hydrogen: an overview of production pathways and possible

Maria Grahn, Maritime Environmental Sciences

Hydrogen: An overview of production pathways and

possible usage in the transport sector

Maria GrahnMaritime Environmental Sciences, Chalmers University of Technology

2020-03-31

Maria Grahn

Why hydrogen?Pros and cons

Hydrogen and Fuel cells

in the transport sector

Maria Grahn

Advantages hydrogen• There are many different options for how to produce

hydrogen with low CO2-emissions, in future.

• No direct competition with land use issues (food production)

• Hydrogen used in fuel cells has – better energy conversion efficiency factors compared to

conventional ICEVs.

– no or low local emissions.

– lower noise.

• Hydrogen can be synthesized to liquids or other gases

Maria Grahn

Challenges connected to large scale use of hydrogen and fuel cells

• Investments needed in large scale CO2-neutral H2

production.

• Costly H2-distribution and storage.

• Fuel cells are still rather expensive– Although radical improvements made recent years, there are still

potential to improve life time aspects and dependency on scarce metals, and reduction in production costs.

Flytande H2 -253 OC

Risk för läckage i pipelines

Komprimerad H2 300-700 bar


STCH

Some hydrogen production pathways• Fossil sources

– Natural gas reforming.

– Coal gasification (with or without CCS).

• Biomass (resource is globally limited)– Biomass gasification and pyrolysis.

– Biomass-derived liquid reforming.

– Microbial biomass conversion (dark fermentation, MEC).

• Solar (resource is abundant, but intermittent)– Solar thermochemical hydrogen (STCH).

– Photoelectrochemical (PEC).

– Photobiological.

– Electrolysis (AEC, PEM, SOEC).

http://energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-resources#biomass

PEC

Electrolysers Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs)

Microorganisms break down organic matter without light (MEC: combined with small electric current).

STCH: Water splitting in high temperatures, e.g. concentrated solar power.

Microorganisms (green microalgae or cyanobacteria) use sunlight to split water.

PEC: Semiconductor materials uses sunlight to split water.

Steam reforming of liquid biofuels+water gas shift into H2.


Timescale for hydrogen production pathwaysAccording to DOE technologies that can produce hydrogen at a target of less than $4/kg

http://energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-production-pathways

$4/kg = 120 USD/MWh (LHV) and 100 USD/MWh (HHV) [120 MJ/kg (LHV) and 142 MJ/kg (HHV) http://www.h2data.de/]


Alkaline PEM SOEC (steam)Today 2030 Today 2030 2030

Electricity-to-hydrogenLHV

efficiency (%)

65

(43-69)

66

(50-74)

62

(40-69)

69

(62-79)

~77

System size (MW) 1.1-5.3 4.9-8.6 0.10-1.2 2.1-90 0.5-50Stack life span (1000 h) 75 (60-90 95 (90-100) 62 (20-90 78 (60-90) <90System life span [years] 25 (20-30) 30 20 (10-30) 30 10-20Investment cost (€2015/kWelec) 1100

(600-2600)

700

(400-900)

2400

(1900-3700)

800

(300-1300)

700

(400-1000)O&M cost 2-5% 2-5% 2-5% 2-5% 2-3%Stack replacement cost (share

of investment cost)

50% - 60% - Included in

O&M cost

• All types are expected to improve until 2030.• Large orders can already now lead to an investment cost below the cost stated for 2030.• SOEC has the potential to combine low cost with high efficiency (not yet on market).

Literature review (analysing peer-reviewed publications 2011-2016):

Comparison of cost and performance for different electrolyser technologies including median of the data found and range in parenthesis

Brynolf S, Taljegård M, Grahn M, Hansson J. (2018). Electrofuels for the transport sector: a review of production costs. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2) 1887-1905.


Hydrogen production costdepends on electricity price, investment cost for the electrolyser and

hours operation per year (note that scale on y-axis differ)

From presentation by Annabelle Brisse, [email protected]

Conference, Iceland, June 2013

Likely that hydrogen can be produced less than $4/kg = 120 USD/MWh (LHV) and 100 USD/MWh (HHV) [120 MJ/kg (LHV) and 142 MJ/kg (HHV) http://www.h2data.de/]


Density comparison, i.e., hydrogen storage demand space

https://energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-storage

Low kWh/liter means needfor large space when stored(also as liquid).Howeverrather similarto pressurizedmethane.


Hydrogen utilization


Example H2-production and back-up electricity

http://newenergyandfuel.com/http:/newenergyandfuel/com/2010/06/15/wind-to-fertilizer-construction-begins/

Wind Driven Hydrogen Production Plant in Norway

Utsira, Norway


Production of Ammonia (NH3) from H2

http://newenergyandfuel.com/http:/newenergyandfuel/com/2010/06/15/wind-to-fertilizer-construction-begins/

NH3

H2

Fertilizer

Renewableelectricity


Hydrogen can substitute coal in steel production

https://www.ssab.se/ssab/hallbarhet/hallbar-verksamhet/hybrit


Hydrogen as base for the production of electrofuels, e.g.,Vulcanol from Iceland and Audi e-gas plant in Werlte, Germany

Vulcanol usage: 3% blend in all icelandic gasoline + export to e.g, the Netherlands and Sweden


https://nikolamotor.com/

Hydrogen vehicles

http://www.hydrogenlondon.org/projects/london-hydrogen-bus-project/

http://www.treehugger.com/cars/are-hydrogen-fuel-cell-cars-realistic-option-compared-battery-electric-vehicles.html

https://fuelcellsworks.com/archives/2013/05/30/air-liquide-to-provide-first-hydrogen-filling-station-for-forklift-trucks-in-france-for-ikea/

http://planetforlife.com/h2/h2vehicle.html


Hydrogen as electricity storage option

www.chalmers.se/en/areas-of-advance/energy/cei/Pages/Systems-Perspectives-on-Renewable-Power.aspx (Chapter 5)

Not many options for seasonalstorage. Hydrogen is oneoption (althoughchallenging to store).Pumped hydro and compressedair may be geographicallylimited.

Electrofuels similar to hydrogen regardingpotential for seasonal storage, but easier and less costly to store.


Results and insights from my research

Maria Grahn

Methane(biogas, SNG, natural gas)

Hydrogen

Rail(train, tram)

Aviation

Shipping

Road (short) (cars, busses,

distribution trucks)

Road (long) (long distance

trucks and busses)

FCV (fuel cell vehicles)

Liquid fuels(petro, methanol, ethanol, biodiesel)

ICEV, HEV (internal combus-

tion engine vehiclesand hybrids)

Fossil(oil, natural

gas, coal)

Biomass

Solar, wind etc

Electrolysis

Productionof electro

fuels

CO2Water

ENERGY SOURCES ENERGY CARRIERS VEHICLE TECHNOLOGIES TRANSPORT MODES

Different fuels and vehicle technology options are differently well suited for different transport modes

Hydrogen a useful fuel or intermediate for further refining

BEV, PHEV (battery electric

vehicles)

Inductive and conductive

electricElectricity

Maria Grahn

Results on fuel mix for global car fleet using a global cost minimisation energysystems model aiming for CO2-stabilisation at 450 ppm.

Source: Grahn M, Azar C, Williander MI, Anderson JE, Mueller SA and Wallington TJ (2009). Fuel and vehicle technology choices for passenger vehicles in achieving stringent CO2 targets: connections between transportation and other energy sectors. Environmental Science and Technology 43(9): 3365–3371.

Passenger vehicle fleet

Battery cost: $300/kWh

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100

Millio

n c

ars

C)

H2.ICEVNG.ICEV

PETRO.ICEV

PETRO.HEV

H2.FCV

PETRO.PHEV

GTL/CTL.PHEV

CO2-target: 450 ppm

ICEV = Internal Combustion engineFCV = Fuel cell vehicleHEV = Hybrid electric vehiclesPHEV = Plug-in electric vehicles

(Electrofuels are not included)

PETRO = Gasoline/DieselBTL= BiofuelsCTL= Fuels based on coalGTL= Fuels based on natural gasNG = Natural gasH2 = Hydrogen

General results:- It is not likely that one single solution will dominate the fuel scenario. - Hybrids and plug-in-hybrids are solutions that have the potential to play a large role in the near future.- Hydrogen is the most expensive solution but still a fuel that may dominate in a long term when oil,

natural gas and bioenergy are scarce sources. - Scenarios are most often either dominated by electricity or hydrogen solutions depending on battery prices, fuel

cell prices and hydrogen storage cost. - The globally limited amount of biomass can reduce CO2 emissions at a lower cost if it replaces fossil fuels in the

stationary energy sector compared to replacing oil in the transportation sector.

Productionof electro-fuels

Electro-lysis

Water (H2O)

Hydrogen (H2)El

Biomass(C6H10O5)

Biofuels

Methane (CH4)

Methanol (CH3OH)

DME (CH3OCH3)

Higher alcohols, e.g., Ethanol (C2H5OH)

Higher hydrocarbons, e.g., Gasoline (C8H18)

Biofuelproduction

How to utilize or

store possible

future excess

electricity

How to substitute fossil

based fuels in the

transportation sector,

especially aviation and

shipping face

challenges utlilzing

batteries and fuel cells.

400-3700 €2015/kWelec

CO2 from air and seawater

CO2 from combustion

Carbon dioxide

CO2

CO2

5-10 €/tCO2

H2

Electrofuels

Synthesis reactor (e.g. Sabatier, Fischer-Tropsch)

Heat

30-2100 €2015/kWfuel

How to utilize

the maximum of

carbon in the

globally limited

amount of

biomass

Other hydrogen options (H2)

Maria Grahn

10 insights from our research on electrofuels including electro-hydrogen

Maria Grahn

Insight 1a. Many different approaches among authors.Insight 1b. When data is ”harmonized” between the fueloptions (low compared to lowetc) the differences between the fuel options are minor.

Literature review, data differs. Production cost 2030 (mature costs) different electrofuel options

assuming most optimistic (low/best), least optimistic (high/worst) and median values (base)

Source: Brynolf S, Taljegård M, Grahn M, Hansson J. (2018). Electrofuels for the transport sector: a review of production costs. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2) 1887-

1905.

Insight 2: Costs for electrolyser and electricitydominatesNote. Currently wesee a trend towards lowerinvestment cost of electrolyzers(comes with an increased market). Some scenarios also point out a trend towardslower electricityprices in future (ifincreased variableelectricityproduction).

Electrolyser

uncertainties installation & indirect costs

Fuel synthesis and CO2 capture

Electricity

Example: Electro-diesel: base case=180 €/MWh (approx. 18 SEK/liter), best case=112 €/MWh (approx. 11 SEK/liter),

Maria Grahn

Production cost depend on capacity factor

Production costs found in literature

Fossil fuels 40-140

Methane from anaerobic digestion 40-180

Methanol from gasification of lignocellulose 80-120

Ethanol from maize, sugarcane, wheat and

waste

70-345

FAME from rapeseed, palm, waste oil 50-210

HVO from palm oil 134-185

Insight 5. Future production of electrofuels have the potential to be cost-competitive to advanced biofuels.

Ref: Brynolf S, Taljegård M, Grahn M, Hansson J. (2018). Electrofuels for the transport sector: a review of production costs. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2) 1887-1905.

Insight 4. Production costs may lie in the order of 100-150 EUR/MWh in future.

Insight 3. Production cost depends on capacity factor. Below 40% result in much higher costs per produced MWh of fuel.

Maria Grahn

Are there enough renewable CO2?

Maria Grahn

Results on available CO2 sources in Sweden

Tot 45 Mt CO2 of which 30 Mt is biogenic=renewable

Sweden

Assuming replacing all bunker fuel (TWh) 22

Electricity demand (TWh) 42

Carbon dioxide (Mton) 6

Current electricity use in Sweden (TWh) 140

RE generation goal 2020 (TWh) 30

How much fuel can be produced?

- 45 MtCO2/yr (fossil+renewable)

- 30 MtCO2/yr is recoverable from

biogenic sources =>110 TWh/yr

electro-methanol

Ref: Hansson J, Hackl R, Taljegård M, Brynolf S and Grahn M (2017). The potential for electrofuels production in Sweden utilizing fossil and biogenic CO2

point sources. Frontiers in Energy Research 5:4. doi: 10.3389/fenrg.2017.00004 http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fenrg.2017.00004/full

Insight 6. The amount of recoverable non-fossil CO2 is not a limiting factor for a large scale production of electrofuels, in Sweden.Note. The revised EU-directive on renewable fuels states that electrofuels is a “renewable liquid and gaseous transport fuels of non-biological origin” ifthe energy content is renewable (article 2.36). Electrofuels from fossil industrial CO2 is defined as ”recycled carbon fuels” (article 2.35) and not defined as renewable.

http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fenrg.2017.00004/full

Maria Grahn

Cost-comparison of alternatives based on renewable electricity

depending on distance driven per year.

Compare electrofuels in ICEV to other electricity based powertrain options including electric road system

Ref: Grahn M, Taljegard M, Brynolf S (2018). Electricity as an Energy Carrier in Transport: Cost and Efficiency Comparison of Different Pathways. EVS31, Kobe, Japan. 1-3 Oct.

Maria Grahn

Electric road systems (ERS)Electric vehicles (EV) Hydrogen Electro-diesel (E-diesel)

Different ways of using electricity for transport

Water (H2O) + electricity

H2

H2 + CO2

e.g. diesel

efficiency = 73% Efficiency = 77% Efficency = 24% Efficiency = 17%


Maria Grahn

Results Passenger cars

Small battery + fast charging attractive option all distances (compared to other “electricity options”)(no cost penalty for waiting while charging)

ERS also a cost-attractive option(large ERS network to be built before reducing battery size, business models key for introduction)

Electro-diesel cost-competitive with BEV-50 kWh up to 16 000 km/yr.

EV-battery = 150 €/kWhFC = 25 €/kW, 65%Electrolysers=400 €/kWel, 75%

Insight 7. Small BEVs generally the least costly alternative to utilize electricity in transport. Electro-diesel in ICEVs the least cost solution if the vehicle is run short distances per year.Note. Production costs (no taxes or subsidies).


Abbrevations used: BEV=battery electric vehicle; FCEV=hydrogen fuel cell

vehicle; PHEV=plug-in hydrid vehicle using electricity and e-diesel; E-

diesel=synthetic diesel (electro-diesel); ERS=electric road system

0 5000 10 000 35 00030 00025 00015 000 20 000

Maria Grahn

CCS or CCU from a climate perspective?

Global long-term energy systems perspective

CCS = Carbon Capture and StorageCCU = Carbon Capture and Utilization

Maria Grahn

Energy-economy model Global Energy Transition (GET)

Linearly programmed energy systems cost-minimizing model. Generates the fuel and technology mix that meets the demand (subject to

the constraints) at lowest global energy system cost

Source: Lehtveer, M., Brynolf, S., Grahn, M. (2019). What future for electrofuels in transport? – analysis of cost-competitiveness in global climate mitigation. Environmental Science and

Technology 53 (3) 1690–1697..

Maria Grahn

Results, two scenarios showing different amount of electrofuels

Source: Lehtveer, M., Brynolf, S., Grahn, M. (2019). What future for electrofuels in transport? – analysis of cost-competitiveness in global climate mitigation. Environmental Science and

Technology 53 (3) 1690–1697..

Petro

NG

Elec

Synfuels

Petro NGElec

Synfuels incl

electrofuels

Base Case, 450 ppm

No CCS, 450 ppm

Results for year 2070. Monte Carlo analysis 500 runs, 450 ppm

Insight 8: The cost-effectiveness of electrofuels in global climate mitigation will depend strongly on the amount of CO2 that can be stored away from the atmosphere.If large carbon storage is an accepted and availabletechnology, the captured CO2 can contribute to climatemitigation to a lower cost if stored underground, instead of recycled into electrofuels.

Electrofuels: H2 from electrolysis of water + CO2Synfuels: H2 from thermal split of water + CO2

Maria Grahn

Chemical industrial perspective

Maria Grahn

Substitute fossil fuels in industrial processesAssess if there are conditions under which production cost of electro-hydrogen and electro-methanol are competitive to market price of fossil hydrogen and fossil methanol.

Fossil

hydrogen

Other inputs

Biofuels

(HVO)

Electro-hydrogen

Fossil

methanol

Other inputs

Biofuels

(FAME)

Electro-

methanol

The Preem case The Perstorp case

50 €/MWh 63 €/MWh

Grahn M, A-K Jannasch (2018). What electricity price would make electrofuels cost-competitive?, 6th TMFB, Tailor-Made Fuels from

Production to Propulsion Aachen, Germany. 19-21 June.

Maria Grahn

Electrolysis is a

large post

Electricity is the

dominating post

Synthesis reactor

and water

CO2 capture

Experience factor

for installation and

unexpected costs

is a large post

Results production cost electrofuels compared to market price for fossil options

Base case

86

50

158

63

23 50

40

Future optimistic case

63

Revenue sold

heat

Revenue sold

oxygen

In a future

optimistic

case the

production

cost could be

competitive to

fossil option



Maria Grahn

Production cost of electro-hydrogen, for different electricity prices and different electrolyser investment cost, in the (a) base case and in a (b) future optimistic

scenario

Green-marked results indicate a production cost that is equal or below what the industries’ pay for fossil hydrogen (50 €/MWh).

Yellow-marked results indicate a production cost that is equal or below double the market price of fossil hydrogen (100 €/MWh).

Red-marked results indicate a production cost that is higher than double the market price of fossil hydrogen i.e. difficult to see business opportunities (>100 €/MWh).



Maria Grahn

Production cost of electro-methanol, for different electricity prices and different electrolyser investment cost, in (a) base

case and (b) future optimistic scenario

Green-marked results indicate a production cost that is equal or below what the industries’ pay for fossil methanol (63 €/MWh).

Yellow-marked results indicate a production cost that is equal or below double the market price of fossil methanol (126 €/MWh).

Red-marked results indicate a production cost that is higher than double the market price of fossil methanol, i.e. difficult to see business opportunities (>126 €/MWh).

Insight 9. There are circumstances when electrofuels can be produced at lower cost compared to the market price of fossil options (however, not assuming current costs).

Insight 10. Lower costs for electrolyzers, lower average annual cost for electricity as well as a market for oxygen and heat would benefit the cost-competitiveness of electrofuels.



Maria Grahn

Summary insights so far from our research on electrofuels1. In the literature it appears many different approaches among authors when presenting

production costs. Experience factor for indirect costs the main difference, as well as different assumptions on technology maturity level. When input data is ”harmonized” between the fuel options the differences between the fuel options are minor.

2. Costs for electrolyser and electricity are dominating posts of the total electrofuels production cost.

3. Production cost depends on capacity factor. Below 40% result in much higher costs per produced MWh of fuel.

4. Production costs may lie in the order of 100-150 EUR/MWh in future. 5. Future production of electrofuels have the potential to be cost-competitive to advanced

biofuels.6. The amount of recoverable non-fossil CO2 is not a limiting factor for large scale production of

electrofuels, in Sweden.7. Small BEVs generally the least costly alternative to utilize electricity in transport. Electro-

diesel in ICEVs the least cost solution if the vehicle is run short distances per year.8. The cost-effectiveness of electrofuels, in a global climate mitigation context, will depend

strongly on the amount of CO2 that can be stored away from the atmosphere. 9. There are circumstances when electrofuels can be produced at lower cost compared to the

market price of fossil options (however, not assuming current costs). 10. Lower costs for electrolyzers, lower average annual cost for electricity as well as a market for

oxygen and heat would benefit the cost-competitiveness of electrofuels.


Summary hydrogen

• Very flexible base for production of hydrogen.

• Likely both cheaper and more efficient H2 production in future.

• Many end-use sectors for hydrogen, either as H2 or further synthesized to e.g. ammonia or carbon basedfuels (methane, methanol, gasoline etc).

• Can be used to store electricity.

• H2 in fuel cells may be a cost-effective solution in the transport sector in future.

• H2 reacted with CO2 (electrofuels) may under somecircumstances be a cost-effective solution in the transport sector in future.

Maria Grahn

Long-term perspectives on almost CO2 free fuels: General insights from my research

• Three types of energy carriers have the potential to substantially reduce the fossil CO2 emissions from the transportation sector: carbon based fuels (biofuels/electrofuels), electricity and hydrogen.

• Fuels that have an advantage are those that – can be blended in conventional fuels (drop-in, alcohols, biodiesel, efuels).– already have a wide-spread fuel infrastructure (ethanol, methane, EV charging

poles).– EU have decided to focus on (electricity, methane, hydrogen).

• It is most likely that parallel solutions will be developed, e.g.– There are many advantages for electric solutions in cities. Aspects like a reduction of

NOx, soot, and noise. Most likely different electric solutions in cities (electric buses, cars, delivery trucks, trams, metro etc).

– There are several challenges for electrifying long-distance transport (especially ships and aircrafts). Electrofuels may complement biofuels for these transport modes.

• Irrespective of fuel type, CO2 emissions can be reduced by more energy efficient vehicles and measurements towards reduced transport demand.

Maria Grahn

Our research group, future fuels incl electrofuels

All studies trying to shed some light to the larger research question ”Under what circumstances could electrofuels including hydrogen become an interesting option in the fuel mix of the transportation sector?”

Selma Brynolf

Karin Andersson Maria Grahn Elin Malmgren

Julia Hansson Karna Dahal

hydrogen: an overview of production pathways and possible

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