humanitarian logistics for grassroots disaster relief
TRANSCRIPT
University of South Carolina University of South Carolina
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Senior Theses Honors College
5-2017
Humanitarian Logistics for Grassroots Disaster Relief Humanitarian Logistics for Grassroots Disaster Relief
Miller L. Love IV
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HUMANITARIANLOGISTICSFORGRASSROOTSDISASTERRELIEF
By
MillerL.Love,IV
SubmittedinPartialFulfillmentoftheRequirementsfor
GraduationwithHonorsfromtheSouthCarolinaHonorsCollege
May,2017
Approved:
MarkFerguson,Ph.DDirectorofThesis
MichaelGalbreth,Ph.D
SecondReader
SteveLynn,Dean
ForSouthCarolinaHonorsCollege
2
Introduction
InOctober,2015,SouthCarolinaexperiencedseverefloodingacrossthestate,which
interruptedwatersuppliesandcausedlarge-scaledamagetoproperty.Intheaftermath,
manygrassrootsrelieforganizationswereformedtohelpdistributereliefsuppliesand
coordinatevolunteers.Whiletherelieforganizationsprovidedexcellentserviceto
survivorsinthearea,therewerealsoseveralinefficienciesobserved.Donationsofrelief
supplieswerenotdonatedtothesitesthatmostneededthem,leavingsomereliefsites
withexcesssupplieswhileothersitesranlow.Volunteerswouldoverflowaproject
location,asredundantprojectswereplannedbyorganizationswithoutcoordination.Our
teammetshortlythereaftertodiscusstheseinefficienciesanddesignatooltohelpsolve
theproblem.
Beaconisoursolution.Beaconisamobileapplicationdesignedtoassistgrassroots
disasterrelieforganizationsinmanagingreliefsupplies,requestingdonations,and
communicatingwithsurvivors.Theappisdividedintothreesections:Organizations,
Volunteers,andSurvivors.TheOrganizationsectionwillallowrelieforganizationsto
manageinventories,requestdonations,andrecruitVolunteers.TheVolunteersectionwill
allowvolunteerstofindlocationstotakedonationsorprojectstoworkon.Finally,the
Survivorsectionwillallowdisastersurvivorstolocatereliefsitesthathavethesuppliesthe
survivorneeds.
HumanitarianLogisticsisabranchoflogisticswhichstudiesthefieldinthecontext
ofdisasters.ResearchinthefielddividestheDisasterReliefprocessintothreephases:
Preparation,ImmediateRecovery,andReconstruction.Eachphasehasspecifictasksand
theirsub-phases,whichwillbediscussedindetailinthispaper.Iwillexaminegrassroots
DisasterReliefandBeaconinthecontextofHumanitarianLogisticsbydetermininghow
grassrootsreliefdiffersfromtraditionalDisasterReliefineachphase.Iwillalsoexamine
howBeaconcanassistgrassrootsrelieforganizationsapplytheconceptsofHumanitarian
Logistics.Finally,IwillrecommendimprovementstoBeaconwhichallowittobetterapply
theresearchdiscussedinthispaper.
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TableofContentsIntroduction...............................................................................................................................................................................2
Background................................................................................................................................................................................4
TheFlood..................................................................................................................................................................................4
Aftermath.................................................................................................................................................................................5
ReliefEfforts..............................................................................................................................................................................7
GrassrootsReliefEfforts....................................................................................................................................................7
ProblemsinReliefEfforts.................................................................................................................................................7
Beacon...........................................................................................................................................................................................9
DesignOverview...................................................................................................................................................................9
Survivors.................................................................................................................................................................................10
Volunteers..............................................................................................................................................................................11
ReliefOrganizations...........................................................................................................................................................12
OverviewofHumanitarianLogistics........................................................................................................................13
Preparation............................................................................................................................................................................15
ImmediateRecovery..........................................................................................................................................................18
Reconstruction.....................................................................................................................................................................22
GrassrootsDisasterReliefandBeaconintheContextofHumanitarianLogistics........................25
Preparation............................................................................................................................................................................25
ImmediateRecovery..........................................................................................................................................................28
Reconstruction.....................................................................................................................................................................32
Conclusion................................................................................................................................................................................34
References................................................................................................................................................................................36
4
BackgroundTheFlood
FromOctober1sttoOctober5th,2015,SouthCarolinasawrecordrainfallacrossthestate.
Overthatperiod,theCharlestonofficeoftheNationalWeatherService(NWS)reportedrainfall
totalsof27.15inchesinMountPleasant,17.29inchesfortheCharlestonAirport,and16.29inches
forDowntownCharleston(NWS-Charleston2015).InColumbia,NWSreportedrainfalltotalsas
highas21.49inchesfortheGillsCreekareainRichlandCounty,19.81inchesatShawAirForce
Base,andanofficial2-dayrainfallrecordof10.28inchesatColumbiaMetropolitanAirport(NWS-
Columbia2015).
Thehistoricrainfallwasaresultofuniquemeteorologicalconditions.Beginningon
September30th,acoldfrontpassedthroughthestateandstalledalongthecoastforafewdaysdue
tootherweatherfactors.Alow-pressuresystemdevelopedalongthefront,whileastronghigh
pressuresystemdevelopedineasternCanada.Atthesametime,HurricaneJoaquinwasmakingits
wayacrosstheAtlantic.Joaquinwasthe10thnamedstormandthesecondmajorhurricaneofthe
2015Hurricaneseason.WhileJoaquin’spathkeptitfarofftheUSeastcoast,itplayedasignificant
roleintheOctober2015floods.Thecoldfrontcreatedalow-levelflowofftheAtlantic,which
tappedintothemassiveamountsofmoisturethatJoaquinwasdrawingfromthewarmAtlantic
waters.Thelow-levelflowcarriedthatmoistureoverSouthCarolina,leadingtothehistoric
rainfallsdiscussedabove(NWS-Columbia2015).
Theserainsledtotwotypesofseverefloodingaroundthestate.First,manyareas
experiencedflashfloodingcausedbytheextremevolumeofrainthatfelloversuchashortperiod.
Flashfloodingisextremelydangerous;inColumbiaitkilledawomanwhowastrappedinherSUV
afterfloodwaterswasheditofftheroad(LeBlanc2015).Thesefloodwatersquicklywashedout
roadsandbridges,bringingtraveltoahaltandhinderingrescueoperations.
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Theothertypeofflooding,knownasChannelflooding,causedmuchofthedamage
associatedwiththeevent.Channelfloodingoccurswhenrainwatersoricemeltcausesriversand
streamstoescapetheirbanksandfloodtheareasaroundthoseflows.Thisfloodingwas
exacerbatedbythecollapseofseveralprivately-owneddamswhichwereunabletowithstandthe
stresscausedbytheextremevolumesofwater.IntheColumbiaareaalone,atleastsixdams
collapsedundertheweightofthewater(Fretwell2015).Additionally,SouthCarolinaElectric&
Gas(SCE&G)openedthefloodgatesoftheLakeMurrayDamforthefirsttimesince1969tokeep
theriverbelowthemaximumsafelevelof360feet(SouthCarolinaElectric&Gas2015).This
releasewaslargelyresponsibleforthefloodingalongtheSaludariverandforcedhundredsof
peoplewithhomesinthefloodplaintoevacuate.
Recordfloodstageswerereachedinmanyriversinthestate.AccordingtotheUS
GeologicalSurvey(USGS),seventeenstreamgagesinSouthCarolinarecordedthehighestpeak
streamflow,thehighestriverheight(stage),orboth.Fifteenmoregagesrecordedpeaksinthetop
fivefortheirhistory.TheBlackRiveratKingstreerecordedapeakstageof22.65feet,itshighest
stagein87yearsofrecords.TheCongareeRiveratColumbiasetitseighthhigheststageandits
higheststagesince1936withapeakstageof31.8feet.EightoftheUSGSstreamgageswere
destroyedduringtheflood,furtherdemonstratingthedevastatingscaleofthisflood(Feaster,
SheltonandHines2015).
Aftermath
Whentherainendedandthefloodwatersbegantorecede,theextentofthedamagebecame
clear.Thefloodwatershadcausedseveredamagetowatersystemsacrossthestate,leavingmore
than130,000homeswithoutrunningwater,insomecasesformanydays(Bacon2015).Upto
160,000homessustaineddamagefromtheflood,withmanyofthosehomesdestroyedby
floodwaters(Burris2015).Hundredsofroadsandbridgeswereclosed,asfloodwatersblocked
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roads,coveredbridges,orwashedthemaway.Includedintheseclosureswasa74-milestretchof
Interstate95betweenInterstate20andInterstate26,whichisoneofthebusiestinterstate
highwaysontheeastcoast.Driverswhowishedtotravelthisstretchofroadwereforcedtotakea
168-miledetourtobypasstheclosedsectionofhighway(Marusak2015).
Themostimmediateneedsbysurvivorswereshelterandcleanwater.Asmentionedabove,
atleast130,000householdswerewithoutwaterforsomeamountoftime.AccordingtotheSouth
CarolinaEmergencyManagementDivision(SCEMD),morethan20,000peopleweredisplacedfrom
theirhomesasaresultoftheflood.Theseindividualswerehousedin32officialsheltersacross26
counties,aswellasanunknownnumberofunofficialshelters,oftenchurches,thatopenedtheir
doorstodisplacedsurvivors(SCEMD2015).Foodwasanotheritemneededbysurvivors.SCEMD
estimatesmorethantwomillionmealswereservedtosurvivorswhoweredisplacedfromtheir
homesorunabletopreparefoodintheirhomesduetopowerorwateroutages(SCEMD2015).
ManyofthesemealswerepreparedbyvolunteersfromSouthernBaptistDisasterRelief,Harvest
HopeFoodBank,andotherlocalfoodbanks.DriversfromtheAmericanRedCrossthendelivered
uptofourmealseachdaytosheltersacrossthestate.
Therewere14deathsinSouthCarolinaattributedtotheflooding(Bacon2015),andatotal
of25deathsattributedtothestormsystemacrossthreestates(NOAA2016).TheNationalOceanic
andAtmosphericAdministration(NOAA)estimatedthetotaldamagecausedbythefloodtobe
approximatelytwobilliondollars(NOAA2016),whileeconomistsfromtheUSCDarlaMooreSchool
ofBusinessestimateddamagesofabouttwelvebilliondollars(Burris2015).
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ReliefEfforts
GrassrootsReliefEfforts
Mostreliefeffortswereorganizedandcoordinatedbygovernmentrelieforganizationssuch
asFEMA,theNationalGuard,andSCEMD,andlargeNon-GovernmentalOrganizations(NGOs)such
astheAmericanRedCrossandBaptistDisasterRelief.However,therewerealsomanyefforts
organizedbysmallerorganizationslikechurches,neighborhoods,andothergroupsthatformed
organicallyintheaftermathoftheflood.Thesegroupsgathereddonations,organizedvolunteers,
andofferedsheltertosurvivorsdisplacedfromtheirhomes.Mostgroupshadphysicallocations,
andnearlyallofthemcoordinatedsuppliesandvolunteersthroughsocialmedia.
AquicksearchonFacebookturnsupseveralgroupsformedforthispurpose.Thesegroups
varyinsizefromafewdozenmemberstoafewthousandmembersandareorganizedasstatewide
groups,regionalgroups,andneighborhoodspecificgroups.Thepostsinthesegroupsfollowthe
typicalpatternsofDisasterRecovery(see“HumanitarianLogistics,”below),withtheearliestposts
fallingunderthe“ImmediateResponse”categoryandlaterpostsevolvingintorequestsfalling
under“Reconstruction.”Someofthesegroupswerestillactiveatthewritingofthispaper(having
evolvedintomoregeneralreliefgroups),whilemostactivityhadendedbyJanuary2016.
ProblemsinReliefEfforts
Whilegrassrootsreliefeffortshelpedthousandsofpeoplestarttherecoveryprocess,they
werenotwithouttheirproblems.Theselooselyorganizedgroupslackedthecoordinationand
communicationofthetraditionaldisasterrelieforganizations.Asaresult,donatedsuppliesand
volunteeredtimewereusedinefficiently,leadingtowastedtime;excesssuppliesinsomelocations;
andunmetneedforcriticalitemsinotherlocations.
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Mostoftheproblemsobservedcouldbroadlybeattributedtofailuresincommunication.
Thefirstfailurewasincommunicationbetweengrassrootsorganizationsandsurvivors.While
socialmediaprovidedavaluablemeansofcommunicationduringrecoveryefforts,the
asynchronousnatureofcommunicationonsocialmediacreatedinefficiencies.Postsmadeby
organizationswouldidentifythegroup’savailablesuppliesatthetimeofposting,butwouldnot
updateassurvivorsarrivedtocollectthesupplies.Thisleftsurvivorsunsureaboutwhetherthe
reliefsitewouldstillhavetheitemstheyneedwhentheyarrived.
Thesecondfailure,communicationbetweenrelieforganizationsandvolunteers,couldalso
beattributedtotheasynchronousnatureofcommunicationonsocialmedia.Whenarelief
organizationpostedaneedfordonationsorvolunteers,theyhadnowayofindicatingtheir
progressincollectingtheitemsorvolunteerstheyneeded.Thiswouldleadtosomeorganizations
receivingfartoomanydonationsorvolunteers,resultinginaninefficientuseofresources.Some
organizationsexperiencedthereverse,whenarequestwouldgounfilledbydonorsorvolunteers
whohadassumedtherequesthadalreadybeenfilled.
Thethirdfailurewasthelackofcommunicationwithinthegrassrootsorganizationsand
betweenthoseorganizationsandthetraditionalrelieforganizations.Whiletraditional
organizationsoftenhaveworkingrelationshipswitheachother,socialmediaallowedonlylimited
communicationbetweenorganizationswithnoclearleadership.Thispreventedthese
organizationsfromefficientlydistributingsuppliesamongthemselves,astheywereunableto
easilyidentifywhatorganizationsneededtheirexcesssupplies.
IwitnessedthislastinefficiencyfirsthandwhileontheleadershipteamattheUniversityof
SouthCarolinaBaptistCollegiateMinistry(BCM).TheBCMhasabuildingonMainStreetin
downtownColumbiathatisownedbytheSouthCarolinaBaptistConvention.Intheimmediate
aftermathoftheflood,thisbuildingservedasaconvenientlocationforBaptistchurchesaroundthe
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countrytosenddonateditems,particularlycasesofbottledwater.Despitebeingconnectedwith
theSouthCarolinaBaptistConvention(andthusBaptistDisasterRelief),theBCMhadnowayof
identifyinggroupsthatcouldcollectthewatertodistributeittosurvivors.Bythetimewater
servicehadbeenrestoredaroundthestate,theBCMstillhadhundredsofcasesandthousandsof
bottlesofwaterstoredinthebuilding.Thesewerenotsimplyexcesssupplies,butrathersupplies
thatcouldnotbeeasilydistributedduetothelackofcommunicationbetweenorganizations.
Beacon
ThecreationofBeaconcameoutofourobservationoftheproblemsdiscussedabove.Atour
firstmeeting,wedeterminedamobileapplicationcouldbedesignedtosolvetheseproblemsand
helpgrassrootsorganizationsefficientlymanagedonationsandvolunteers.Weinterviewedseveral
individualsinvolvedwithfloodreliefefforts,includinggrassrootsorganizers;leadersintraditional
relieforganizations;andstateemergencymanagers.Theseinterviewshelpedguideourdesign
process,whichwentthroughmanyiterationsbeforearrivingatthedesigndescribedinthesections
below.
DesignOverview
Ourultimatedesignrevolvesaroundahomescreenwiththreebuttonstakingusersto
differentsectionsoftheapplication.Thefirstbuttonwilltakeuserstosectionoftheappdesignated
forsurvivors.Thissectionwillbefocusedonaninteractivemapthatwouldprovidesurvivorswith
informationaboutwheretheycouldfindthesuppliestheyneed.Thesecondbuttonwillbefor
volunteerswhowanttodonatesuppliesortime.Volunteerswillbeabletoidentifyorganizations
thatneedtheirdonationsortheirtimeandcommittoanorganization’srequest.Thethirdbuttonis
fororganizations.Thissectionoftheappwillhavethemostfeaturesofthethree,asitwillallow
10
groupstosignupfortheapp,establishalocation,andrequestdonationsofcertainitemsora
volunteer’stime.
Survivors
TheSurvivorspageprimarilyservesasasourceofinformationforsurvivors,supplying
themthelocationofreliefsitesorsheltersandthesuppliesthosesiteshavetooffer.This
informationisprovidedviaaninteractivemap,whichusesacellphone’slocationservicesto
determineasurvivor’slocation(greenpin)andhelpthemlocatetheclosestreliefsite.Survivors
willbeabletofilterthemapbasedonthesuppliesandservicestheyneed(smallredmarkers),and
themapwillshowthemallthelocationswithinapredefinedradiusthatofferthoseitems(red
pins).Oncealocationisselected,theuserwillbeabletolinkoutoftheapptotheirphone’s
navigationappandgetdirectionstothesite.Anearlymockupofthisportionoftheappcanbe
viewedinFigure1below.
Thissectionoftheapphelpsbridgetheinformationgapbetweensurvivorsandrelief
organizationsthatweobservedduringrecoveryeffortsaftertheflood.Byprovidingacentral
Figure1
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sourceofinformation,survivorswillbeabletoquicklyandeasilylocatethesuppliestheyneed
withoutwastingtimedrivingaroundlookingforwhattheyneed.
Volunteers
TheVolunteerpagewilllookliketheSurvivorpage,butwithadditionalscreenstofacilitate
donations.LiketheSurvivorpage,themainviewoftheVolunteerpageisaninteractivemap.Before
viewingthismap,userswhoselectthevolunteerpagewillbepromptedtoindicatewhatitemsor
howmuchtimetheyhavetooffer.Oncethevolunteerentersthisinformationorchoosestoskip
enteringtheirinformation,theappwillthentakethemtothemaptoshowthesitesthatneedthe
itemsthevolunteerhas.LiketheSurvivorpage,themapviewcanbefilteredbasedonadistance
radiussetbytheuser.TheVolunteerpagewillhaveanadditionalviewtotheSurvivorspage,for
volunteerswhowanttovolunteertheirtime.Thisviewwillbeintheformofalist,whichshowsall
thereliefsitesorprojectsthatneedvolunteersduringthetimetheuserhasspecifiedtheyare
available.Eachentryinthislistwillhaveinformationabouttheproject,thelocationormeeting
placefortheproject/reliefsite,andthecontactinformationfortheorganizeroftheproject/relief
site.Figure2belowshowsearlymockupsoftheVolunteerpagedescribedinthissection.
Figure2
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Thissectionoftheapphelpssolvetocommunicationproblemsbetweenrelieforganizations
andvolunteers.Thecommunicationproblemledtothemisallocationofresourcesacrossrelief
sites,astheorganizationshadnowayofeasilyupdatingtheirneedsastheyreceiveddonations
fromvolunteers.Byallowingvolunteerstorespondtorequestsbycommittingtimeordonations
andthentrackingthosecommitments,theappwillensuredonationsareproperlyallocatedacross
reliefsites.Thisallowsvolunteerstobeconfidenttheirdonationswillbeusedinthemostefficient
waypossible.
ReliefOrganizations
Thefinalsectionoftheappisforrelieforganizations.Thissectionwillbemorecomplex
thanthefirsttwo,astheapprequiresmoreinputfromtheorganizationsthanotherusers.Thefirst
stepforarelieforganizationistosignupfortheapp.Theregistrationpagewillallownewusersto
createasecureaccountfortheirorganizationtomaintaintheorganization’sstatusontheapp.The
registrationpagewillaskorganizersforinformationabouttheirorganization,includingthe
address,operatinghours,andotherinformationtheywishtoprovide.Oncetheaccountiscreated,
usersinthissectionwillbetakentoadashboardwheretheycanmanagetheirorganization’s
presenceontheapp.Thedashboardwillalloworganizationstorequestitemsfordonation,setup
projectsthatneedvolunteers,updatetheinventorythatissharedwithsurvivors,andtrackthe
statusoftherequestsandprojects.
Undertherequestspage,theorganizationswillbeabletoposttheitemstheyneedandthe
quantityofeachitem.Theywillalsobeabletoestablishworkprojectsthatneedvolunteersto
completethem.Theprojectcreationsectionwillalloworganizationstoprovideinformationabout
thetime,location,andskillsneededfortheproject.Theinventorymanagementsectionwill
populatebasedontherequestspostedbytheorganizationsandcanbeupdatedasdonationsarrive.
Theorganizationcanalsoaddtheitemstheyalreadyhaveavailableforsurvivorspriortosigning
13
upfortheapp.Thelastpagewillallowtheorganizationtotrackcommitmentsfromvolunteersto
ensuretheirrequestsarebeingmet.Anearlymockupofsomeofthepagesdiscussedinthissection
canbeseeninFigure3below.
Thissectionoftheappisthecentralinformationsourceforeachoftheothersections.Both
communicationproblemswhichinvolveindividuals(communicationbetweenvolunteersandrelief
organizationsandcommunicationbetweensurvivorsandrelieforganizations)requireinformation
tobesharedfromtherelieforganizationstobothsurvivorsandvolunteers.TheReliefOrganization
pageallowstheorganizationstomanagetheinformationtheappprovidestootheruserstoensure
everyuserhasthemostaccurateinformationavailable.Thiswillensureusersareabletomake
informeddecisionsaboutwheretotakedonationsorpickupsupplies,guaranteeingamore
efficientdisasterrecovery.
Figure3
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OverviewofHumanitarianLogistics
HumanitarianLogisticsasafieldencompassesthelogisticsoperationsassociatedwith
HumanitarianRelief.Aptedefinesthefieldas“thespecialbranchoflogisticswhichmanages
responsesupplychainofcriticalsuppliesandserviceswithchallengessuchasdemandsurges,
uncertainsupplies,criticaltimewindowsinfaceofinfrastructurevulnerabilitiesandvastscopeand
sizeoftheoperations”(Apte2010).TheUnitedNationsWorldFoodProgramandDoctorsWithout
BordersbothuseadefinitionbyThomasandMizushima,whichsaysHumanitarianLogisticsis“the
processofplanning,implementing,andcontrollingtheefficient,cost-effectiveflow,andstorageof
goodsandmaterials,aswellasrelatedinformation,fromthepointoforigintothepointof
consumptionforthepurposeofmeetingtheendbeneficiaries’requirements”(Thomasand
Mizushima2005).HumanitarianLogisticsisdistinguishedfromtraditionallogisticsinitsfocuson
positiveoutcomesforitsbeneficiaries,ratherthanreducingcostsandcreatingvalueforan
organization.Whiletypicalkeyperformanceindicatorsintraditionallogisticsarecost,quality,and
deliveryperformance,successinhumanitarianlogisticscanbemeasuredinsurvivalratesand
recoverytime.
TheliteratureofHumanitarianLogisticshasanalmostuniversalunderstandingofthe
primarystreamsofthefield.KovácsandSpensdistinguishtwomainstreamsofhumanitarian
logistics:ContinuousAidWorkandDisasterRelief(KovácsandSpens2007).ContinuousAidWork
generallyreferstoreliefeffortsforlargescaleandlong-termproblems,suchasfamine,drought,or
disease.TheworkinAfricatoendtheHIV/AIDSepidemicisprobablythehighestprofileexampleof
suchreliefwork.DisasterReliefreferstotheresponsetoman-madeornaturaldisasterssuchas
earthquakes,floods,orterroristattacks.Thereliefeffortsdiscussedinsectionsabovefallintothis
category,asdotheresponsestoeventssuchasHurricaneKatrinaortheHaitiearthquake.
15
Whiletheopen-endednatureofcontinuousreliefpreventsitfromhavingclearphases,
DisasterReliefhasthreedistinctphasesthatoccurbefore,during,andafteradisaster.Kovácsand
Spenscallthesephases“Preparation,ImmediateResponse,andReconstruction”(KovácsandSpens
2007),whileÇelik,et.al.usethefourphasesofMitigation,Preparedness,Response,andRecovery
(Çelik,etal.2012).ThesectionsbelowwilldiscusseachofKovács’andSpens’categoriesindetail,
withadiscussionÇeliket.al.’smitigationphaseincludedinthePreparationsection.
Preparation
PreparationisthefirstphaseofDisasterRelief.Itcanbefurtherdividedintotwoparts,
GeneralDisasterPreparednessandPre-disasterPreparation.GeneralDisasterPreparedness
encompassesactionstakenbyemergencymanagersandrelieforganizationswhenthereisno
specificthreatofdisaster.Theseactionsincludedevelopinglogisticsnetworks,negotiating
contractswithsuppliers,andbuildinginventoriesofnon-perishablegoods.Pre-disaster
Preparationincludesstagingsupplies,preparingroadways,andensuringsuppliershavethe
capacitytomeetdemandintheaftermathofadisaster.DisasterMitigationisalsoanimportantpart
ofthePreparationphaseofDisasterRelief,asthemostefficientwayofrespondingtoadisasteris
preventingthemfromeverhappening.
WhilemostoftheliteratureonHumanitarianLogisticsincludesDisasterMitigationasa
partofthePreparationphaseofDisasterRelief,Çeliket.al.discussitasaseparate,fourthphaseof
theprocess.Ineithercase,DisasterMitigationreferstoeffortstakentopreventdisastersorreduce
theirseverity.Inthecaseofman-madedisasterssuchasterroristattacksornuclearaccidents,
Mitigationtakestheformofintelligencegathering,heightenedsecurity,andsafetyproceduresand
protocols.Themitigationofnaturaldisasterstakestheformofinfrastructureimprovements,the
prescribedburningofforests,orthecontrolledreleaseofavalanches.AltayandGreenalsoinclude
16
zoninglaws,buildingcodes,andinsurancecoverageasimportantmitigationactivities(Altayand
GreenIII2005).
Despitebeingviewedasasubsectionofdisasterpreparationinmostoftheliterature,
mitigationisthemoststudiedofanyphaseofDisasterRelief.InareviewofOperationsResearch
articlesdiscussingDisasterRelief,AltayandGreenfoundthat44%ofthearticlestheyreviewed
addresstheMitigationphase(AltayandGreenIII2005).Çeliket.al.foundthatalmosthalfofthose
articlesaddressriskanalysisofdisasterscenarios(Çelik,etal.2012).Theotherhalfofthepapers
includelogisticstopicsinfourdifferentareas:“networkdesignandroutingofhazardousmaterial
transportation,locationofearlywarningsystems,locationofunreliablefacilities,and
implementationofprotectionsystemsforvulnerablefacilities”(Çelik,etal.2012).
GeneralDisasterPreparationisthebroadestcategoryofanyphase,coveringanyofthe
actionstakenbyemergencymanagersorrelieforganizationstoprepareforfuturedisasters.
AccordingtoKovácsandSpens,thisisthetimeforgroupstodevelopresponseplans,collaborateon
last-miledeliverystrategies,andtrainstaffonresponsescenarios(KovácsandSpens2007).Kovács
andSpensalsoemphasizetheimportanceofdevelopingrelationshipswithsuppliersduringthis
phase(KovácsandSpens2007).Negotiatinglong-termpurchaseagreementsduringthistimecan
ensuretherelieforganizationhasaccesstothesuppliestheyneedwhenrespondingtoadisaster.
Inadditiontomuchoftheabove,Çeliket.al.discusstheimportanceofstandardsupply
chainplanningactionswhenpreparingforfuturedisasters.Amongthesearedecisionssuchas
facilitylocation,resourceallocation,andtransportationplanning(Çelik,etal.2012).Manyofthese
decisionscanbemadeusingthetoolsusedintraditionalsupplychains,howeverseveralmodels
havebeendevelopedtooptimizeformeasureswhicharemoreusefulinreliefoperations.Such
measuresincluderesponsetime,fairnessinresourcedistribution,andnumberofcasualties(Çelik,
etal.2012).
17
OnesuchmodelisaFacilityLocationModeldevelopedbyBalcikandBeamon.Themodelis
anadaptationofthemaximalcoveringlocationmodelwhichconsidersthelikelihoodofadisaster
ineachregion,thebudgetallocatedtopre-positioningsupplies,andthecriticalityofeachitemtype
tosurvival,inadditiontothetraditionalcostandcapacitymetricsusedinlocationcalculations
(BalcikandBeamon2008).ByconsideringadditionalinformationpertinenttoDisasterRelief,this
modelprovidesresultswhichimprovecoverageandresponsetimeinadisaster.
ThesecondphaseinthepreparationphaseisPre-disasterPreparation.Thisphasetakes
placebetweenwhenadisasterisforecastedandwhenitoccurs.Pre-disasterPreparationdoesnot
occurinalldisasters,asnotalldisasterscanbeforecasted.Earthquakes,tsunamis,andman-made
disasters(suchasterroristattacksornuclearplantmalfunctions)cannotbepredictedor
specificallypreparedfor.Hurricanes,someflooding,andblizzardsareallpredictabletosome
extent,andthusallowforspecificpreparationstooccurbeforetheyhit.
ThePre-disasterPreparationphasecoverstheactionstakentoprepareforanexpected
disaster.Theliteraturealmostuniversallyemphasizestheimportanceofpre-positioningrelief
resourcesduringthisphase.Makingthecorrectdecisionsaboutthepositioningofresourcesbefore
adisasterwillresultinmoreeffectivedistributionofsuppliesandrescueoperationstosurvivors.
SalmerónandAptehavedevelopedatwo-stagestochasticoptimizationmodelforthe
prepositioningofresourcesbeforeadisaster.Themodelminimizesexpectedcasualtiesandunmet
demandtodeterminethelocationstopositionresourcesandthequantitiesofresourcestoplaceat
thoselocations(SalmerónandApte2010).Inthesecondstage,itusesthesameminimizationsto
determinehowtodistributenewlyreceivedresourcesorredistributeunusedresourceswhilealso
consideringtheeffectivenessofthefirststagedecisions(SalmerónandApte2010).Suchamodel
ensuresresourcesaredistributedefficientlytomeetthegreatestdemandandhelpthemostpeople.
18
Çeliket.al.discussamoregeneraltwo-stagestochasticdecisionmodelthatcombinesthe
decisionsofGeneralPreparationandPre-disasterPreparationintoasingleframeworkandhas
beenappliedbyseveralresearchers.Thefirststage,whichtheycall“hereandnow”decisions
(Çelik,etal.2012),aredecisionsthataremadeintheGeneralPreparationphase.Inthemodel,
thesedecisions,suchaswarehouselocationsandinitialresourceallocation,aremadewithahigh
levelofuncertaintyastothenatureofthedisaster(Çelik,etal.2012).Onceadisasterscenariois
known,thesecond-stagedecisions,whicharecalled“waitandsee”decisions(Çelik,etal.2012),
canbemade.Theprimarysecond-stagedecisionistheprepositioningofsupplies.Thisdecision
(andotherslikeit),ismadeasafunctionofthefirst-stagedecisionsandthenatureofthe
impendingdisaster(Çelik,etal.2012).Themodelswhichfollowthisframeworkaimtohelprelief
providersmakedecisionsinthefaceofuncertaintybyconsideringtheprobabilityofagiven
disasterscenarioandminimizingaselectedmeasuresuchasunmetdemandorthenumberof
casualtiesamonginitialsurvivors(Çelik,etal.2012).
ImmediateRecovery
ImmediateRecovery,sometimescalledResponse,beginswiththestartofthedisasterand
continuesuntilthesituationhasstabilizedandsurvivorscanbegintheReconstructionphase.Altay
andGreendefinethisphaseas“theemploymentofresourcesandemergencyproceduresasguided
byplanstopreservelife,property,theenvironment,andthesocial,economic,andpolitical
structureofthecommunity”(AltayandGreenIII2005).Muchoftheworkdoneduringthisphase
involvesrescuingstrandedsurvivorsanddistributingcriticalsuppliestosurvivorsthatneedthem.
AlloftheliteratureIrevieweddividesthisphaseintotwomajortopics:DistributionandInventory
Management.
Distributioninvolvestheplanningandexecutionofstrategiestoensurecriticalsuppliesare
deliveredtosurvivorsinneed.Distributionintheaftermathofadisasterisfilledwithuncertainty,
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asitisoftenimpossibletodeterminetheroadconditionsofaroutewhencreatingadistribution
plan.Additionally,fuelshortagesindisasterareascancausesignificantproblemsindistributing
supplies.KovácsandSpenspresentseveraldistribution-relatedproblemsthatoccurinthe
responsephase,includingfacilitylocation,thelastmileproblem,andalackofcoordination
betweenrelieforganizations(KovácsandSpens2007).Theyalsoassignthecoordinationproblem
toinventorymanagement,asdoafewotherauthors.
WhilefacilitylocationiscompletedduringthePreparationphase,poorfacilitylocationcan
havealargenegativeimpactondistribution.Intraditionaldistributionmodels,centraldistribution
centersareoftenconsideredthemostefficientchoice.However,Longarguesthatsuchamodelis
detrimentalinDisasterRelief,asvictimsareoftenunabletotraveltothedistributioncentersand
damagetoinfrastructuremaypreventrelieforganizationsfromdeliveringsuppliesfromthe
distributioncentertosurvivors(Long1997).Instead,Longclaimsdecentralizeddistributionis“of
utmosthumanitarianimportance”(Long1997),asthisallowsresourcesdistributionsitestobe
locatedclosertosurvivorsinneed.
“Lastmiledistributionisthefinalstageofthereliefchain;itreferstodeliveryofrelief
suppliesfrom[distributioncenters]tothepeopleintheaffectedareas”(Balcik,Beamonand
Smilowitz2008).Thelastmileiswheremanyofthechallengesofdistributionaremet.Aslastmile
distributionoccursinthedisaster-affectedarea,portionsoftransportationinfrastructureisoften
renderedunusable,forcingdeliveriestoberoutedalongcostlydetours.Additionally,demandfor
suppliesisoftenerraticandunknown,makingtheefficientloadingoflast-miledeliveryvehicles
challenging.
Balcik,Beamon,andSmilowitzhavedevelopedamodeltooptimizelast-miledistribution
routinginadisasterscenario.Theirmodeldeterminesoptimalroutesbyminimizingroutingcosts
andunmetdemand,subjecttotheavailablesupplies,thecapacityofdeliveryvehicles,andthetime
20
availablefortransportation(Balcik,BeamonandSmilowitz2008).Themodelisonlyeffective,
however,wheninformationaboutroadandtrafficconditionsiscorrect.Tothisend,themodel
mustbecombinedwithinformationfromIntelligentTransportationSystems(ITS)tofunction
efficiently.Balcik,Beamon,andSmilowitzemphasizetheimportanceusingreal-timeGISdatato
assesstransportationnetworkinfrastructure(Balcik,BeamonandSmilowitz2008).Accordingto
theauthors,“suchdatawouldbevaluableinlastmiledistributionifitcouldbetransmittedto
vehiclesusingavailablecommunicationdevices.Inthisway,driverscouldbeapprisedofroad
conditionsandchangestodeliveryschedules”(Balcik,BeamonandSmilowitz2008).Whilethe
intentofthemodelistocreateschedules,whichdonotneedtochange,theuncertainnatureof
DisasterReliefdistributionmeansroadconditionsmaydeteriorateorsurvivorsmayberequiredto
move,necessitatingachangeinschedulethatmustbepushedtodrivers.
ThesecondtopicintheImmediateRecoveryphaseisInventoryManagement.Thistopic
coversthedecisionsaboutwhatresourcestouseandwheretosendthem,thehandlingofin-kind
donationsfromvolunteers,andkeepingresourcesorganizedforeasyretrieval.LikeDistribution,
KovácsandSpensidentifyproblemswhichaffectInventoryManagement.Inparticular,they
identifyunusabledonations,thelackofstandardlabellingforsupplies,andpoorcommunication
betweenrelieforganizationsasthemostimportantissuestoconsider(KovácsandSpens2007).
Unusabledonationsareoftenamajorproblemforlargerelieforganizations,asthe
donationstakevaluabletimetosortandfilllimitedstoragespace.Thedonationscanevenbe
dangerousinsomecases,suchasexpireddrugsorfood.AccordingtoMurray,“Inappropriate
donationsaresocommonthatreliefmissionsnowroutinelybringincineratorswiththemtothe
sceneofadisastertodestroyitemsthatmaybedangerousorarecloggingupthesystem”(Murray
2005).Relieforganizationsoftenrecommendvolunteerswishingtodonategivemoneyratherthan
in-kinddonations,whichallowstherelieforganizationtopurchasethesuppliesmostneededby
survivors.
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Thelackofstandardlabelingofsuppliesisanotherproblemwhichaffectsrelief
organizations(KovácsandSpens2007).Organizationsoftenreceivedeliveriesofsimilaritems
frommultiplesources,whichusedifferentsystemsforidentifyingthesameitems.Poorlabeling
makeslocatingitemsmoredifficultforreliefworkers,resultinginworkersspendingmoretime
lookingforitemsandlesstimedeliveringthoseitemstosurvivors.AccordingtoMurray,some
organizationshavetakentocolor-codingitemsonreceipt,suchasusingredforfooditemsorblue
forclothes(Murray2005).Suchasystemmakeslocatingitemsasimpletaskandcanbeeasily
taughttovolunteers,resultinginthemoreefficientdeliveryofsuppliestosurvivors.
BeamonandKotlebahavedevelopedamodelforinventorymanagementinhumanitarian
reliefoperations.Whilethemodeltheydevelopedisintendedforlong-termHumanitarianRelief
scenarios,itcanbeusedforshort-termdisasterresponsewhichisexpectedtolastbeyondthe
initialinventoryofreliefsupplies(i.e.supplieswillbereordered).Thismodelgivesrelief
organizationsamethodforcalculatingtwosetsofinventorypolicies,StandardandEmergency
(BeamonandKotleba2006).AreorderwiththeStandardreordersizeisplacedwheninventory
levelsreachtheStandardreorderlevelandaredeliveredaccordingtotheStandardleadtime
(BeamonandKotleba2006).However,asdemandforreliefsuppliesisoftenhighlyerratic,a
secondinventorypolicyisnecessarytoreducethechanceofastock-out.Shouldinventorylevels
reachtheEmergencyreorderpoint,theorganizationwillplaceanorderusingtheEmergency
reordersize,whichwillbedeliveredusingthefasterEmergencyleadtime(BeamonandKotleba
2006).Themodelcalculateseachofthesevaluesbyconsideringthecostsassociatedwitheach
inventorypolicy,theexpecteddemandrate,andtheprobabilityofastock-out(BeamonandKotleba
2006).Whenarelieforganizationreceivesmostoftheirreliefsuppliesfromoneormoresuppliers,
thismodelensurestheymaintainefficientinventorylevelsandavoidastock-out,whichis
potentiallydeadlyduringreliefoperations.
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ThelackofcoordinationbetweenrelieforganizationscausesproblemsbothinDistribution
andinInventoryManagement.Therearefrequentlymanyorganizationsthatrespondtoadisaster,
allwiththegoalofprovidingrelieftosurvivors.However,theseorganizationsdonotusually
coordinatetheirefforts,leadingtoduplicatedeffortsindistribution(KovácsandSpens2007).
Redundantdistributionplansresultinwastedtimeandsupplies,assomesurvivorswillbeserved
multipletimes,whileothersmaybemissedaltogether.Fromaninventorymanagement
perspective,thelackofcoordinationcreatesconfusionabouttheavailabilityofresourcesinthe
area(KovácsandSpens2007),leadingtooverpurchasingsupplieswhenanotherorganizationmay
havetheneededsuppliesavailablejustdowntheroad.
TheUnitedNationshastakenstepstoimproveonthecoordinationproblemthroughthe
developmentoftheLogisticsSupportSystem(LSS).Thesystemwasdevelopedincoordinationwith
theWorldHealthOrganization(WHO),UNICEF,theWorldFoodProgramme(WFP),andother
NationalandInternationalOrganizations.TheLSSservesto“consolidateandshareinformationon
alimitednumberofkeycommoditiesbetweenallactorstofacilitateinter-institutional
coordination”(Martinez2015).LSSallowsparticipatingorganizationstohaveamorecomplete
understandingoftheavailableresourcesinareliefzoneandcoordinatethedeliverysuppliesthey
donothavewithotherorganizations.However,notallrelieforganizationsareabletoparticipatein
theLSS,soitisonlyabletogiveanincompleteviewoftheavailablesuppliesinthereliefzone.A
systemwhichincludesallrelieforganizations,includinggrassrootsorganizations,wouldprovide
completeinformationabouttheavailableresourcesandalloweffectivecoordinationamong
organizations.
Reconstruction
ThefinalphaseofDisasterReliefisReconstruction,whichÇeliket.al.alsocallRecovery
(Çelik,etal.2012).Reconstructiontakesplacefromwhenthedisasterareahasstabilizedand
23
criticalservicesarerestored(powerandwater)towhentheareahasfullyrecoveredfromthe
disaster.Asdisastersspanalargescaleofseverity,Reconstructioncanlastfromafewmonthsto
manyyears.Inthemostseverescenarios,areasmaybeabandonedratherthanrebuilt,suchasin
thecaseofthenuclearincidentinChernobyl,Ukraine.Followinganexplosioninanuclearreactor
attheChernobylnuclearpowerplantin1986,tensofthousandsofpeoplewereforcedtoevacuate
theirhomestoescapedeadlyradioactivefallout.Asradioactivematerialsremaindangerousfor
decades,entiretownswereabandonedandmanyevacueeswereforcedtopermanentlyresettle.
AccordingtotheChernobylReport,nearly500,000peopleinUkraine,Russia,andBelaruswere
forcedtoresettleduetotheincident(Gray2002).
ActionsthatoccurduringReconstructionincluderestoringinfrastructure,cleaningand
rebuildinghomesandbusinesses,anddemolishingdestroyedstructures.WorldVision,an
internationalrelieforganization,hascreatedathree-phaseresponseplanwhichcoversboththe
ImmediateResponsephaseandReconstruction:7-days,30-days,and90-days(KovácsandSpens
2007).Theseven-dayphasefallsunderImmediateResponseandWorldVisionprovidesthe
servicesthatwouldberequiredduringthatphase(seeabove).The30-dayphasespansbothphases
inseverdisasters,butusuallymarksthebeginningoftheReconstructionphaseifithasnotyet
started.Duringthisphase,WorldVisionprovidessurvivorswith“survivalkits”whichcansustaina
familyfor30days(KovácsandSpens2007),andshouldalsocontaincleaningsupplieswhen
relevanttodisasterrecovery(suchasfollowingaflood).Finally,the90-dayphasefocusesonlong-
termrehabilitationforsurvivors,whichincludesprovidingassistanceforfixingdamagetohomes
andbusinessesandbuildingnewhomesfordisplacedfamilies(KovácsandSpens2007).
TheliteratureonReconstructionismuchmorelimitedwhencomparedtotheotherphases.
Thisislikelyduetothelackoffundingforlong-termreconstruction;asthegrant-basedfunding
relieforganizationsrelyonisbiasedtowardshort-termresponse(Gustavsson2003).Theliterature
thatdoesexistandmyownobservationsidentifytwoimportantissuesinReconstruction:Post-
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disasterdebrisandwastemanagement(Çelik,etal.2012)andthemanagementofexcessrelief
supplies.
Disastersoftenleaveenormousamountsofdebrisintheirwake,whichmustbecleanedup
anddisposedofinaresponsiblemanner.AccordingtoÇeliket.al.,“postdisasterdebrisandwaste
managementcanbeaverycostlyandcomplicatedprocess”(Çelik,etal.2012).Someestimatesof
thesizeofdebrisgeneratedbyadisastercanbeashighasfifteentimestheannualwastegenerated
bytheaffectedarea(Brown,MilkeandSevilla2011).Themakeupofthisdebriscanbehighly
variable,spanningfromnaturaldebris,structuredebris,andgeneralwaste.Effectivelymanaging
thiswasteisimportanttokeepingsurvivorssafe,buttherearestillgapsinthemanagementof
disasterwaste.
Brown,Milke,andSevillaidentifyseveralproblemsandoffersomeguidanceonclosingthe
gaps.Alackoffundingisasignificantchallengetowastemanagement,aslimitedfundingposesa
challengetocollectingwaste,whichinturnthreatenspublichealth(Brown,MilkeandSevilla
2011).Environmentally,therelaxationofregulationsduringdisasterrecoverycancauselong-term
damagetotheenvironment.Specifically,reducedrecyclinglevels,increaseduseofopenburning,
andrelaxeddisposalregulationsareallusedtoexpediteclean-upwork(Brown,MilkeandSevilla
2011).Ingeneral,animprovedunderstandingoftheinstitutionalaspectsofdisasterwaste
managementiscrucialtoimprovingtheefficiencyandeffectivenessofmanagingwasteinthe
aftermathofadisaster.
IwasunabletoidentifyanyliteratureregardingreverselogisticsinthecontextofDisaster
Relief.Thisisperhapsthemostoverlookedtopicinhumanitarianlogistics,buthasthepotentialto
incurlargecostsfororganizationsthathavenotplannedforthem.Afterrecoveryfromadisasteris
complete,manyorganizationshavesuppliesstagedatdistributioncentersnearthedisasterarea.
Organizationsshouldrelocatethesesuppliesatthispoint,butoftenlacktheresourcesorcapacity
25
todoso.Thisisparticularlyaproblemfordisaster-specificorganizationsthatformintheaftermath
ofadisaster,asthoseorganizationsdonothavealargerorganizationwhichcanrecovertheunused
suppliesandredistributethemtootherlocationsthatneedthem.Myownobservationsofthis
scenariocanbefoundintheReliefEffortssection.
Thelackofresearchonthistopiccanlikelybeattributedtoalackofconsiderationof
reverselogisticsasapartoftheDisasterReliefprocess.DuringtheReconstructionphase,the
emphasisofDisasterReliefrightlymovesfromrelieforganizationstoindividuals,businesses,and
governmentsrebuildingbuildingsandinfrastructure.Thereislittleinterestinhowarelief
organizationendsoperationsinadisasterarea.Potentialareasofresearchforthistopiccould
includethecurrentstateofreverselogisticsinDisasterRelief,theapplicationoftraditionalreverse
logisticsmodelstoDisasterRelief,andthedevelopmentofnewmodelsspecificallyforDisaster
Relief.
GrassrootsReliefandBeaconintheContextofHumanitarianLogistics
Asdiscussedabove,Beaconisatooldesignedtohelpgrassrootsrelieforganizations
coordinatereliefsupplies,donations,andvolunteersintheaftermathofadisaster.Whilethebody
ofresearchinhumanitarianlogisticsfocusesonthetraditionalrelieforganizations,thereare
lessonsineachphaseoftheDisasterReliefprocessthatcanbeappliedtograssrootsrelief
organizations.Beaconhasbeendesignedtosolvesomeoftheseproblems,buttherearestillareas
whereBeaconcanbeimproved.Inthissection,IwillexamineBeaconinthecontextofeachphase
oftheDisasterReliefprocess,identifyingtheproblemsitsolvesandtheareaswhereitcanstillbe
improved.
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Preparation
ThePreparationphaseisthemostdifficultphaseforagrassrootsrelieforganization.Many
grassrootsrelieforganizationsonlyformafteradisasterhasalreadyoccurred,forcingthemtoskip
preparationandmovestraighttoimmediaterecovery.However,someorganizationsareable
completeoneorbothtypesofpreparation,andBeaconcanhelpthemwiththis.
FewgrassrootsorganizationsgetthebenefitofGeneralDisasterPreparation.Most
organizationsformafteradisaster,andthosethatformbeforeadisastertypicallydosotoprepare
foraspecificdisaster.Afewnon-traditionalrelieforganizations,suchaschurches,maygetthe
chancetocompletesomeamountgeneraldisasterpreparation,whichtheyshouldspendbuilding
relationshipswithotherorganizations,bothtraditionalandgrassroots.Theserelationshipsbenefit
allpartiesaswellasthecommunityatlarge.
Grassrootsorganizationsthathaverelationshipswithothergrassrootsorganizationscan
providebettersupporttotheircommunityinadisaster.Theycanworkwithotherorganizationsto
coordinatethedeliveryofcriticalsuppliesthathavebeendonated,especiallyuniqueneedsthat
maynotbeavailableateveryreliefsite.Traditionalrelieforganizationsbenefitfromrelationships
withgrassrootsorganizationsduetothegrassrootsorganizations’proximitytothecommunitythat
mayonedaybehitbyadisaster.Havingarelationshipwithagrassrootsorganization,especially
onewithapermanentlocation,givesthetraditionalrelieforganizationsaccesstoreliefworkers
familiarwiththecommunityandalocationtostageanddistributereliefsupplies.Inexchange,the
grassrootsorganizationgetsaccesstothetraditionalorganization’sresourcesandcanensurethe
traditionalorganizationismeetingtheneedsoftheircommunity.
Beacon’sroleduringGeneralDisasterPreparationislimited.Beaconisprimarilymeantfor
managingdonationsduringadisaster,whichcannothappenuntiladisasterhasbeenpredictedor
hasoccurred.However,theteammanagingBeaconstillhasimportantworktododuringthisphase.
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Likemostcrowdsourcedapps,Beaconbenefitsfromnetworkeffects.Asmore
organizations,survivors,andvolunteersusetheapp,itprovidesbetterinformationtoeveryuser
andensuresmorepeoplegetthehelptheyneed.Toachievethesenetworkeffects,thepublicmust
beawareofBeacon.DuringGeneralDisasterPreparation,theteammanagingBeaconshouldbe
workingtopromotetheapp.Thiscouldincludeworkingwithlocal,state,andfederalemergency
managementofficestoincludeBeaconontheirlistsofitemstoincludeinadisasterpreparedness
kit.Itshouldalsoincludeparticipatingindisasterpreparednesseventsthatarehostedby
governmentandnon-governmentalorganizationstopromotetheapp.
MoregrassrootsorganizationscanparticipateinthePre-disasterPreparationportionofthe
Preparationphase.Inadditiontothestandinggrassrootsrelieforganizationswhichparticipatein
generaldisasterpreparation,somedisasterspecificorganizationsareformedpriortothedisaster
andgetthebenefitsofpre-disasterpreparation.
Thegrassrootsorganization’spre-disasterpreparationwilllookmuchlikethepreparations
donebytraditionalrelieforganizations,albeitonasmallerscale.Theorganizationwillbegin
collectingreliefsupplies,identifyinglocationstouseasdistributionsites,andrecruitingvolunteers.
Themajoritygrassrootsorganizationswillnothavepurchaseagreementswithsuppliers,soany
reliefsuppliestheycollectpriortothedisasterwilleitherbedonatedorpurchasedfromlocal
stores.
Additionally,grassrootsreliefworkerswilloftenliveanareaexpectedtobeimpactedby
thedisasterandmustpreparetobeimpactedthemselves.Theorganizationmayalsobeaffectedby
adisaster,sothepreparationphaseshouldincludepreparingtoreacttodamagedinfrastructure.
Whenthedisasterisexpectedtocauselarge-scalepoweroutages,theorganizationshouldhaveor
beabletoaccessageneratortopoweranycriticalitems.Theyshouldalsobepreparedfortheloss
ofpotablewaterforanextendedperiod,asthisoftenoccursfollowingsevereflooding.Finally,
28
reliefworkersshouldbepreparedtostayatthereliefsiteformultipledays,asdamageto
infrastructuremaymakereturninghomedangerousorimpossible.
Beacon’sroleduringpre-disasterpreparationsistohelpgrassrootsorganizationsbegin
organizingtheirreliefefforts.Duringthisphase,organizationswillregisterwiththeapp,establish
reliefsites,registerinventoryofthesuppliestheyhave,andbeginrequestingdonations.While
InventoryManagementisnotatopictypicallydiscussedduringthepreparationphase,itisan
importanttopicfororganizationsusingBeacon.DuringtheImmediateResponsephase,anaccurate
inventorycountiscrucialtoensuresurvivorsareawareofwheretheycaneasilyaccesssupplies
andensurevolunteers’donationsareusedasefficientlyaspossible.So,determiningthecorrect
quantitiesofvarioussuppliesandensuringanaccuratecountisregisteredintheappiscriticalto
BeaconbeingsuccessfulfromthebeginningoftheImmediateResponsephase.
TherearemanywaysBeaconcouldbeimprovedinthePreparationphase.DuringGeneral
DisasterPreparation,itcouldofferwaysforgrassrootsorganizationstocommunicatewithother
organizations.Organizationsinthesamegeneralareacouldbuildanetworkwithoneanother
whichtheycanleverageduringadisaster,whilemoredistantorganizationscouldshareideas;
successes;andfailurestohelpthecommunityofgrassrootsDisasterRelief.Beaconcouldalso
partnerwithtraditionalrelieforganizationstoconnectthoseorganizationswiththegrassroots
organizations.ThiswouldhelpfacilitatetheconnectionsbetweenthetwogroupswhichI
recommendabove.
Beaconcouldalsobeimprovedtoutilizethefacilitylocationmodeldiscussedabove.A
grassrootsorganizationmayhavemultipleoptionsforlocatingareliefsite,withoutthemanpower
toutilizeeachlocation.Theappcouldasktheuserafewquestionsabouttheareaandthen
determinewhichlocationwillbemosteffectiveatprovidingrelief.Implementingthemodelcould
bedifficult,butwouldgreatlyimprovetheeffectivenessoftheapp.
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ImmediateRecovery
TheImmediateRecoveryphaseiswheremostgrassrootsorganizationsthrive.These
organizationsareoftenformedduringthisphase,withthesolegoalofassistinginthemanaging
anddistributionofreliefsupplies.Beaconisalsomostusefulhere,asitwasdesignedtoassistinthe
managementofdonationsandthedistributionofreliefsupplies.
Asdiscussedabove,DistributionandInventoryManagementarethemostimportantactions
thatoccurduringImmediateRecovery.Forgrassrootsrelieforganizations,InventoryManagement
isbyfarthemoreimportantofthese,assurvivorsusuallycometothereliefsiteforsupplies,rather
thanhavetheirsuppliesdelivered.However,distributionshouldstillbeconsideredbygrassroots
organizations,astheywillstillhavetodistributesuppliestosurvivorswhocometothereliefsite.
Distributionforthegrassrootsorganizationwilllookverydifferentfromdistributionfor
traditionalrelieforganizations.Whiletraditionalreliefgroupsoftendeliversuppliesdirectlyto
survivors,grassrootsreliefgroupsoftenrequiresurvivorscometothereliefsitetoaccessthe
suppliestheyhaveavailable.So,whiledistributionlogisticsforatraditionalrelieforganizationis
focusedonrouteplanning,agrassrootsorganizationshouldbefocusedonthelayoutoftherelief
site.Aproperlayoutwillensuresurvivorscollectingsupplieswillquicklyflowthroughtheprocess
ofpickingupsupplies,allowingthemostsurvivorstoreceivethesuppliestheyneed.Agoodlayout
willalsohelpreliefworkersquicklylocatesuppliesandidentifywhatsuppliesareneeded,which
helpstheInventoryManagementworkdiscussedbelow.
Beacon’sroleindistributioniscommunicatingthelocationofreliefsitestosurvivors.As
survivorsmusttraveltoagrassrootsreliefsitetogettheaidthatsitehas,theyneedasmuch
informationaboutthelocationofreliefsitesandthesuppliesthosesiteshaveavailable.This
communicationcantakeplaceviasocialmedia,butBeaconoffersasignificantimprovementonthe
informationavailabletosurvivors.Whilesocialmediapostsusuallyonlyidentifythelocationofa
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reliefsite,Beaconallowssurvivorstosearcharadiustheydefineforthesuppliestheyneed.This
allowsthesurvivortobesurethesitetheygotohaswhattheyneed,withoutwastingtime
travellingtositesthatmightnothavethenecessarysupplies.
InventoryManagementistheothermajortaskinImmediateRecovery.Liketraditional
relieforganizations,grassrootsorganizationsmusttrackwhatsuppliestheyhave,whatsupplies
theyneed,andhowtohandleunusabledonations.Trackingthesuppliestheyhaveavailableis
perhapsthebiggestchallengeforagrassrootsorganization,astheyoftenhavenoexperience
managinginventories.Withoutsoftwaretoassistintracking,theseorganizationsshouldattemptto
tracksuppliesascloselyaspossibleinsomewrittenform.Anorganizedlayoutofthereliefsitecan
assistwiththistypeoftracking,asitallowsreliefworkerstovisuallyidentifytheinventorylevels
ofvariousitems.
Thelabelingproblemdiscussedaboveexacerbatesthisproblem,assimilaritemswithvery
differentpackagingcouldcauseextra,unneededcategoriestobecreated.Theseextracategories
resultinmoreworkforindividualsattemptingtotrackinventoryandcreateamorecomplicated
layoutthatmakesvisualinventorytrackingachallenge.Asaresult,organizationswiththe
appropriatemanpowershouldbesuretolabeleveryitemtheycarryininventorytoensureeach
itemisincludedinthepropercategory.
InventoryManagementisBeacon’smostimportantrole.Beaconprovidesgrassroots
organizationswiththeresourcestheyneedtoproperlyhandlecurrentinventoriesandrequest
donations.Beaconallowsorganizationstoentertheirinitialinventoriesandcontinuetotrackthe
inflowandoutflowofsuppliesfromthatinitialvalue.Thiswillallowtheorganizationtoidentifythe
itemsandquantitiestheyneedatvarioustimes,whichtheycanrequestfromvolunteersintheapp.
Therequestsystemalsohelpsreduceunusableorexcessdonations,asvolunteerswillbemade
awareofwhatsuppliesareliefsiteneeds.
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BeaconalsohelpsfillthegapsidentifiedintheUnitedNation’sLogisticsSupportSystem.As
discussedabove,LSSisasystemdesignedtofacilitatethesharingofresourcesbetweenrelief
organizations.However,onlyselecttraditionalrelieforganizationshavebeengivenaccesstoLSS,
meaningthesystemcannothaveanaccuratelistingofallsuppliesavailableinthearea.An
unknownbutsignificantpercentageofreliefsuppliesareprovidedbygroupsthatdonot
participateinLSS,sotheirsuppliesarenotincludedinthesystem.AsBeaconisavailabletoall
organizations,itcanhaveamorecompletelistingofthesuppliesinthearea.Itcanbeimprovedto
betterfacilitatecoordinationbetweenorganizationsandultimatelyshouldbelinkedwithLSSand
othergovernmentsystemstomaximizethesharingofinformation.
BeaconcanbeimprovedtomakeitmoreeffectiveduringtheImmediateRecoveryphase.
Currently,Beacononlyoffersaplatformforrecordinginventoryandcommunicatingwhatrelief
suppliesareneededtovolunteers.However,amoreeffectivesystemwouldassistrelief
organizationsindeterminingtheappropriatequantitiesofsuppliestorequesttoreducetheholding
costsrelatedwiththosesuppliesandpreventhavinglargequantitiesofunusedsuppliesoncethe
disasterisover.BeaconcouldimplementamodifiedversionofBeamonandKotleba’sInventory
Managementmodeldiscussedabovetohelpcalculatethecorrectquantitiestorequestfrom
volunteers.Themodelwouldhavetobeadaptedtohandletheuncertaintiesthatcomewith
donationdrivenorderfulfillment.Bothstandardandemergencyleadtimeswouldbeuncertainand
volunteersmaydeliverthewrongquantityorfailtomeettheircommitmentaltogether.However,
includingthemodelwouldimproveinventorylevelsandhelpreducetheamountofunused
suppliesattheendofadisaster,whilemaintainingahighserviceleveltosurvivors.
Beaconcouldalsodoabetterjobofsolvingthecoordinationproblemdiscussedabove.The
currentdesignoffersnowayforrelieforganizationstorequestortransfersuppliesbetween
organizations.Beaconcouldprovideatoolintheappthatwouldfacilitatethetransferofsupplies
betweenrelieforganizations.Thissectionoftheappwouldalloworganizationstoposttheirexcess
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suppliesforotherorganizationstoclaim,andorganizationswouldgotothissectionoftheappto
lookforsuppliesbeforerequestingthemfromvolunteers.Theappcouldthenprovideeach
organization’scontactinformationtotheotherorganizationtofacilitatethetransfer.Thisfeature
wouldgreatlyimproveBeacon’seffectiveness,asitwouldhelpsmoothoutunreliablesupplyfrom
donationsthroughmorereliabletransfersbetweenrelieforganizations.
Reconstruction
Whilenotgenerallytheirprimarypurpose,grassrootsrelieforganizationsareoftenmore
involvedwithReconstructionthantraditionalrelieforganizations.Grassrootsreliefgroupsare
oftenactivemembersofthecommunitywhohaveavestedinterestintherecoveryofthe
community.Whiletraditionalreliefgroupsdesiretoassistfullyinreconstruction,theirlimited
resourcesoftenrequiretheymoveontothenextdisasterbeforefullrecoveryisachieved.Asa
result,thegrassrootsorganizationsfrequentlyprovidethemostassistancetosurvivorsinthe
reconstructionphase.
Grassrootsorganizationsalsohavemoretopicstoconsiderthanthetraditionalrelief
organization.Inadditiontomanagingwasteandexcesssupplies,grassrootsorganizationsoften
needtomanagereconstructionprojectsandvolunteers.Grassrootsorganizationsareoftenthe
frontlineoftheclean-upofprivatepropertyafteranaturaldisaster.Thisincludesdebrisremoval
followingahurricaneortornadoand“mud-outs”followingaflood.Muchofthisworkissimple
manuallabor,whichagroupofvolunteerscancompletewithminimaltraining.
Managingagrassrootsreliefprojectduringreconstructionlooksverysimilartotraditional
projectmanagement.Therelieforganizationneedstoplantimelinesfortheproject,determinethe
resourcestheyneed,andmanagethevolunteersworkingontheproject.Whilesomegrassroots
organizationsmayhaveaccesstoindividualswithprojectmanagementexperience,manywillnot.
Assuch,grassrootsorganizationsshouldaimtokeepreconstructionprojectsassimpleaspossible
33
andlimitwhattheyoffertodoforasurvivor.Theyshouldaimtoselectprojectsthatdonotneed
specializedskillsnotpossessedbyvolunteers,asattemptingtocompleteprojectswithoutthe
requisiteskillcouldleavethesurvivorinaworsepositionthanwhentheprojectstarted.
ManagingvolunteersisimportantinboththeImmediateRecoveryandReconstruction
phases,butisonlyaprimarytaskforrelieforganizationsduringtheReconstructionphase.During
Reconstruction,therelieforganizationmustensuretheyhavetheappropriatequantitiesof
volunteerswiththerequisiteskillsfortheprojectstheyhaveselected.Theymustalsoensurethe
volunteersareproperlytrainedinanysafetyprocedurespertinenttotheproject.Manyofthe
clean-upprojectsrelieforganizationsareinvolvedwithposehealthorsafetyhazardstoomtrained
volunteers.Propertrainingontheprecautionstotakeandthesymptomstolookforcanreducethe
riskofinjuryorsicknesstovolunteers.
Beaconoffersapowerfultoolfortherecruitmentandschedulingofvolunteers,butlacks
projectmanagementfunctionalitythatwouldgreatlybenefitrelieforganizations.Beacon’s
volunteerrecruitmentsectionfunctionssimilarlytothedonationssection.Relieforganizationswill
beabletopostthetimeandlocationofaprojectandthenumberofvolunteerstheyneed.Theywill
alsobeabletopostrestrictionsandrequirementsforvolunteers,whichthevolunteershould
ensuretheymeet.Volunteerswillbeabletosearchapredefinedradiusandtheiravailabletimesfor
aproject,andcommittohelpingprojectstheyselect.
BeaconcoulddomoretoassistintheprojectmanagementaspectsoftheReconstruction
phase.Ratherthanestablishingprojectsjustformanagingvolunteers,itcouldofferanarrayof
toolsforeachproject.Thisfunctioncouldalsogiverelieforganizationsawaytomanagetimelines
andresources.Thetimelinesectionwouldhelporganizersdeterminehowlongtheentireproject
willtakeandidentifythecriticalstepsoftheproject.Theresourcemanagementsectioncouldbe
34
combinedwiththedonationandvolunteerrequestfunctionstoallowtherelieforganizationtofind
specializedtoolsandvolunteersforprojectsthatneedthem.
Forprojectsrequiringmoreintensework,Beaconwilleventuallyofferwaystoconnect
survivorswithvariousserviceproviders.Inourlong-termbusinessplan,Beaconwillsell
advertisementswithintheapptorelevantlocalserviceproviders.Muchoftheworkinthe
reconstructionphaserequiresprofessionalwork,suchastreeremoval,electricalwork,or
plumbing.Theseadvertisementswillassistsurvivorsinidentifyingandcontactingtheservice
providerstheyneedtohelpthemcompleterepairstotheirhome.Theadswillalsohelpfundthe
managementofBeaconandtheadditionoftheimprovementsrecommendedinthispaperand
elsewhere.
Finally,Beaconcouldbeimprovedtohandleunusedreliefsuppliesonceadisasterisover.
Theprimarywaythiswilloccurisbytransferringsuppliestoreliefsitesinotherdisasterareas.
Whilesuchatransfermaynotbeimmediatelyavailable,itwilltypicallybepossiblewithinan
acceptablespanoftime.Asthenumberofdisasterseachyearcontinuestorise,thetimebetween
disastersisdecreasing,makingthesetransfersmorelikelytooccur.Beaconcouldalsohelpconnect
relieforganizationswithlocalfoodpantries,wheretheycoulddonatetheirunusedsuppliesaswell.
Conclusion
HumanitarianLogisticsprovidesabeneficialmodelforgrassrootsorganizationsand
Beacon.GrassrootsorganizationsbenefitfromapplyingmodelsinHumanitarianLogistics,even
whenthosemodelsarenotdesignedforgrassrootsrelief.Beaconisapowerfultooltoassist
grassrootsorganizationsinapplyingtheconceptsofHumanitarianLogistics,especiallyconcerning
theInventoryManagementofreliefsuppliesanddistributingthosesuppliestosurvivors.
35
ImprovementstoBeaconarenecessary,however,toprovidethegreatestbenefitstoitsusers.Users
wouldbenefitfromtheadditionofprojectmanagementtools,toolsforcommunicationbetween
organizations,andtheinclusionofspecificmodelstoimproveefficiencyforrelieforganizations.
Withtheseimprovements,BeaconhasthepotentialtobecomeacriticaltoolinDisasterRelief.
36
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