human resource management notes 14

7/28/2019 Human Resource Management Notes 14

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Unit 14: Groups and Group Dynamics

Structure:

14.1 Introduction

Objectives14.2 Meaning and Characteristics of Group

SAQs

14.3 The Types of Groups

14.3.1Formal Work Groups

14.3.2Informal Work Groups

SAQs

14.4 Group Characteristics

SAQs14.5 Group Decision-making

14.6.1 Advantages of Group Decision-making

SAQs

14.6 Group Dynamics

14.7.1Principles of Group Dynamics

14.7 Summary

14.8. TQs

14.9 Answers to SAQs and TQs

14.1 Introduction

The concept of a group is as old as civilisation itself. The primitive man recognised the

importance of group as a basic unit for his survival. The primates had their groups for hunting

and protecting their species from wild beasts. With the advancement of civilisation, various

racial groups developed in different parts of the hemisphere and nurtured different but distinct

cultures. If we glance at the history of various countries, it would be clear that, despite heavy

odds, the culture of different countries throve in different racial groups. The characteristics and

functions of group are surely worthy of study. This unit focuses on group dynamics and

principles of group dynamics.

Objectives

After studying this unit, you will be able to:


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Understanding Groups as they exit in organizations

Identify group characteristics.

Explain group dynamics and principles of group dynamics.

14.2 Meaning and Characteristics of Group

A group refers to two or more persons who interact for a common explicit purpose. A mere

collection of individuals assembled in a place - on the street, at a bus stand, or in railway

station waiting room - does not constitute a group because although people are physically

gathered together, they do not jointly pursue a common objective or share a common

feeling. Kimball Young defines a group as "two or more persons in a state of social

interaction." T.M. Newcomb feels that 'a group consists of two or more persons who share

norms about certain things with one another and whose social roles are closely interlocking.' In

the words of W.J.H. Sprott, a group is 'plurality of persons who interact with anyone else.'

Sherif and Sherif define group as a social unit which consists of a number of individuals

who stand in definite status and role relationships to one another and which possesses a set

of values or norms of its own regulating the behaviour of individual members, at least in

matters of consequence to the group.

Characteristics of a Group: The essential characteristics of a small group are: 1) two or more

people, 2) who interact with one another, 3) share some common ideology, and

4) see themselves as a group.

Characteristic 2) means that the members at least occasionally meet, talk, and do things

together. They do not all have to meet at the same time, but in order to be a group member, a

person must have occasional contact with one or more of the others.

Characteristic 3) means that the group members have something in common. They might

share a goal, such as protecting their jobs: or a concern, like security or the same prejudices

or values or they might face a common threat. Whatever its basis, the group has something

in common which gives it and its members some identity.

Characteristic 4) results from 2) and 3). People who interact with one another and who share

some common ideology are usually attracted to one another. The reinforcement they receive

from interacting with one another leads them to identify with one another and eventually to

perceive themselves as something special, as a unique group.


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The groups can provide, with or without the conscious knowledge of their members, a

means of fulfilling many of the needs of the individuals in them, such as: 1) affinitive needs

provided by the group through friendship between individuals within it 2) egoistic needs

which may be fulfilled through the development of self-esteem and status as the result of

membership in the group-through opportunity for individual contributions to group

functioning 3) some functional needs such as aid in daily activities, help in adjustment to

work routine, or even the avoidance of boredom can be met by the group 4) cognitive needs

may be satisfied by motivation.

Organizational members bring with them a variety of needs and because group formation

can fulfil many of these needs, the groups serve the following purpose. They provide:

1. An outlet for affiliation needs i.e. needs for friendship, support and love.

2. A means of developing, enhancing or confirming a sense of identity and maintaining

self-esteem. Through group membership, a person can gain status, and thereby enhance

his sense of self-esteem.

3. A means of establishing and testing reality through developing consensus among group

members, uncertain parts of social environment can be made "real" and parts of social

environment can be made "real" and "stable." Each person can validate his own

perceptions and feelings best by checking them with others.

4. A means of increasing security and sense of power of coping with a common and

powerful enemy or threat.

5. A means of getting same job done that members need to have done: Such as g athering

information or helping out when some are sick or tired or avoiding boredom and

providing stimulation to one another or bringing new members of the organisation

quickly into the informal structure.


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Self Assessment Questions I

14.3 The Types of Groups

Groups may be classified in many different ways: the basis for differentiation may be purpose

or goal extent of structuring legal organisation or setting. Classification of group is a

starting point for a better knowledge of nature and function of a group of interacting

individuals.

There are two distinct types of work groups, formal and informal. It is important, however, to

recognize that both types have certain fundamental characteristics in common. All groups:

1. have leaders

2. have followers

3. strive toward some goal or goals

4. have ideas about what it takes to achieve the goals

5. communicate expectations to members

6. Satisfy some form of member needs.

14.3.1 Formal Work Groups

In the previous chapters, the organizing function of management was identified as the

process that arranges people in an acceptable pattern so that they can perform required

activities. Organizing unites workers by means of interrelated tasks. Its goal is the creation of

behavioural relationship among persons that will best enable them to wor k together

productively and wit h maximum per sonal satisfaction.

In other words, the end goal of the manager's organizing responsibility is to create formal

work groups that are necessary to achieve the organisations goals. Formal work groups are

sub-divisions of organizations. The following are the characteristics of formal work groups:

1) they are sanctioned by some authority 2) there is a prescribed division of labour 3)

1. _____________feels that 'a group consists of two or more persons who share norms

about certain things with one another and whose social roles are closely interlocking2. People who interact with one another and who share some common ideology are

usually ___________________________________.3. Through group membership, a person can gain status, and thereby enhance his sense

of_____________________.


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individuals are assigned specific responsibilities, 4) there are stable and consistent personal

interactions, and 5) provisions are made for rewarding the group membership.

The formal work group has a designated leader who supervises group members, mediates

rewards and punishments, and is responsible for group performance to a higher authority in

the organization. Group members may or may not have a say in the objectives, rules of

behaviour, task assignments, or performance standards of the group. Examples of formal

work groups are: the professors in an academic department of a college, a surgical team in a

hospital, and the two partners in a police patrol car.

14.3.2 Informal Work Groups

Informal work groups are a component of informal organizations. Informal groups are loosely

organized groups such as bowling teams and social clubs that arise apart from the formal

organization to which members of the informal group may belong. They exist because the

formal groups established within the organization frequently fail to satisfy human needs to

a sufficient degree, and also because the organizational structure rarely anticipates everything

that must be done if the organization is to meet all of its objectives. From the perspective of

the worker, informal work groups provide a source of satisfaction for security needs, social

needs, and esteem needs.

Informal Work Groups and Security Needs: Informal groups help to support their members

and to protect them from outside pressure and authority. The group insulates the individualfrom a hostile work environment. When people first enter an organization, they may feel

considerable anxiety. Their surroundings are unfamiliar, the job is new, and the future

is uncertain. New employees often seek out an existing group to join for help in the

orientation process.

Informal Work Groups and Social Needs: Many jobs restrict communication and interaction

among workers. This makes it difficult for people to form work friendships and to satisfy

their need for companionship. People want to feel they belong, and it is easy to feel such

identification with a small social group in which relationships are based on shared interests and

values. In most offices, social groups are an inevitable occurrence. Social group members

enjoy each other's company as the work is performed. They may also eat lunch as a group, take

breaks at the same time, or share a social life outside the organization.


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Informal Work Groups and Esteem Needs: Beyond providing a sense of belonging, the informal

group can also be a source of status or prestige for its membership. This is especially true if the

group is well-known in the larger organization, if outsiders are anxious to join the group, and if

acceptance into the group is difficult to achieve. To the extent that it provides an opportunity for

assumption of leadership, the informal group is a source of egoistic need satisfaction. Finally,

the need to achieve can be partially satisfied by the informal group.

Advantages: Informal work groups increase the employee's sense of security and belonging and

often enable the work to be done more effectively. Another advantage, not previously

mentioned, is that the informal group can assist the manager in providing discipline. For

instance, group members who notice that an individual is taking advantage of a situation in a

way that could cause them all to lose a prized benefit may step in to correct the problem before

the manager is even aware that it exists. In one office, the boss has for years successfully

maintained a "no time clock" policy, in which employees are placed on their own recognizance

to work an eight-hour day. If someone comes in half an hour late, takes a long lunch, or leaves

early one day, no one says anything. Everyone expects that the person will make up the time as

he or she sees fit. This form of compromise works in this situation because the employees are

highly motivated and the office is not too large. But another reason it works is because there is a

great deal of peer pressure (informal group norms) exerted on any individual who appears to be

taking advantage of the policy.

Disadvantages: The disadvantages of informal work groups can interfere with organizationaleffectiveness to the same degree that the advantages can contribute to it. These disadvantages

arise whenever the goals of the group run counter to those of the established organization. This

problem is especially evident whenever an attempt is made to implement planned change. The

protection and social relationships provided by informal groups are often threatened by new

plans that disrupt order and stability, create new procedures and standards of production, and

interrupt the pattern of personal interactions on the job. The existence of informal groups can

block worker co-operation with planned change by encouraging outright resistance, foot-

dragging, or "malicious compliance."

In a nutshell, the informal group emerges whenever the formal group does not sufficiently

satisfy on-the-job needs. It can be beneficial or detrimental depending on the degree to which

workers agree with the policies of management. Managers should always be alert to the

formation of informal groups because they are usually an indication that employee needs are

not being met through the established structure. Although the manager should not try to


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manipulate informal groups, he or she should try to ascertain how they might have on the

organization. The best approach is to be reasonable with employees and to consider their

needs. Informal groups will emerge even where human relations are sound, but their

presence will not be as disruptive as when they exist primarily in response to management

insensitivity. One certain way to eliminate the negative consequences of informal groups is

to make the formal group more effective in meeting both the needs of workers and the goals of

the organization.

Self Assessment Questions II

14.4 Group Characteristics

Several characteristics, concerning the composition and behaviour of the informal

organization need to be noted. The informal organization has its goals, objectives, and

authority patterns and these factors may or may not coincide with those of the formal

structure. The design and actions of the informal organization have the capacity to be either

supportive or detrimental to the goals of the formal organization. Since the informal

organization exists to provide rewards, protection and preservation of other values for its

members, formal and informal organization perceive benefits from working in a unified way

with formal structure. The major elements of 'group behaviour' are discussed in the following

paragraphs.

1. Membership in the Group: Membership in the group is a selective process in which

individuals are granted membership primarily on the basis of commonality of interests

and willingness to be co-operative and to conform to the group norms. Individuals may

have overlapping memberships in a number of informal groups, depending upon the

frequency of contacts, the mutual interests shared and other factors.

2. Emergent Leadership: The informal leader specifically serves two facilitating functions:

first, he initiates action and provides direction. If there are differences of opinions on a

1. The end goal of the manage r's organizi ng responsibility is to create formal work

groups that are necessary to achieve the _______________________

2. ________________ exist because the formal groups established within the

organization frequently fail to satisfy human needs to a sufficient degree, and also

because the organizational structure rarely anticipates everything that must be done if theorganization is to meet all of its objectives.

3. Informal work groups increase the employee's _____________________________________and often enable the work to be done more effectively.


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group-related matter, the leader attempts to compromise differences of opinion and moves

the group toward accomplishing its goals. Second, he communicates the groups' beliefs

about policies, the job, the organization the supervision, and other related matters to

non-members (such as members of other groups, supervisory personnel and the union).

3. Formal Hierarchy: All groups have a certain degree of formal organization. For instance,

consultation and discussions on important issues are held with the "lieutenants". It is

through these sub-leaders that messages are communicated to the members of the

group. The individuals performing leadership roles possess prestige because of their role.

They are ranked by group members as being at a particular level in the group status

hierarchy.

4. Group Has Some Activity or Task to Perform: A group does something which may be

related to its job or unconnected with it. For example, it may go on a picnic or movie or

simply engage in a gossip session. It undertakes these tasks to serve some ends in

purpo se. It ma y provide them wit h information and further social ties, or satisfy their

social and affiliation needs or bring them protection against some type of threatening,

oppressive forces, etc.

5. Interaction: All people interact with one another. When such interaction takes place, there

is a social transaction, in which one person responds to another. According to Berne,

"people interact with each other in terms of three psychological positions or behavioural

patterns known as ego status. These ego statuses are parent, adult and child, and a normalperson operates with some or all the three. Persons interacting with a parent ego are

protective, dogmatic, evaluative and righteous. They prefer laws, rules and standards. The

adult ego state is based upon reason and seeking and processing information, and on

factual discussion. It views people as equal, worthy and reasonable human beings.

The child ego state reflects the conditions and experiences of early childhood. It is

dependent, rebellious, selfish and sometimes creative. It tends to seek approval, and

grasps for immediate satisfactions.

6. Group Norms Each informal group characteristically establishes group behaviour

standards or norms, beliefs, traditions and attitudes to which it expects its members to

conform. According to Luthens, "Norms are the ought tos of behaviour. They are

prescriptions for acceptable behaviour determined by a group, institution, or society." In

the opinion of Argyle, "Group norms are rules or guidelines of accepted behaviour which

are established by a group and used to monitor the behaviour of its members." In a very


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structured, formalised group, these norms may become institutionalised into laws or

operation laws. In other words, norm is an agreement among group membership as to

how members in the group should behave. The more an individual complies with

norms, the more one is accepting the group standards of behaviour. These standards are

designed to achieve the goals of the group and to preserve and protect its value.

i) Group Cohesiveness: Cohesiveness is the degree of attraction that the group has for each

of its members. It is exemplified by such attitudes as loyalty to the group, a feeling

of responsibility for group efforts, defending against outside attractions, friendliness, and

congeniality. Cohesive work groups are powerful instruments that can be used for or

against the formal organization.

ii) Member Satisfaction: The end result of group membership is satisfaction of members. In

a survey of 37 studies, Heslin and Dumply have shown specific relationship between work

group member satisfaction and i) perceived freedom to participate, ii) perceived goal

attainment and iii) status consensus.

i) Perceived Freedom to Participate: A members' perception of freedom to

participate influences need satisfaction. Individuals who perceived them selves as

active participators reported to be more satisfied while those who perceive their

freedom to participate to be insignificant typically were least satisfied members in a

work group.

ii) Perceived Goal Attainment: A group members perception at progress towards the

achievement of desired goals is an important factor which is related to member

satisfaction. Groups which progressed towards goals attainment showed higher

levels of member satisfaction while members of groups not adequately progressing

towards the attainment of group goals showed a lower satisfaction level.

iii) Status Consensus: It is an agreement about the relative status of all group members.

When the degree of status consensus within the group is low, member satisfaction

tends to be low.

The two authors concluded that status consensus is more readily achieved in groups where: i)the group task specialist is perceived to be competent by the membership ii) a leader

emerges who plays a role that is considered an important group task, and iii) a leadership role

emerges and is filled by an individual who concentrates on co-ordinating and maintaining the

activities of the group.


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Self Assessment Questions III

14.5 Group Decision-making

Most big decisions in organizations are made by groups rather than individuals. Even if a

group of people does not formally sit together to thrash out a decision, several people usually

provide input to any major decision. In general, decision- making by groups has proved

superior to individual decision-making. Yet this generalization is not overwhelmingly true.

Many talented and imaginative individuals do not require group discussion to make an

effective decision.

Advantages of Group Decision-making

Groups often fare better than individuals in decision-making for several logical reasons. First,

a greater variety of alternatives and solutions is considered. "Too many cooks may spoil the

broth," but making broth involves a series of small decisions. Assume that your employer is

forced to relocate because your present building is to be demolished. You would want to

examine a wide variety of possibilities. If several knowledgeable people were brought

into the decision-making process, you would uncover a number of worthwhile possibilities.

Second, group decision-making is helpful in gaining acceptance and commitment. If you

and your friends were planning a vacation together, you would probably have less bickering

after the decisions were made, if it were a joint decision. If one person arbitrarily chose a

lake-side cottage, the other member of the group would probably complain vigorously about

the mosquitoes. If all agreed to the lake-side, the mosquitoes would probably be less

bothersome. People tend to accept a decision when they have contributed to its making.

Potential Problems with Group Decisions: Group decisions take longer than individual

decisions and sometimes lead to a compromise decision of little value. In deciding where to

relocate an office, one faction might endorse a move to an industrial park in suburbs.

Another faction might urge that the company stay downtown. A compromise decision might

1. ..insulate the individual from a hostile work environment.

2. .is based upon reason and seeking and processing information, and on

factual discussion.

3. Persons interacting with a .are protective, dogmatic, evaluative and

righteous.

4. ..is the degree of attraction that the group has for each of its members.


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be to stay on the edge of town which would be a poor decision in terms of attracting clerical

employees.

Grouping might be classified as a potential problem with group decision-making. So might

individual dominance- the tendency for one person in a group to dominate over the other

members.

In the process, the potential benefits of input from the other members are negated. Dominance

by one member tends to take place more frequently when peop le in the group are of

unequal rank. The person of high organizational rank often dominates because lower ranking

group members consider it politically unwise to criticize that person. If you are the head of a

group, or a high-status participant, four things can be done to circumvent the problem of

individual dominance.

Refrain from announcing your preferred solution while the group is working through theproblem.

Listen carefully to suggestions from every group member.

Encourage every group member to participate.

Demonstrate concern for achieving a high-quality solution.

Self Assessment Questions IV

14.6 Group Dynamics

Group dynamics is concerned with the interactions and forces between group members in a

social situation. When the concept is applied to the study of organizational behaviour, the

focus is on the dynamics of members of formal or informal groups in the organization,

1. Even if a group of people do not formally sit together to thrash out a decision,

2. Group decision-making is helpful in gaining _____________ and ______________.

3. ____________________take longer than individual decisions and sometimes lead to acompromise decision of little value.


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i.e., it is concerned with gaining knowledge of groups, how they develop, and their effect on

individual members and the organisations in which they function.

Thomas Harrell has defined group dynamics as an expression that describes the situation in

which people acting together in a group accomplish certain thing, either positively or

negatively in a way that cannot be explained adequately in terms of the individual acting

separately.

Dorwin Cartwright has stressed the importance of group dynamics particularly in the context

of bringing about a change. According to him, the problems of 20th century are essentially

the problems of human relations.

The word 'dynamics', is derived from a Greek word which means force. Group dynamics

refers to the forces operating in groups. Investigation of group dynamics consists of a study

of these forces such as what gives rise to them, what conditions modified them, whatconsequences they have, etc. The practical application of group dynamics consists of the

utilization of knowledge about these forces for the achievement of some purpose. Group

dynamics, is not particularly novel. It goes back at least to the outstanding work of men like

Simmel, Freud, and Cooley.

Although interest in groups has a long and respectable history, of late research centres in

several countries are carrying out substantial programmes of research designed to reveal the

nature of groups and their functioning. In this development, the name of Kurt Lewin is worth-

mentioning. Lewin became convinced of society's urgent need for a scientific approach to the

understanding of the dynamics of groups. In 1945, he established the Research Centre for

Group Dynamics to meet this need. The Centre has been devoting its efforts to improving our

scientific understanding of groups through laboratory experiments, field studies, and the use

of techniques of action research.

Various factors in the work environment affect group behaviour. The two broad aspects of

the environment which affect group behaviour are: a) the physical environment, e.g., plant,

equipment, layout, and b) the psycho-social environment, e.g., worker needs reward systems,

work group structure, supervisory practices, work group norms, worker roles and attitudes.

14.6.1 Principles of Group Dynamics

A group can work effectively only if its members stick to certain desired norms, which

Cartwright has termed principles of group dynamics. These principles are:


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i) If a group is to be used effectivel y as a mediu m of change, those who are to be

changed and those who are to wield an influence for change must have a strong sense of

belonging to the same group, i.e., the barriers between the leaders and the led should

be broken down.

ii) The more attractive a group is to its members, the greater the influence it would

exercise on its members. If attitudes, values or behaviour, are relevant as a basis of

attraction to the group, the group will wield a tremendous influence over them. If a

man joins a union mainly to keep his job and to improve his working conditions, he may

be largely influenced by the union's attempt to modify his attitudes towards national

affairs.

iii) The higher the prestige of a group member in the eyes of other members, the greater

the influence he will exercise on them.

iv) Successful efforts to change individuals or sub-parts of a group would result in making

them conform to the norms of the group.

v) Strong pressure for changes in a group can be established by creating a shared

perception by members for the need for c hange, thus making the source of pressure for

change lie within the group itself.

vi) Information relating to the need for change, plans for change, and the consequence of

change must be shared by all the members of a group.

vii) Change s in one part of a group pro duce a strain in other related parts which can be

reduced only by eliminating the change or by bringing about readjustments in the related

parts.

Cattell proposed seven theorems in his analysis of the dynamics of syntality1, which are

largely specifications of the characteristics of synergy. Briefly stated, these theorems hold

that:

1. Groups are formed to satisfy individual needs and cease to exist when they no longer

serve this purpose.

2. The total synergy of a group is the vector resultant of the attitudes of all members towardsthe group. (Synergy thus depends upon the number of persons in the group, the strength

and direction of the satisfactions each person obtains from the group, and the relation of

such satisfactions to other groups.)

1Definition: behavioral characteristics of a group perceived as parallel to or inferable from the personality

structure of an individual.


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3. Effective synergy may be directed towards goals outside the group, hence groups may

establish patterns of reaching which are subsidiary to some ultimate goal of the groups.

4. Individual group members may also use groups to achieve personal goals that is group

activities may be subsidiary to some ultimate personal goal.

5. Patterns of behaviour in group, such as loyalty and subordination are learned in

accordance with the law of effect.

6. Group memberships may overlap, but the total synergy in such overlapping groups

remains constant.

7. There exists a close parallelism between the personality traits of the group members and

syntality traits of the group.

14.7. Summary

A group refers to two or more persons who interact for a common explicit purpose.

Kimball Young defines a group as "two or more persons in a state of social interaction."

The essential characteristics of a small group are: 1) two or more people, 2) who interact

with one another, 3) share some common ideology, and 4) see themselves as a group.

Groups may be classified in many different ways: the basis for differentiation may be

purpose or goal extent of structuring legal organisation or setting.

The end goal of the manager's organizing responsibility is to create formal work groups

that are necessary to achieve the organisations goals.

Membership in the group is a selective process in which individuals are granted

membership primarily on the basis of commonality of interests and willingness to be

co-operative and to conform to the group norms.

Cohesiveness is the degree of attraction that the group has for each of its members.

Group dynamics is concerned with the interactions and forces between group members

in a social situation.

14.8 Terminal Questions

1. What is a Group? What are its basic characteristics?

2. Distinguish between formal and informal groups.

3. Enumerate the advantages and disad vantages of an informal group.

4. What are the major principles on which group dynamics function?


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14.9 Answers to SAQs and TQs

Self Assessment Questions I

1- Newcomb, 2- attracted to one another. 3- self-esteem

Self Assessment Questions II

1- Organisations goals, 2-Informal Groups, 3- sense of security and belonging

Self Assessment Questions III

1-Informal groups, 2-The adult ego state, 3-Parent ego, 4-Cohesiveness

Self Assessment Questions IV

1- Several people usually provide input to any major decision, 2- acceptance, commitment, 3-

Group decisions

Answers to TQs:

1. Refer to 14.2

2. Refer to 14.4

3. Refer to 14.4.2

4. Refer to 14.7

human resource management notes 14

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