepare written lecture materials Help to audit the curriculum: public auditing or by a selected audience) Can add a bulletin providing students information on materials and processesStudents:

Lecture notes + slides + video clips readily available to use at any time. Language help for ESL students Outside classroom interaction with instructors.Instructors:

Easy to interact with students outside contact hours Easy to update teaching materials. Peer review opportunitiesDisadvantages

Extremely time consuming (initially) for preparing materials Relatively high cost Copyright issues for using published materials (if wider circulation is desired) Psychological barriers to working with an electronic interface

Adapted from De Silva, Sim and Phillips (2000).

SIFAR is itself also creating an open knowledge marketplace on the Net specifically to serve the needs

of the global fisheries research and development community. Called the OneFish Community

Directory, this open directory portal brings together, under one virtual roof, a broad cross-section of

stakeholders interested in raising the profile of research in fisheries and aquatic resources and

39


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The response has increasingly been the formation of partnerships that allow a holistic approach to

capacity development, supported by a mixture of delivery mechanisms (see below) and different

service providers. This has resulted in recognition of the need for more partnerships in academia, in

donors, and in the NGO community. The United Nations University (UNU) is a good example (see

Appendix D), where a network of proven specialist institutes provide practical and applied

postgraduate courses within a wide-ranging framework covering governance, natural sciences and

development. FAO too depends on a network gender-analysis mainstreaming is facilitated through

over 120 institutions worldwide.

The University of Western Cape (www.uwc.ac.za/ics/) provides another practical example and has

established a knowledge environment for web-based learning (KEWL), which is an open source

learning management system. Involved in establishing distance learning course are the following:

DFID Regional Fisheries Information Systems Project (RFIS) International Ocean Institute in Southern Africa, and the Benguela Environment Fisheries Interaction and Training (BENEFIT) programme.

For aquaculture in Asia, De Silva, Sim and Phillips (2000),suggest the development of a Regional

Collaborative Aquaculture Education Programme, based around the formation of a regional

Aquaculture Educational Consortium. This network would engage the leading academic and training

institutions in Asia and Oceania to engage in institutional capacity-building and the delivery ofaquaculture education through improved collaborative activities and synergies, strengthen the channels

of communication, improve human resources and capacity, evaluate aquaculture education needs of

the region regularly; maintaining and updating databases of available resources.

In summary, a key aspect of the need for more partnerships is that there is a requirement not just for

donors to talk more with other donors, for NGOs to talk to each more, etc, although this is certainly

important, but equally importantly for capacity to be delivered through partnerships between different

groups of service providers e.g. between Government and NGOs, between donors and research

institutions etc.

4.2.4 Mixed use of mechanismsFor individuals to manage the process towards capacity development as described in Figure 1-2, it

may be especially effective, and indeed necessary, for different types of delivery mechanisms to be

used together. For example, the acquisition of knowledge and understanding may be best provided by

face-to-face training, academic programmes or the remote use of manuals. This can then be followed

up by accompanying field-based activities, workshops, or on-the-job training/mentoring providing

skills and knowledge and support to changes in attitude and experiential learning. The use of radioprovides another example with radio now being linked innovatively with the internet, for example by

stimulating discussion and radio station operators then using a PC and the internet to access web-based

material to find and publicize answers to questions posed by listeners which are of special interest to

their daily lives. Although not without its critics12

, the Training and Visit model for example, is a

World Bank approach in which a continuously trained village extension worker regularly visits

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Box 10: TRAIN-X

What is the TRAIN-X Network?

The TRAIN-X Network is a UNDP sponsored co-operative network of UN Agency Human ResourceDevelopment Programmes using the TRAIN-X methodology. The Programme Coordinator in each Agencymanages a system for the preparation and sharing of high quality course packages treating specialized fields ofimportance for national, regional and global development. All TRAIN-X Programmes use a common coursedevelopment methodology. Together, TRAIN-X programmes help almost 200 national and regional trainingcentres in 62 countries to provide improved training to thousands of people annually. In the current period of

financial constraints, purposeful collaboration between UN Agencies, sectors and countries through the TRAIN-X Network and its programmes represents a viable means for upgrading and developing the UN Systemscapacity development effort. TRAIN-X is a generic symbol representing the acronyms of the member

programmes.

What is the TRAIN-X Approach?

The TRAIN-X approach, used by each partner agency for its TRAIN-X programme, has the following major

elements:

1. a common training development methodology

2. co-ordinated development of training material to maximize resources and avoid duplication

3. a co-operative network for the exchange of material and instructors among training centres

4. a series of courses and meetings for the training of trainers, including human resources development/trainingmanagers, course developers and instructors

5. use of modern training techniques including open learning and computer assisted and multi-media learning

6. use of training information systems for the management of large co-operative networks

This TRAIN-X approach has the following distinct advantages:

Money is concentrated on building national capacity which is technically and financially sustainable

Training packages are developed locally to defined pedagogical standards

Training is matched closely to a specific job to provide more effective training in the shortest time

Each package is made available to many countries

Receiving countries acquire skills and knowledge to make minor adaptations for their own environment

Central support concentrates on quality control and training of course developers & trainers

Support activity is quickly decentralized to regional centres

Source: http://www.undp.org/seed/trainx/overview.htm

An ongoing FAO Sustainable Development Department Livelihood Support Programme on conflict

management, largely implemented by FAO forestry and fisheries staff, provides a

human capacity development.pdf

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