hydrogen power science fact of science fiction

7/23/2019 HYDROGEN POWER Science Fact of Science Fiction

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H YDROGEN is the lightest and most abundant element in

the universe as well as the source of all energy. Deep within the

sun and stars, nuclear fusion converts hydrogen into helium. The

energy that is released when four hydrogen atoms become a

helium atom is the energy which fuels all life. Evidence of the

incredible amount of energy contained within a hydrogen atom is

the thermonuclear or hydrogen bomb, which exploits nuclear

fusion to release its destructive power.

In our natural environment, hydrogen exists primarily incombination with other elements. In order for hydrogen to be

useful as a fuel, it must exist as H2 or free hydrogen.! H2 must

therefore be produced, unli"e fossil fuels such as natural gas, coal

and oil which can be directly mined or extracted. In this sense,

hydrogen is a secondary source of energy, analogous to electricity.

The energy used to produce H2 is stored, with some losses, within

the H2 molecule. This energy can then be "ept in storage, used on#

site, or transported to a remote location for energy conversion.

The fact that hydrogen must be produced is a ma$or consideration

when examining its effectiveness as an energy carrier, and is the

biggest stumbling#bloc" to widespread use in commercial

applications.



%ree hydrogen exists at normal atmospheric conditions as

an odorless, colorless gas. It is stable and will co#exist harmlessly

with free oxygen &'2( until an input of energy drives the

exothermic &heat#releasing( reaction which forms water. Thisreaction from a higher energy state to a lower one generates a

positive output of energy. %or over a century it has been predicted

that a system will be developed in which hydrogen, extracted from

pure water using energy derived from the sun, is used as a fuel or

as an energy#carrier,! and will serve to provide the demands for

all of society)s power re*uirements. The beauty of the system

being that solar energy and water, the sources, are practically

limitless and that the resulting energy conversion is relatively pollution#free with the only waste product being pure water. +

seemingly perfect cycle, beginning and ending with energy and

water.

In -/, 0ules 1erne predicted with impressive foresight the

use of hydrogen fuel in his ci#%i classic 3ysterious Island. 1erne

describes a process whereby, 4water will one day be employed as

fuel, that hydrogen and oxygen which constitute it, used singly or

together, will furnish an inexhaustible source of heat and light, of

an intensity of which coal is not capable. 45ater will be the coal

of our future.! 5here is this technology that has had // years to

come to fruition6 +n examination of the history of hydrogen

research as well as a loo" at today)s research and development

helps to provide some answers.

History

7robably the first recorded event of the production of

hydrogen in the laboratory is contained within 8th century

alchemical texts. The alchemists dealt extensively with the

transmutation of metals, a procedure which re*uired the



dissolution of metals in salts or acids. +t the time, the existence of

the element hydrogen was un"nown to the alchemists, although

they were aware of the presence of something different in these

metal9acid reactions. Theophrastus :ombastus 7aracelsus!&;<=#8;( was purported to have said, when he dissolved iron in

spirit of vitriol, +ir arises and brea"s forth li"e the wind.! He was

most probably referring to the production of hydrogen. till, little

was understood of the gas) properties. Its burnability was not

noted until the th century by Tur*uet de 3ayerne. >;?

It was the common belief in th century Europe that air

itself was a basic element. ome perceptive individuals suspectedthat there existed a property of air which was re*uired for the

combustion and the sustenance of life. ome important figures

involved in this *uest were the Dutch physician Herman

:oerhaave &@@-#=-(, the English scientist Aobert :oyle &@2#

@<( &who developed :oyle)s Baw( and the English physician

0ohn 3ayow &@;8#@<( all of which were outspo"en in their

belief in a life#giving! substance within air.

It was also believed that there existed a substance called

phlogiston which imparts burnability in matter and that

combustion was the release of phlogiston. This theory was first

published in @< by the Cerman scientist Ceorg Ernst tahl

&@@/#=;(. Henry avendish &=#-/(, believing in the

existence of phlogiston, attempted to describe some of its

properties. He succeeded in isolating carbon dioxide &' 2( and

hydrogen gas &H2( and dubbed them fixed air! and flammable

air! respectively. He was able to obtain precise measures of

hydrogen)s specific weight and density, although he thought he

was studying >;?a pure state of phlogiston. avendish also

discovered that igniting a mixture of flammable air and oxygen

https://borderlandsciences.org/journal/vol/52/n04/Armstrong_on_Hydrogen_Power.html#4





&air( produced water. These were to be pivotal investigations into

the properties of hydrogen.

The %rench chemist +ntoine Baurent Bavoisier &;=#<;(

continued the study of flammable air, repeating avendish)sexperiments, and eventually produced hydrogen and oxygen in the

laboratory via the dissolution of metals in acid. He was also able to

split water molecules using a heated copper tube. In another

experiment he combined hydrogen and oxygen and produced

water. These experiments, in -8, were to prove definitively that

H2 and '2 are the basic constituents of water. It was his important

publication, The 3ethod of hemical omenclature, in which

Bavoisier named the flammable air! hydrogen, and the life#sustaining air! oxygen. Bavoisier was eventually executed after the

%rench Aevolution in <; because of his associations with the

pre#Aevolution %rench government, a loss heavily mourned by the

international scientific community of the day.

The discovery that flammable air! was fourteen times

lighter than air led to the use of hydrogen as a bouyant in

aeronautical balloons. + %rench physicist 0ac*ues +lexandre esar

harles &;@#-2=( was the first to use hydrogen in a balloon

"nown as a harliere,! in which he was able to fly to an altitude of

="m in -= &use of hydrogen continued on into the 2/th century,

eventually being replaced by helium due to its inert properties,

thus reducing chance of explosion(.

oon after +lessandro 1olta built his first electric cell near

the turn of the century, two English scientists, 5illiam icholson

and ir +nthony arlisle, discovered that by passing an electric

current through water, hydrogen and oxygen could be produced.

This process, called electrolysis, was to become an important

method for the production of hydrogen. In -=<, ir 5illiam



Croves was able to reverse the process, combining hydrogen and

oxygen with platinum electrodes and a sulfuric acid &H2';(

electrolyte to produce electricity and water, inventing the first fuel

cell.

Early in the <th century, the Aeverend 5illiam ecil

presented a paper to the ambridge 7hilosophical ociety entitled,

'n the +pplication of Hydrogen Cas to 7roduce 3oving 7ower in

3achinery.! :asically, the paper described a hydrogen#powered

engine in which hydrogen and oxygen were combined and ignited.

The ensuing vacuum generated a moving force via the air that

rushed in to fill the void. +lthough there is no record that theengine was actually built, ecil)s proposal pioneered the study of

hydrogen)s use as a fuel.

'n into the 2/th century, hydrogen)s development as a fuel

source had achieved little progress until the cottish geneticist

0.:.. Haldane presented a paper to ambridge Fniversity in

which he proposed that :ritain could meet it)s increasing demand

for energy by using wind energy to electrolyGe water into hydrogenand oxygen. The gases, first li*uefied, can be stored in

underground reservoirs until needed. They can then be

recombined in combustion motors or oxidation cells.! This paper,

presented in <2=, offered a glimpse into the potential of a solar#

hydrogen fuel system. +t a time when the use of fossil fuels,

especially coal, was prevalent, Haldane emphasiGed the scarcity of

fossil fuels and the eventual necessity of an alternative source of

energy.

Haldane also pointed out that li*uid hydrogen has three

times as much heat per pound of hydrocarbon fuel. This is an

important factor when developing hydrogen fuel for use in air and

space travel, where weight is of a prime design criteria. However,



the lightness of hydrogen allows for only about one#third of the

energy per unit volume. +n aircraft using hydrogen will be able to

fly higher and farther due to the lighter fuel load than an aircraft

using the energy#e*uivalent amount of $et fuel.

>;?>=?

The tan"s,however, must be much larger and ta"e up to one#third of the

fuselage in current designs for commercial aircraft. >;?

In the <=/s, interest in hydrogen as a fuel reached a new

height. In Cermany, two men were extremely influential in

hydrogen research %ranG BawacGec" and Audolph Erren.

BawacGec", a Cerman turbine designer, was s"etching designs for

hydrogen powered cars as early as <<. >;? His wor", in

collaboration with the Cerman#+merican 0.E. oeggerath, and theCerman inventor Hermann 'berth, led to ideas for developments

in efficient pressuriGed electrolyGers, li*uid hydrogen use as a

roc"et fuel, and the transportation of hydrogen in pipelines for use

as an energy#carrier.

The most influential pioneer of the <=/s would

undoubtedly be Audolf Erren. +n expert in the combustion

process, Erren began developing hydrogen engines in the late

<2/s. He advanced the concept of in$ecting hydrogen into the air#

fuel mixture of combustion engines, serving to heighten the

output of the combustion process. Erren, wor"ing in cooperation

with the Cerman, +ustralian, and :ritish governments, converted

buses, vans, rail cars, and even submarines to be powered by

hydrogen or any combination of hydrogen#fuel mixtures. >;?

>? However, a conflict of interests brought about by 5orld 5ar II,

made it impossible for Erren to wor" with both the :ritish andCerman governments and Erren)s efforts to expand the technology

were fruitless. Eventually the government research money was

cutoff and Erren)s research fell into a period of dis*uiet.




















'ther important developments of the <=/s included the

wor" of the Cerman engineer Hermann Honnef, who designed

huge wind#power generators which could theoretically produce up

to // megawatts of power, stored as hydrogen. +lthough they never went beyond the drawing board, Honnef)s ideas were

predecessors to much of the wind#turbine technology used

effectively today.

Hydrogen was also being used to supplement fuel in large

dirigibles in both Cermany and England. In the <2/s and <=/s,

before switching to helium, hydrogen was the primary bouyant

used in large passenger balloons. These Jeppelins! were able tofly to altitudes of 2;// feet at 8 mph. The fuel used to drive the

motors was typically a benGol#gasoline mixture. In order to

maintain proper bouyancy, the captain was re*uired to blow off

hydrogen as fuel was consumed. +n innovative solution was

to >;-?combine the blow#off hydrogen with the main fuel in the

internal#combustion engines. In this way they were able to

decrease fuel consumption. >;? England also used this strategy in

their A/ airships, and were also able to reduce the re*uirements

for hydrocarbon fuel.

Jeppelins are still what people most associate with

hydrogen, and the Hindenburg disaster is probably the most well#

"nown event involving hydrogen. The Hindenburg)s association to

hydrogen has created a negative public image of the gas, and has

perpetuated the myth that hydrogen is extremely dangerous. The

Hindenburg was actually designed to use helium as the bouyant.

+t the time of the ill#fated $ourney to ew 0ersey, helium was

extremely hard to come by due to F.. trade embargoes. They used

hydrogen, the next best thing, but the ship was not e*uipped with

the necessary safety features re*uired to deal with the flammable

gas. The explosion was well covered by the media at the time.







Bittle "nown is the fact that most of the deaths &there were thirty

six casualties( were not attributed to the actual explosion, but

occured when many tried to $ump to safety and died on landing. It

is now established that hydrogen is, in fact, less dangerous thanmost fuels used today. >/?

In the Fnited tates, I.I. i"ors"i, who developed the first

wor"ing helicopter, was loo"ing into the use of hydrogen as an

aircraft fuel. In <=-, he presented his ideas to the +merican

Institute of Electrical Engineers, suggesting that the use of li*uid

hydrogen would permit, 4 a great change, particularly with

respect to long#range aircraft4! This would ma"e possible thecircumnavigation of the earth along the e*uator in a nonstop flight

without refueling. It would also enable an increase in the

performance of nearly every type of aircraft.! His statement would

prove prophetic in the years to follow.

The next decade saw little in the way of forward progress in

hydrogen research and development, presumably due to the

distractions of 5orld 5ar II. +ny existing collaborations betweenCerman and English scientists disintegrated, and funding went

elsewhere. The only significant events were the redistribution of

fossil#fuel resources, which led many countries to start loo"ing for

sources of domestic energy. This factor contributed directly to the

wor" of 0.. 0ust in +ustralia, who found that hydrogen, produced

via off#pea" electricity, cost roughly the same per mile as gasoline

in truc"s. >? 7lans were made to develop commercial#siGed

electrolysis plants, but were scrapped after the +llied victory in

<;8 made oil available and cheap once again.

'ne +ustralian who continued hydrogen research was A.'.

King, who relocated to the Fniversity of Toronto in anada to

further the cause. %rom <;- to <88, King led his team of










scientists at the Fniversity of Toronto to conduct numerous

studies into the use of hydrogen as an alternative to gasoline in

ordinary internal combustion engines. They were able to show

that hydrogen was indeed feasible in this capacity, the primary constraint being that the compression ratio in the engines had to

be "ept below seven to one. >=?These studies in Toronto showed

that combustion engines can be converted to run on hydrogen

simply and cheaply.

During the same period, the :ritish scientist %rancis T.

:acon began development of the hydrogen#air fuel cell. This fuel

cell, called the :acon ell, substituted an al"ali &potassiumhydroxide &K'H(( for the acid as the electrolyte, eliminating the

problem of corrosion of the electrodes. The :acon ell was used as

the model fuel cell which was to become an integral part of

++)s space program.

In the <8/s, the F.. +ir %orce was using hydrogen fuel in

experimental high#altitude, long#range reconnaissance aircraft.

:ased at the ++ Bewis Aesearch enter in 'hio, the +ir %orceconverted a :#8 to run on li*uid hydrogen. The pilot had the

option to switch from the conventional "erosene fuel source to

hydrogen. This was fed under pressure from the wing#tip fuel tan"

to a heat#exchanger where the cryogenic li*uid was heated to a gas

and burned normally in one of the two $et engines. +lthough the

program was a success, the use of other fuels proved to be more

cost#efficient, and the use of hydrogen as an aircraft fuel was

discontinued.

+t the same time, Boc"heed, in con$unction with 7ratt L

5hitney, was developing a high#altitude, supersonic spy plane to

run on li*uid hydrogen fuel. This plane, the B#;//, got as far as

wind#tunnel testing before the program was discontinued for






technical and logistical reasons. + large amount of drag was

introduced due to the larger volume re*uirements of li*uid

hydrogen storage. This re*uired more power to "eep the plane in

flight. 'ne positive outcome was the determination that li*uidhydrogen did not re*uire more safety precautions than that which

were re*uired for hydrocarbon fuels. This is an important step in

helping to dispel the Hindenburg 3yth.!

Boc"heed and ++ have since continued development of

an advanced supersonic transport &+T( using li*uid hydrogen

fuel &Bi*H2(. tudies in the tradeoff of reduced fuel consumption

with Bi*H2 versus increased drag have shown that the Bi*H 2 +T would still be ;=M more efficient &environmental advantages also

play a part in the consideration, with reduced carbon emissions,

less noise, and lower 'Nemissions(. >;? till, the final

considerations are economic, and hydrocarbon fuels are still

cheaper than hydrogen, when production, storage, and

transportation are accounted for. Fntil the scarcity of fossil fuels

ma"es their price increase to a higher level, government support

of Bi*H2 aircraft will be lac"ing.

In the <@/s ++ developed the use of the hydrogen fuel

cell for use in the +pollo missions to the moon. The fuel cells,

utiliGing expensive platinum electrodes, provided electrical power

on#board, as well as generating drin"ing water for the crew)s

consumption. It proved to be a highly reliable system and is still

used today in the pace huttle missions.

+lso, during the <@/s, an +ustralian electrochemist 0ohn

')3. :oc"ris, while wor"ing as a consultant with Ceneral 3otors,

began advancing the idea of a hydrogen economy.! In this

ambitious energy concept, the cities of the Fnited tates could be

supplied with energy derived from the sun, and the energy stored







using hydrogen. C3 studied the use of hydrogen for a time, yet

did not pursue the technology to any significant >;<?degree. :oc"ris

continued his crusade, and the phrase hydrogen economy,! which

has nothing to do with economics, has become an importantconcept.

In <@@, @ year old Aoger :illings modified a model#+ %ord

to run on hydrogen. :illings went on to convert many late model

automobiles to run on hydrogen using their internal combustion

engines. In <2, he won the anti#pollution category of the Frban

1ehicle Design ompetition with a hydrogen#fueled 1ol"swagen.

:illings soon teamed up with other interested parties to form oneof the most influential advocates and developers of hydrogen#

fueled automobiles, the :illings Energy orporation of 7rovo. He

has demonstrated the feasibility of hydrogen use in buses and mail

truc"s. Aoger :illings is still in the forefront of hydrogen

technology, spea"ing out and demonstrating the advantages of

hydrogen use in transportation and home appliances. ince that

time, literally hundreds of automobiles have been converted to run

on hydrogen.

The energy crisis! of <= produced a ma$or impetus for a

renewed interest in alternative fuel sources. The '7E situation

and the realiGation that fossil fuels were not only running out but

environmentally undesirable, led to a shift in public opinion. The

renewed public interest was so strong that it generated an

incredible amount of publicity. 3ost of the ma$or publications

printed stories about hydrogen. +rticles appeared in Business

Week, Readers Digest , Time, Scientific American, and Fortune.

Hydrogen had become a popular solution to the prevailing

urgency to find a source of domestic energy.



The upsurge in interest led to the formation of advocate

groups. The Hindenburg ociety, formed on the =8th anniversary

of the Hindenburg disaster, was dedicated to the safe utiliGation

of hydrogen as a fuel.! The purpose was to educate and dispelmany of the myths which deemed hydrogen to be a dangerous,

useless substance. 'riginally an informal group, popular interest

led to the necessity for the formation of the International

+ssociation for Hydrogen Energy in <;. +nother important

group, the Institute of Cas Technology, also played an important

role in generating public awareness and support for hydrogen

research. 'ther associations that have sprouted up since then

include the +merican Hydrogen +ssociation and the ationalHydrogen +ssociation.

Creat gains were made in the research of hydrogen in the

</s, but interest waned in the decade to follow. The reason was

once again economics. Hydrogen was still too expensive. +lthough

the environmental aspects were appealing, they could not

outweigh the fact that natural gas, oil, and coal were much

cheaper and easier to use. +lso, the crisis! in the 3iddle East

dissipated when '7E loosened its grip, and the price of oil

leveled off.

3ost advances since the </s have been made using

hydrogen in motor#driven vehicles, either in con$unction with

other fuels, or used in electric vehicles. ince <-2, Ceorgetown

Fniversity has been developing a fuel#cell9battery#operated bus.

The buses have been used in alifornia, 5ashington D.., and

hicago with favorable results. anada)s :allard 7ower ystems

developed a 2/#passenger bus to run on a hydrogen fuel#cell.

Daimler :enG, in Europe has also developed vehicles which run on

metal hydride storage systems. + press release dated 3ay ;,



<<@, gave details of a newly unveiled fuel cell vehicle available to

the public. The E+A II fuel cell vehicle has room for six people.

The fuel cells produce an output of 8/ "5 and enable a top speed

of / "m9h. The range of the vehicle, on full hydrogen tan"s, ismore than 28/ "ilometers. >?

Daimler#:enG has also mentioned development of an

automobile that will produce hydrogen on#board, using methanol.

+ successful method of producing hydrogen on the go! would be

a ma$or step in hydrogen evolution, and would create a revolution

in transportation, even if hydrocarbon fuels are still used.

'ther automobile manufacturers, such as 3aGda and

Aenault, have developed hydrogen powered vehicles, although

none have been slated for public availability as of yet. ome F..

companies, pushed by stiffer environmental legislature, and

deadlines to produce Gero#emission! automobiles by the year

2///, have increased the push to ma"e available a hydrogen#

powered passenger vehicle. There is little evidence that the

+merican automobile manufacturers are able to meet any of theenvironmental goals set by tate and %ederal legislatures.

5hether this is technical inability or a conflict of interests is

unclear.

In the Fnited tates, recent legislation has paved the way for

hydrogen programs. In <</, the par" 3. 3atsunaga Hydrogen,

Aesearch, Development and Demonstration +ct &7B /#8@@( led

to the enactment of a 8#year management and implementationplan for hydrogen research and development. The Hydrogen

Technical +dvisory 7anel was established for coordination and

consultation.







The Energy 7olicy +ct of <<2 &7B /2#;-@( authoriGed the

Department of Energy to administer the five year ALD program.

In accordance with the 3atsunaga +ct, the program would include

investigation into renewable production of hydrogen,transportation of hydrogen via existing natural gas pipeline

systems, hydrogen storage for vehicle use, and fuel cells for

hydrogen powered vehicles.

The Hydrogen Energy Aesearch 7rogram was introduced in

the Hydrogen, %usion and High Energy and uclear 7hysics

Aesearch +ct of <<;. The bill authoriGed O=; million over four

years. The main goal is the demonstration of the practicability of using hydrogen in transportation, industrial, residential, and

utility applications by the year 2///. The bill passed the House

but did not pass the enate. The Hydrogen %uture +ct of <<8 was

a toned down version of the original bill which reduced the

emphasis on demonstration pro$ects, and instead focussed more

on ALD. The bill passed congress and is now in effect with much

funding going into ALD.

Today, interest in hydrogen seems to be on an upswing once

again. Aecognition of the benefits of hydrogen has reached a

global scale. The continued demonstration of the attainability of a

renewable, clean#burning fuel has captured public awareness, and

has won the support of those governments which aid in funding

research and creating infrastructure webs.

>8/?

Present Technologies

There are four processes which must be considered when

developing a hydrogen#fuel system. These processes areP



. 7roduction

2. torage

=. Transportation

;. Energy conversion

There are many alternatives from which to choose when

developing a hydrogen system. The factors in which each

alternative is considered, involve efficiency, economic feasibility,

and environmental impacts. How these factors are weighted

against each other is open for debate. urrently the prevailing

trend is to consider cost#effectiveness above all else. Aecent trends

in legislature and public concern are shifting emphasis more

towards renewable and pollution#free considerations as a priority

for development of hydrogen technology.

Hydrogen is a secondary source of energy, not a primary

source li"e oil or natural gas. Therefore, in order to be utiliGed

hydrogen must first be produced. There are many ways in which

hydrogen can be produced. 3ethods of production include

chemical, electrochemical, photochemical, biological, and

thermochemical processes.

The simplest method to produce hydrogen is to dissolve

metals in acid. %or example, when Ginc &Jn( is placed in a solution

of hydrochloric acid, it reacts to produce Ginc chloride and

hydrogen.

Jn Q 2H R Jn2 Q H2

This reaction can be reproduced simply in the laboratory,

although the amount of hydrogen produced is minimal. till, this

method was used to a large extent during 5orld 5ar II when



scrap aluminum was dissolved in sodium hydroxide &lye( in order

to generate hydrogen. The hydrogen was then used to inflate

unmanned balloons for weather observation and raising radio

antennas.

>=?

This method is relatively expensive, and is notconsidereda method for mass production &today, research is being

done with scrap iron to produce hydrogen, for use in

transportation as a method of producing hydrogen onboard(.

mall amounts of hydrogen can then be economically produced to

provide the needs of a small hydrogen#fuel system.

The cheapest, and by far the most widely used method for

producing hydrogen is steam reformation. team, and a carbon#

based feedstoc" &usually methane or natural gas(, are combinedunder high temperature and high pressure to produce carbon

dioxide and hydrogen. It is estimated that <8M of hydrogen

produced in the F is by the steam methane reformation

method. >-? 3ost of this hydrogen is used in industrial applications.

+lthough hydrogen can be produced in this manner for about

O/.@8 per "ilogram, the environmental conse*uences of the use of

hydrocarbons are still a concern. The production of carbon

dioxide, a greenhouse gas,! as well as nitrogen oxides &'N(

contribute to the pollution of the Earth)s atmosphere. +lso, the

limited resources can only ma"e the cost increase as the supplies

of fossil fuel sources decrease. + newly developing renewable

option is the use of biomass, or recycled carbonaceous material, as

the feedstoc" in the steam reformation process. The air pollution

problems still exist, but it will be an intelligent use of a waste

product. +nother method for producing hydrogen is electrolysis.

Electrolysis involves the application of a small voltage &approx. 21

D( to pure water. The electrical energy decomposes the water

molecule into its constituent elements, hydrogen and oxygen. This

techni*ue has the advantage of producing hydrogen directly from









water, with none of the environmental drawbac"s which

accompany processes using fossil#fuels. till, the relatively low#

efficiency &currently @/#@8M with a theoretical maximum of -8M(

of the process, and the high cost of electricity ma"e this anexpensive option. >/? The cost of producing hydrogen via

electrolysis is about O=.// per "g. >-?

The method of electrolysis is the most attractive for those

interested in a completely clean, renewable process using solar

energy to produce the electricity. 7hotovoltaic cells, hydropower,

and wind turbines are currently being used to generate the

electricity re*uired to electrolyGe water for hydrogen production.8,@ 'ther renewable options include geothermal, tidal, wave action,

and thermal gradients in the ocean. +lthough most of these

processes do not produce sufficient amounts of energy to provide

hydrogen on a large scale, on#site electricity production coupled

with a small on#site electrolyGer can produce enough energy to

provide for the energy needs of a household along with fuel for the

family automobile. This allows hydrogen to be produced easily

without having to wait for an infrastructure to develop.

'ther attempts at water#splitting have involved super#

heating water to temperatures high enough to liberate the

hydrogen from the water molecule &thermochemical(. The

temperatures re*uired are in the range of 8///S#@///S %. +dding

chemicals such as sulfuric acid can lower the re*uired

temperature but the bottom line is that the only feasible way of

generating the heat re*uired is by way of a nuclear reaction.

uclear power generation, needless to say, has severe safety

implications. There is still research being done in the

thermochemical production of hydrogen which doesn)t re*uire

nuclear power plants. +n example would be solar power plants in











which the heat of the un is focused into a tiny point where the

heat accumulates, much li"e a magnifying glass. et there are still

environmental concerns due to the chemicals involved, and the

nitrogen oxides which are formed from a heat reaction in air&which has a high concentration of nitrogen(.

7hotoprocesses involve the use of light energy for the

production of hydrogen. These methods in one way or another,

attempt to mimic the natural phenomena of photosynthesis. In

plants, chlorophyll captures light energy and uses it to produce

complex sugar#phosphate compounds. The most astonishing fact

is that this chemical reaction, basically ' 2 Q H2' Q light energy R >8?sugars Q '2 occurs at room temperatureU 3uch research has

been done to reproduce this feat. 7hotobiological techni*ues

which coax photosynthetic plants, algae, and bacteria into

respiring hydrogen, photochemical techni*ues which synthetically

duplicate the photosynthetic process, and photoelectrochemical

techni*ues which use layers of semiconductors separated by water

are being researched today. >;?>-? These are promising technologies,

but are still in the experimental stage. If efficiency improves, then

photoprocesses may play a part in the future of hydrogen.











Storage and Transportation

Hydrogen is typically stored as a li*uid, or as a gas. There

are advantages and disadvantages to each of these storage options,

the choice of which depends upon the ultimate use.



Hydrogen becomes a li*uid at temperatures below #;2=.=S

% &#282.<S (. Bi*uefication of hydrogen is very energy#intensive,

with one#third of the energy content of the hydrogen used in the

li*uefication process./ This is offset by a reduction of volumere*uirements for hydrogen storage, with much less storage space

re*uired for a li*uid than a gas. Bess volume needed for storage,

ma"es li*uid hydrogen the preferred form of hydrogen used in the

+erospace industry with ++ being one of the largest consumers

of li*uid hydrogen in the world. >;?>2?

'nce in li*uid form, hydrogen can be transported in

pressuriGed tan"s by truc", barge, or rail. Due to the very low

boiling temperature of hydrogen, losses due to boil#off can beconsiderable. Insulation of the tan"s is of utmost importance to

reduce these losses. If insulated properly, hydrogen can be stored

for as much as five years without significant losses. ><?>/?

Hydrogen can also be stored as a pressuriGed gas. +s a gas it

can be transported via pipelines, using existing natural gas

distribution lines. + concern would be possible embrittlement of

the lines due to absorption by the metal fittings. torage of

hydrogen as a gas is the most economical method, but due to the

necessity for larger tan"s, weight and space re*uirements can be a

problem. It is estimated that the mass of a pressure tan" is //

times the mass of the hydrogen stored within it./ Higher

pressure means less volume re*uired, but the walls need to be

reinforced to withstand the greater pressure. +lthough hydrogen

is extremely light, the containers necessary to store gaseous

hydrogen can be heavy and bul"y.

+nother method of storing gaseous hydrogen involves metal

hydrides. ertain metals such as magnesium, titanium, or iron,

have an affinity for hydrogen. Fnder certain conditions, these


















metals will absorb gaseous hydrogen, and store it within its

molecular structure. 5hen the hydride is heated, the hydrogen is

released. +lthough energy is re*uired to store and to release the

hydrogen, this option has proved attractive for use as a storagemedium onboard automobiles. The main reason is that it is much

less energy#intensive than the li*uefication process, although heat

energy is re*uired to release the hydrogen. >;? +lso, safety and space

concerns are reduced when metal hydride storage is used in

automobiles.

There are a variety of other methods being developed for

hydrogen storage. These include carbon adsorption, glassmicrospheres, onboard partial oxidation reactors, and recyclable

li*uid carriers. ome of these options appear promising, but they

will still ta"e some time to develop.

Power Conversion

There are two ways of using hydrogen to generate power.

'ne is simple combustion. The use of hydrogen in internalcombustion engines has been used extensively. The other is the

conversion of hydrogen into electricity in a fuel cell, which is

essentially electrolysis in reverse. :oth of these have their

advantages and disadvantages.

Internal combustion engines can be easily converted to run

on hydrogen, or a hydrogen#fuel mixture. >?>/? The noxious

emissions are greatly reduced, with water being the only by#product if pure hydrogen and oxygen are used. itrogen oxides

are still formed from the high heat of combustion, and are still a

source of air pollution.











'ver the past two decades, most research has gone into the

development of the fuel cell. The operation of a fuel cell involves

the combination of hydrogen &anode( and oxygen &cathode( in the

presence of an electrolyte. 'utput voltages range from /. to .2 1./ The type of fuel cell varies depending on the electrolyte used.

%uel cell types include the 7hosphoric acid fuel cell, the al"aline

fuel cell, and the solid oxide fuel cell. The most common type, the

al"aline fuel cell, is still used by ++ on board spacecraft.

+nother type of electrolyte being developed is the proton#

exchange membrane which uses a solid polymer to facilitate the

reverse electrolysis process. This solid polymer, which is much li"e

plastic "itchen wrap, conducts protons, and is very conducive tothe purpose of an electrolyte. +lthough membrane costs are high,

this type of fuel cell appears very promising, and is currently being

used in advanced research &chatG Bab, Humboldt tate

Fniversity, alifornia(.

The use of hydrogen is at an all#time high. It is possible to

convert any car sitting in the driveway to run on hydrogen. It is

being proven every day that hydrogen can be used as a

replacement not only for gasoline, but natural gas in heaters and

stoves in the home. Hydrogen could some day replace electricity

as the primary energy#carrier via high#voltage power lines, being

transported in pipelines and converted to electricity on#site.

7roduction of hydrogen is also becoming easy to do for

anyone with access to about 21 of D electricity. 3any

homesteads generate enough electricity using windmills and solar

panels to supply the household)s needs. + small electrolyGer added

to this system could easily produce enough hydrogen to fuel a

vehicle. It is clearly possible that anyone with a little ingenuity and

s"ill can convert the household to use hydrogen, convert the car to



run on hydrogen, and generate the electricity for hydrogen

production using only solar energy, all for about the cost of a mid#

siGed +merican sedan.

+ny in depth study of hydrogen reveals the vast array of

system configurations for hydrogen power. The bottom line is that

any system which utiliGes hydrogen in any capacity is going to be

better off for it. Harmful emissions are reduced, efficiency is

increased and water&the original source(, is produced. 'n a larger

level, it would seem possible that use of hydrogen alone or in

con$unction with other fuels would be a ma$or step in the right

direction, and bring us a little closer to a more harmonic cycle of energy use.

References

. Daimler#:enG +.C., ews AeleaseP %uel ell 1ehicle E+A II!,

ational Hydrogen +ssociation 5eb 7age

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2. David Halliday, Aobert Aesnic", and 0ohn 3errill, Fundamentals of

Physics, 0ohn 5iley L ons, <--. VhttpP99amGn.to9<JyJ51 R

=. Cladys Hefferlin, and 5. . Hefferlin, Hefferlin Manuscripts Part ! "

!! , :A%, op.

;. 7eter Hoffmann, The Fore#er Fuel The Story of Hydrogen, 5estview

7ress, <-. VhttpP99amGn.to9+yTW0R

8. 7eter Behman, and hristine 7arra, Hydrogen %uel %rom theun,! Solar Today, ept.#'ct. <<;.

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EA)s 7rototype %uel ell 7owered 1ehicle!, $th Annual %ational

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;. teven . Jumdahl, 'hemistry, D. . Heath and o., <-@.

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