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Net migration rates for 2011:[1] positive(blue), negative (orange), stable (green), andno data (gray)

Human migrationFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Human migration is the movement by people from oneplace to another with the intention of settling temporarilyor permanently in the new location. The movement istypically over long distances and from one country toanother, but internal migration is also possible. Migrationmay be individuals, family units or in large groups.[2]

Nomadic movements are normally not regarded asmigrations as there is no intention to settle in the new placeand because the movement is generally seasonal. Only afew nomadic peoples have retained this form of lifestyle inmodern times. Also, the temporary movement of peoplefor the purpose of travel, tourism, pilgrimages, or the commute is not regarded as migration, in theabsence of an intention to settle in the new location.

Migration has continued under the form of both voluntary migration within one's region, country, orbeyond and involuntary migration (which includes the slave trade, trafficking in human beings andethnic cleansing). People who migrate into a territory are called immigrants, while at the departure pointthey are called emigrants. Small populations migrating to develop a territory considered void ofsettlement depending on historical setting, circumstances and perspective are referred to as settlers orcolonists, while populations displaced by immigration and colonization are called refugees.

Contents

1 Migration statistics2 Pre-modern migrations3 Modern migrations

3.1 Industrialization and the rise of nationalism/imperialism3.2 The World Wars and their aftermath

3.2.1 Pakistan-India4 Theories for migration for work in the 21st century

4.1 Overview4.2 Neoclassical economic theory4.3 Dual labor market theory4.4 The new economics of labor migration4.5 Relative deprivation theory4.6 World systems theory

5 Historical theories5.1 Ravenstein5.2 Lee

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5.3 Climate cycles5.4 Other models

6 Notes and references7 Bibliography

7.1 Literature7.2 Documentary films

8 See also9 External links

Migration statistics

There are many sources for estimates on worldwide migration patterns. The World Bank has published ayearly Migration and Remittances Factbook since 2008.[3] The International Organization for Migration(IOM) has published a yearly World Migration Report since 1999. The United Nations StatisticsDivision also keeps a database on worldwide migration.[4]

It should be noted that substantial internal migration can take place within a country, either seasonalhuman migration mainly related to agriculture and tourism to urban places, or shifts of population intocities (urbanization) or out of cities (suburbanization). Studies of worldwide migration patterns howevertend to limit their scope to international migration.

The World Bank Migration and Remittances Factbook of 2011 lists the following estimates for the year2010: Total number of immigrants: 215.8 million or 3.2% of world population. Often, a distinction ismade between voluntary and involuntary migration, or between refugees fleeing political conflict ornatural disaster vs. economic or labour migration, but these distinctions are difficult to make andpartially subjective, as the various motivators for migration are often correlated. The World Bank reportestimates that as of 2010, 16.3 million or 7.6% of migrants qualified as refugees.

Structurally, there is substantial South-South and North-North migration, i.e. most emigrant from high-income OECD countries migrate to other high-income countries, and a substantial part (estimated at43%) of emigrants from developing countries migrate to other developing countries. The top tendestination countries are the USA, Russian Federation, Germany, Saudi Arabia, Canada, the UK, Spain,France, Australia and India. The top ten countries of origin are: Mexico, India, the Russian Federation,China, Ukraine, Bangladesh, Pakistan, the UK, the Philippines and Turkey.[5]

The top ten migration corridors worldwide are: 1. Mexico–United States; 2. Russia– Ukraine; 3.Ukraine–Russia; 4. Bangladesh–India; 5. Turkey–Germany; 6. Kazakhstan–Russia; 7. Russia–Kazakhstan; 8. China–Hong Kong; 9. China–United States; 10. Philippines–United States.

Remittance, i.e. funds transferred by migrant workers to their home country, is a substantial part of theeconomy of some countries. The top ten remittance recipients in 2010 were (estimates in billion USDollar): 1. India (55; 2.7% of GDP), 2. China (51; 0.5% of GNP), Mexico (22.6; 1.8% of GDP),Philippines (21.3; 7.8% of GDP), France (15.9; 0.5% of GDP), Germany (11.6; 0.2% of GDP),Bangladesh (11.1; 7.2% of GDP), Belgium (10.4; 1.9% of GDP), Spain (10.2; 0.7% of GDP), Nigeria(10.0; 1.9% of GDP).

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A map of early human migrations.[7]

Austronesians expansion map

4th to 6th century Migration Period

The Global Commission on International Migration (GCIM) was launched in 2003 and published areport in 2005.[6] International migration challenges at the global level are addressed through the GlobalForum on Migration and Development and the Global Migration Group, both established in 2006.

Pre-modern migrations

Historical migration of human populations beginswith the movement of Homo erectus out ofAfrica across Eurasia about 1.75 million yearsago. Homo sapiens appear to have occupied all ofAfrica about 150,000 years ago, moved out ofAfrica 70,000 years ago, and had spread acrossAustralia, Asia and Europe by 40,000 years BCE.Migration to the Americas took place 20,000 to15,000 years ago, and by 2,000 years ago, mostof the Pacific Islands were colonized. Laterpopulation movements notably include theNeolithic Revolution, Indo-European expansion,and the Early Medieval Great Migrations including Turkicexpansion. In some places, substantial culturaltransformation occurred following the migration ofrelatively small elite populations, Turkey and Azerbaijanbeing such examples.[8] In Britain, it is considered that theRoman and Norman conquests were similar examples,while "the most hotly debated of all the British culturaltransitions is the role of migration in the relatively suddenand drastic change from Romano-Britain to Anglo-SaxonBritain", which may be explained by a possible"substantial migration of Anglo-Saxon Y chromosomesinto Central England (contributing 50%–100% to the genepool at that time.)"[9]

Early humans migrated due to many factors such aschanging climate and landscape and inadequate foodsupply. The evidence indicates that the ancestors of theAustronesian peoples spread from the South Chinesemainland to Taiwan at some time around 8,000 years ago.Evidence from historical linguistics suggests that it is fromthis island that seafaring peoples migrated, perhaps indistinct waves separated by millennia, to the entire regionencompassed by the Austronesian languages. It is believedthat this migration began around 6,000 years ago.[10] Indo-Aryan migration from the Indus Valley to theplain of the River Ganges in Northern India is presumed to have taken place in the Middle to LateBronze Age, contemporary to the Late Harappan phase in India (ca. 1700 to 1300 BC). From 180 BC, aseries of invasions from Central Asia followed, including those led by the Indo-Greeks, Indo-Scythians,Indo-Parthians and Kushans in the northwestern Indian subcontinent.[11][12][13]

From 728 BC, the Greeks began 250 years of expansion, settling colonies in several places, includingSicily and Marseille. In Europe, two waves of migrations dominate demographic distributions, that ofthe Celtic people and that of the later Migration Period from the North and East, both being possible

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One common hypothesis of the Bantuexpansion c. 1000 BC to c. 500 AD

examples of general cultural change sparked by primarily elite and warrior migration. Other examplesare small movements like that of the Magyars into Pannonia (modern-day Hungary). Turkic peoplesspread from their homeland in modern Turkestan across most of Central Asia into Europe and theMiddle East between the 6th and 11th centuries. Recent research suggests that Madagascar wasuninhabited until Austronesian seafarers from Indonesia arrived during the 5th and 6th centuries AD.Subsequent migrations from both the Pacific and Africa further consolidated this original mixture, andMalagasy people emerged.[14]

Before the expansion of the Bantu languages and their speakers,the southern half of Africa is believed to have been populated byPygmies and Khoisan-speaking people, today occupying the aridregions around the Kalahari Desert and the forest of CentralAfrica. By about 1000 AD, Bantu migration had reached modernday Zimbabwe and South Africa. The Banu Hilal and BanuMa'qil were a collection of Arab Bedouin tribes from the ArabianPeninsula who migrated westwards via Egypt between the 11thand 13th centuries. Their migration strongly contributed to theArabization and Islamization of the western Maghreb, which wasuntil then dominated by Berber tribes. Ostsiedlung was themedieval eastward migration and settlement of Germans. The13th century was the time of the great Mongol and Turkicmigrations across Eurasia.[15]

Between the 11th and 18th centuries, there were numerousmigrations in Asia. The Vatsayan Priests from the easternHimalaya hills, migrated to Kashmir during the Shan invasion in 1203C. They settled in the lowerShivalik hills in 1206C to sanctify the manifest goddess. In the Ming occupation, the Vietnameseexpanded southward in a process known as nam tiến (southward expansion).[16] Manchuria wasseparated from China proper by the Inner Willow Palisade, which restricted the movement of the HanChinese into Manchuria during the early Qing Dynasty, as the area was off-limits to the Han until theQing started colonizing the area with them later on in the dynasty's rule.[17]

The Age of Exploration and European colonialism led to an accelerated pace of migration since EarlyModern times. In the 16th century, perhaps 240,000 Europeans entered American ports.[18] In the 19thcentury, over 50 million people left Europe for the Americas.[19] The local populations or tribes, such asthe Aboriginal people in Canada, Brazil, Argentina, Australia, Japan[20] and the United States, wereusually far overwhelmed numerically by the settlers.

Modern migrations

Industrialization and the rise of nationalism/imperialism

While the pace of migration had accelerated since the 18th century already (including the involuntaryslave trade), it would increase further in the 19th century. Manning distinguishes three major types ofmigration: labor migration, refugee migrations, and urbanization. Millions of agricultural workers leftthe countryside and moved to the cities causing unprecedented levels of urbanization. This phenomenonbegan in Britain in the late 18th century and spread around the world and continues to this day in manyareas.

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Balkan Turks in 1912

Industrialization encouraged migration wherever it appeared. The increasingly global economyglobalized the labor market. The Atlantic slave trade diminished sharply after 1820, which gave rise toself-bound contract labor migration from Europe and Asia to plantations. Overpopulation, openagricultural frontiers, and rising industrial centers attracted voluntary migrants. Moreover, migration wassignificantly made easier by improved transportation techniques.

Romantic nationalism also rose in the 19th century, and, with it, ethnocentrism. The great Europeanindustrial empires also rose. Both factors contributed to migration, as some countries favored their ownethnicities over outsiders and other countries appeared to be considerably more welcoming. Forexample, the Russian Empire identified with Eastern Orthodoxy, and confined Jews, who were notEastern Orthodox, to the Pale of Settlement and imposed restrictions. Violence was also a problem. TheUnited States was promoted as a better location, a "golden land" where Jews could live more openly.[21]

Another effect of imperialism, colonialism, led to the migration of some colonizing parties from "homecountries" to "the colonies", and eventually the migration of people from "colonies" to "homecountries".[22]

Transnational labor migration reached a peak of three million migrants per year in the early twentiethcentury. Italy, Norway, Ireland and the Guangdong region of China were regions with especially highemigration rates during these years. These large migration flows influenced the process of nation stateformation in many ways. Immigration restrictions have been developed, as well as diaspora cultures andmyths that reflect the importance of migration to the foundation of certain nations, like the Americanmelting pot. The transnational labor migration fell to a lower level from 1930s to the 1960s and thenrebounded.

The United States experienced considerable internal migration related to industrialization, including itsAfrican American population. From 1910 to 1970, approximately 7 million African Americans migratedfrom the rural Southern United States, where blacks faced both poor economic opportunities andconsiderable political and social prejudice, to the industrial cities of the Northeast, Midwest and West,where relatively well-paid jobs were available.[23] This phenomenon came to be known in the UnitedStates as its own Great Migration. With the demise of legalized segregation in the 1960s and greatlyimproved economic opportunities in the South in the subsequent decades, millions of blacks havereturned to the South from other parts of the country since 1980 in what has been called the New GreatMigration.

The World Wars and their aftermath

See World War II evacuation and expulsion and Population transfer in the Soviet Union for World WarII forced migrations.

The First and Second World Wars, and wars, genocides, and crisessparked by them, had an enormous impact on migration. Muslimsmoved from the Balkan to Turkey, while Christians moved the otherway, during the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Four hundredthousand Jews had already moved to Palestine in the early twentiethcentury, and numerous Jews to America, as already mentioned. TheRussian Civil War caused some three million Russians, Poles, andGermans to migrate out of the new Soviet Union. Decolonizationfollowing the Second World War also caused migrations.[24][25]

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Swiss woman and her childrenleaving Civil war in Russia, around1921

Rural Sikhs in a long ox-cart trainheading towards India. MargaretBourke-White, 1947. The migrationwas a "massive exercise in humanmisery," wrote Bourke-White.

The Jewish communities across Europe, the Mediterranean and the Middle East were formed fromvoluntary and involuntary migrants. After the Holocaust (1938 to 1945), there was increased migrationto the British Mandate of Palestine, which became the modernstate of Israel as a result of the United Nations Partition Plan forPalestine.

Provisions of the Potsdam Agreement from 1945 signed byvictorious Western Allies and the Soviet Union led to one of thelargest European migrations, and the largest in the 20th century.It involved the migration and resettlement of close to or over 20million people. The largest affected group were 16.5 millionGermans expelled from Eastern Europe westwards. The secondlargest group were Poles, millions of whom were expelledwestwards from eastern Kresy region and resettled in the so-called Recovered Territories (see Allies decide Polish border inthe article on the Oder-Neisse line). Hundreds of thousands ofPoles, Ukrainians (Operation Vistula), Lithuanians, Latvians,Estonians and some Belarusians were expelled eastwards fromEurope to the Soviet Union. Finally, many of the several hundred thousand Jews remaining in EasternEurope after the Holocaust migrated outside Europe to Israel and the United States.

Pakistan-India

In 1947, upon the Partition of India, large populations movedfrom India to Pakistan and vice versa, depending on theirreligious beliefs. The partition was promulgated in the IndianIndependence Act 1947 as a result of the dissolution of theBritish Indian Empire. The partition displaced up to 17 millionpeople in the former British Indian Empire,[26] with estimates ofloss of life varying from several hundred thousand to amillion.[27]Muslim residents of the former British India migratedto Pakistan (including East Pakistan, now Bangladesh), whilstHindu and Sikh residents of Pakistan and Hindu residents of EastPakistan (now Bangladesh) moved in the opposite direction.

In modern India, estimates based on industry sectors mainlyemploying migrants suggest that there are around 100 millioncircular migrants in India. Caste, social networks and historicalprecedents play a powerful role in shaping patterns of migration. Migration for the poor is mainlycircular, as despite moving temporarily to urban areas, they lack the social security which might keepthem there more permanently. They are also keen to maintain a foothold in home areas during theagricultural season.

Research by the Overseas Development Institute identifies a rapid movement of labour from slower- tofaster-growing parts of the economy. Migrants can often find themselves excluded by urban housingpolicies, and migrant support initiatives are needed to give workers improved access to marketinformation, certification of identity, housing and education.[28]

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In the riots which preceded the partition in the Punjab region, between 200,000 to 500,000 people werekilled in the retributive genocide.[29][30]UNHCR estimates 14 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims weredisplaced during the partition.[31] Scholars call it the largest mass migration in human history,[32]

including historian Nigel Smith, in his book "Pakistan: History, Culture, and Government" calls thismigration "history's greatest migration." [26]

Theories for migration for work in the 21st century

Overview

Migration for work in the 21st century has become a popular way for individuals from impoverisheddeveloping countries to obtain sufficient income for survival. This income is sent home to familymembers in the form of remittances and has become an economic staple in a number of developingcountries.[33] There are a number of theories to explain the international flow of capital and people fromone country to another.[34]

Neoclassical economic theory

This theory of migration states that the main reason for labor migration is wage difference between twogeographic locations. These wage differences are usually linked to geographic labor demand and supply.It can be said that areas with a shortage of labor but an excess of capital have a high relative wage whileareas with a high labor supply and a dearth of capital have a low relative wage. Labor tends to flow fromlow-wage areas to high-wage areas. Often, with this flow of labor comes changes in the sending as wellas the receiving country. Neoclassical economic theory is best used to describe transnational migration,because it is not confined by international immigration laws and similar governmental regulations.[34]

Dual labor market theory

Dual labor market theory states that migration is mainly caused by pull factors in more developedcountries. This theory assumes that the labor markets in these developed countries consist of twosegments: primary, which requires high-skilled labor, and secondary, which is very labor-intensive butrequires low-skilled workers. This theory assumes that migration from less developed countries intomore developed countries is a result of a pull created by a need for labor in the developed countries intheir secondary market. Migrant workers are needed to fill the lowest rung of the labor market becausethe native laborers do not want to do these jobs as they present a lack of mobility. This creates a need formigrant workers. Furthermore, the initial dearth in available labor pushes wages up, making migrationeven more enticing.[34]

The new economics of labor migration

This theory states that migration flows and patterns cannot be explained solely at the level of individualworkers and their economic incentives, but that wider social entities must be considered as well. Onesuch social entity is the household. Migration can be viewed as a result of risk aversion on the part of ahousehold that has insufficient income. The household, in this case, is in need of extra capital that can beachieved through remittances sent back by family members who participate in migrant labor abroad.These remittances can also have a broader effect on the economy of the sending country as a whole asthey bring in capital.[34] Recent research has examined a decline in U.S. interstate migration from 1991to 2011, theorizing that the reduced interstate migration is due to a decline in the geographic specificity

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of occupations and an increase in workers’ ability to learn about other locations before moving there,through both information technology and inexpensive travel.[35] Other researchers find that the location-specific nature of housing is more important than moving costs in determining labor reallocation.[36]

Relative deprivation theory

Relative deprivation theory states that awareness of the income difference between neighbors or otherhouseholds in the migrant-sending community is an important factor in migration. The incentive tomigrate is a lot higher in areas that have a high level of economic inequality. In the short run,remittances may increase inequality, but in the long run, they may actually decrease it. There are twostages of migration for a worker: first, they invest in human capital formation, and then they try tocapitalize on their investments. In this way, successful migrants may use their new capital to provide forbetter schooling for their children and better homes for their families. Successful high-skilled emigrantsmay serve as an example for neighbors and potential migrants who hope to achieve that level ofsuccess.[34]

World systems theory

World systems theory looks at migration from a global perspective. It explains that interaction betweendifferent societies can be an important factor in social change within societies. Trade with one country,which causes economic decline in another, may create incentive to migrate to a country with a morevibrant economy. It can be argued that even after decolonization, the economic dependence of formercolonies still remains on mother countries. This view of international trade is controversial, however,and some argue that free trade can actually reduce migration between developing and developedcountries. It can be argued that the developed countries import labor-intensive goods, which causes anincrease in employment of unskilled workers in the less developed countries, decreasing the outflow ofmigrant workers. The export of capital-intensive goods from rich countries to poor countries alsoequalizes income and employment conditions, thus also slowing migration. In either direction, thistheory can be used to explain migration between countries that are geographically far apart.[34]

Historical theories

Ravenstein

Certain laws of social science have been proposed to describe human migration. The following was astandard list after Ravenstein's (1834-1913) proposal in the 1880s. The laws are as follows:

1. every migration flow generates a return or countermigration.2. the majority of migrants move a short distance.3. migrants who move longer distances tend to choose big-city destinations.4. urban residents are often less migratory than inhabitants of rural areas.5. families are less likely to make international moves than young adults.6. most migrants are adults.7. large towns grow by migration rather than natural increase.8. migration stage by stage.9. urban rural difference.

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10. migration and technology.11. economic condition.

Lee

Lee's laws divide factors causing migrations into two groups of factors: push and pull factors. Pushfactors are things that are unfavourable about the area that one lives in, and pull factors are things thatattract one to another area.[37]

Push Factors

Not enough jobsFew opportunitiesInadequate conditionsDesertificationFamine or droughtPolitical fear or persecutionSlavery or forced labourPoor medical careLoss of wealthNatural disastersDeath threatsDesire for more political or religious freedomPollutionPoor housingLandlord/tenant issuesBullyingDiscriminationPoor chances of marryingCondemned housing (radon gas, etc.)War

Pull Factors

Job opportunitiesBetter living conditionsThe feeling of having more political and/or religious freedomEnjoymentEducationBetter medical careAttractive climatesSecurity

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Family linksIndustryBetter chances of marrying

See also article by Gürkan Çelik, in Turkish Review: Turkey Pulls, The Netherlands Pushes?(http://www.turkishreview.org/tr/newsDetail_getNewsById.action?newsId=223107) An increasingnumber of Turks, the Netherlands’ largest ethnic minority, are beginning to return to Turkey, taking withthem the education and skills they have acquired abroad, as the Netherlands faces challenges fromeconomic difficulties, social tension and increasingly powerful far-right parties. At the same timeTurkey’s political, social and economic conditions have been improving, making returning home all themore appealing for Turks at large. (pp. 94–99)

Climate cycles

The modern field of climate history suggests that the successive waves of Eurasian nomadic movementthroughout history have had their origins in climatic cycles, which have expanded or contractedpastureland in Central Asia, especially Mongolia and the Altai. People were displaced from their homeground by other tribes trying to find land that could be grazed by essential flocks, each group pushingthe next further to the south and west, into the highlands of Anatolia, the Pannonian Plain, intoMesopotamia or southwards, into the rich pastures of China. Bogumil Terminski uses the term"migratory domino effect" to describe this process in the context of Sea People invasion.[38]

Other models

Migration occurs because individuals search for food, sex and security outside their usual

habitation.[39] Idyorough is of the view that towns and cities are a creation of the human struggleto obtain food, sex and security. To produce food, security and reproduction, human beings must,out of necessity, move out of their usual habitation and enter into indispensable socialrelationships that are cooperative or antagonistic. Human beings also develop the tools andequipment to enable them to interact with nature to produce the desired food and security. Theimproved relationship (cooperative relationships) among human beings and improved technologyfurther conditioned by the push and pull factors all interact together to cause or bring aboutmigration and higher concentration of individuals into towns and cities. The higher the technologyof production of food and security and the higher the cooperative relationship among humanbeings in the production of food and security and in the reproduction of the human species, thehigher would be the push and pull factors in the migration and concentration of human beings intowns and cities. Countryside, towns and cities do not just exist but they do so to meet the humanbasic needs of food, security and the reproduction of the human species. Therefore, migrationoccurs because individuals search for food, sex and security outside their usual habitation. Socialservices in the towns and cities are provided to meet these basic needs for human survival andpleasure.Zipf's Inverse distance law (1956)Gravity model of migration and the friction of distance

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Buffer TheoryStouffer's theory of intervening opportunities (1940)Zelinsky's mobility transition model (1971)Bauder's regulation of labor markets (2006) "suggests that the international migration of workersis necessary for the survival of industrialized economies...[It] turns the conventional view ofinternational migration on its head: it investigates how migration regulates labor markets, rather

than labor markets shaping migration flows."[40]

Notes and references

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed.(1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

1. ^ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Sudan#Independence_.282011.292. ^ "Migrations country wise" (http://migrationsmap.net/#/USA/arrivals). Retrieved 7 June 2014.3. ^ http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTLAC/Resources/Factbook2011-Ebook.pdf4. ^ http://esa.un.org/unmigration/wallchart2013.htm5. ^ Note that India, Russia and the UK figure in both lists, as they have both substantial immigration and

substantial emigraiton, but also because the ranking is by absolute numbers and thus favours large countries.6. ^ The 90-page Report, along with supporting evidence, is available on the GCIM website gcim.org

(http://www.gcim.org)7. ^ Literature: Göran Burenhult: Die ersten Menschen, Weltbild Verlag, 2000. ISBN 3-8289-0741-58. ^ Tatjana Zerjal et al.; Wells, R. Spencer; Yuldasheva, Nadira; Ruzibakiev, Ruslan; Tyler-Smith, Chris

(2002). "A Genetic Landscape Reshaped by Recent Events: Y-Chromosomal Insights into Central Asia"(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC419996). The American Journal of Human Genetics 71 (3):466–482. doi:10.1086/342096 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F342096). PMC 419996(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC419996). PMID 12145751(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12145751).

9. ^ Weale, Michael E.; Deborah A. Weiss,1, Rolf F. Jager, Neil Bradman and Mark G. Thomas (2002). "YChromosome Evidence for Anglo-Saxon Mass Migration"(http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/19/7/1008.full). Molecular Biology and Evolution 19 (7): 1008–1021.doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a004160 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordjournals.molbev.a004160).PMID 12082121 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12082121). Retrieved 11 May 2011.

10. ^ Language trees support the express-train sequence of Austronesian expansion(http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v405/n6790/full/4051052a0.html), Nature

11. ^ The appearance of Indo-Aryan speakers (http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-46837/India), EncyclopædiaBritannica

12. ^ Trivedi, Bijal P (2001-05-14). "Genetic evidence suggests European migrants may have influenced theorigins of India's caste system" (http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/articles/05_01/Indo-European.shtml).Genome News Network (J. Craig Venter Institute). Retrieved 2005-01-27.

13. ^ Genetic Evidence on the Origins of Indian Caste Populations -- Bamshad et al. 11 (6): 994(http://www.genome.org/cgi/content/full/11/6/994), Genome Research

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14. ^ Malagasy languages (http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-359466/article-9050264), EncyclopaediaBritannica

15. ^ Migrations-&-World History (http://www.acurioustraveler.com/migrations_&_world_history_p_27.htm)16. ^ The Le Dynasty and Southward Expansion (http://countrystudies.us/vietnam/11.htm)17. ^ From Ming to Qing (http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~inaasim/Mingqing04/Qing2.htm)18. ^ "The Colombian Mosaic in Colonial America" by James Axtell

(http://www.millersville.edu/~columbus/data/art/AXTELL01.ART)19. ^ David Eltis Economic Growth and the Ending of the Transatlantic slave trade20. ^ Report on a New Policy for the Ainu: A Critique (http://www.hurights.or.jp/asia-

pacific/no_04/06reporton.htm)21. ^ See World of our Fathers, by Irving Howe, and particularly the first sixty or so pages of that book22. ^ For example, people migrated from the Indian subcontinent to the UK during the Imperial era and

afterwards.23. ^ Great Migration (http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/545.html), accessed 12/7/200724. ^ Patrick Manning, Migration in World History (2005) p 132-162.25. ^ Adam McKeown, 'Global migration, 1846-1940' in: Journal of Global History (June 2004).

26. ^ a b Pakistan:History, Culture, and Government by Nigel Smith, Page 11227. ^ Metcalf, Barbara; Metcalf, Thomas R. (2006), A Concise History of Modern India (Cambridge Concise

Histories), Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. Pp. xxxiii, 372, ISBN 0-521-68225-8.28. ^ "Support for migrant workers: the missing link in India's development?"

(http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=2466&title=support-migrant-workers-missing-link-indias-development). Overseas Development Institute. September 2008.

29. ^ Paul R. Brass (2003). "The partition of India and retributive genocide in the Punjab, 1946–47: means,methods, and purposes" (http://faculty.washington.edu/brass/Partition.pdf). Journal of Genocide Research.p. 75 (5(1), 71–101). Retrieved 2014-08-16.

30. ^ "20th-century international relations (politics) :: South Asia"(http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/291225/20th-century-international-relations/32936/South-Asia#ref304573). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2014-08-16.

31. ^ "Rupture in South Asia" (http://www.unhcr.org/3ebf9bab0.pdf). UNHCR. Retrieved 2014-08-16.32. ^ Dr Crispin Bates (2011-03-03). "The Hidden Story of Partition and its Legacies"

(http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/partition1947_01.shtml). BBC. Retrieved 2014-08-16.33. ^ Jason de Parle, “A Good Provider is One Who Leaves” New York Times, April 22, 2007.

34. ^ a b c d e f Jennissen, R. 2007. “Causality Chains in the International Migration Systems Approach.”Population Research and Policy Review 26(4). 411 – 36.

35. ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis, Understanding the Long-Run Decline in Interstate Migration, April2012 (http://www.minneapolisfed.org/research/wp/wp697.pdf)

36. ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, The Role of Housing in Labor Reallocation, November 2010(http://www.chicagofed.org/digital_assets/publications/working_papers/2010/wp2010_18.pdf)

37. ^ Everett S. Lee (1966). "A Theory of Migration". University of Pennsylvania. JSTOR 2060063(https://www.jstor.org/stable/2060063).

38. ^ Terminski, Bogumil. Environmentally-Induced Displacement. Theoretical Frameworks and CurrentChallenges. CEDEM, Université de Liège, 2012

39. ^ Idyorough, 2008

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Bibliography

Literature

Books

Bauder, Harald. Labor Movement: How Migration Regulates Labor Markets, New York: OxfordUniversity Press, 2006.Behdad, Ali. A Forgetful Nation: On Immigration and Cultural Identity in the United States, DukeUP, 2005.Jared Diamond, Guns, germs and steel. A short history of everybody for the last 13'000 years,1997.De La Torre, Miguel A., Trails of Terror: Testimonies on the Current Immigration Debate, OrbisBooks, 2009.Fell, Peter and Hayes, Debra. What are they doing here? A critical guide to asylum andimmigration, Birmingham (UK): Venture Press, 2007.Hoerder, Dirk. Cultures in Contact. World Migrations in the Second Millennium, Duke UniversityPress, 2002Kleiner-Liebau, Désirée. Migration and the Construction of National Identity in Spain, Madrid /Frankfurt, Iberoamericana / Vervuert, Ediciones de Iberoamericana, 2009. ISBN 978-84-8489-476-6.Knörr, Jacqueline. Women and Migration. Anthropological Perspectives, Frankfurt & New York:Campus Verlag & St. Martin's Press, 2000.Knörr, Jacqueline. Childhood and Migration. From Experience to Agency, Bielefeld: Transcript,2005.Manning, Patrick. Migration in World History, New York and London: Routledge, 2005.Migration for Employment, Paris: OECD Publications, 2004.OECD International Migration Outlook 2007, Paris: OECD Publications, 2007.Pécoud, Antoine and Paul de Guchteneire (Eds): Migration without Borders, Essays on the FreeMovement of People (Berghahn Books, 2007)Abdelmalek Sayad. The Suffering of the Immigrant, Preface by Pierre Bourdieu, Polity Press,2004.Stalker, Peter. No-Nonsense Guide to International Migration, New Internationalist, secondedition, 2008.The Philosophy of Evolution (A.K. Purohit, ed.), Yash Publishing House, Bikaner, 2010. ISBN81-86882-35-9.

Journals

40. ^ Bauder, Harald. Labor Movement: How Migration Regulates Labor Markets. Oxford University Press, 1stedition, February 2006, English, 288 pages, ISBN 978-0-19-518088-6

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International Migration ReviewMigration LettersInternational MigrationJournal of Ethnic and Migration StudiesReview of Economics of the Household

Online Books

OECD International Migration Outlook 2007(http://www.oecd.org/document/25/0,3343,en_2649_33729_38797017_1_1_1_1,00.html)(subscription service)

Documentary films

The Short Life of José Antonio GutierrezEl Inmigrante, Directors: David Eckenrode, John Sheedy, John Eckenrode. 2005. 90 min.(U.S./Mexico)

See also

DiasporaEarly human migrationsEnvironmental migrantExistential migrationFeminization of migrationGlobalizationIllegal immigrationReligion and human migrationJewish DiasporaJob migrationLinguistic Diversity in Space and TimeList of diasporasExpatriateMigrant literatureImmigration to EuropeMigration in the People's Republic of ChinaMost recent common ancestorPolitical demographyPopulation mobilityRefugee rouletteReplacement migration

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Wikimedia Commons hasmedia related to Humanmigration.

Separation barrierSettler colonialismSnowbird (people)Space colonizationQueer Migration

External links

iom.int (https://www.iom.int), The InternationalOrganization for MigrationCIA World Factbook(https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2112.html) gives up-to-datestatistics on net immigration by country.Stalker's Guide to International Migration (http://www.pstalker.com/migration/index.php)Comprehensive interactive guide to modern migration issues, with maps and statisticsIntegration : Building Inclusive Societies (IBIS)(http://www.unaoc.org/communities/migrationintegration) UN Alliance of Civilizations onlinecommunity on good practices of integration of migrants across the worldmigrations in history (http://educate.si.edu/migrations)The importance of migrants in the modern world(http://www.accademiapulia.org/en/events/home-my-place-in-the-world---summer-exhibition-580.html)Mass migration as a travel business (http://www.business-of-migration.com)

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Categories: Human migration Anthropology Demographic economics DemographyEnvironmental issues with population Genetic genealogy Human overpopulation Population

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