i~ç1 -~

BOTANI~T1IJSEI~MLEAFLETS• HARVARD UNIVERSITY

CAMBR1~E,MASSACHUSETTS, DECEMBER 29, 1947 VoL. 18, No. 3

• CHICHA, A NATIVESOUTH AMERICAN BEER

BY

HUGH C. CUTLER’ AND MARTIN CARDENAS2

SIMPLE FERMENTED beveragesenlivenedthe ceremo-

nies of most Indian groups in the Americaslong beforethe Conquest These mildly alcoholic brews were socommonin someregions that they may be regardedas

furnishing substantialcontributions to the diet Eventoday this is trueof CentralMexico, wherepuique,madefrom the sapof the magueyplant, is the national drink;and of much of Bolivia and Peru, whereenormousquan-tities of maizechichaare consumed.

:~ When discussingchicha it is necessaryto specify the• :- type, for the word “chicha” wasspreadby the Spaniards

• so that it is now used to designateboth alcoholic andnon-alcoholic beveragesmade from a wide variety ofplantsand preparedin diversefashions. Many of theseare listed by La Barre (1938). In a relatively simplecommunityof thecivilized TakanaIndiansnearRurren-•abaquein the Bolivian lowlands, intoxicating chicha is

• ~•. prepared from mandioca (Maniliot esculenta Crantz,

‘Formerly ResearchAssociateof the Botanical Museumof Harvard

University. This work is partof that donewhilea Fellow of the Gug-

genheimFoundation, 1946—47.2 Professorof Plant Pathologyand Genetics, UniversidadAutono-

ma “Simon Bolivar,” Cochabamba,Bolivia.

[331

called e mi he3 in rilakana) from ripe plantains (na sapun), from fruits of the wine palm (bi, a speciesof Mau-ritia), from flour corn (di he dure), and from flint corn(di lie tada). There are also non-alcoholicchichasmadefrom toastedcorn flour or from groundtoastedpeanuts,the latterprobably havingbeenintroducedinto Rurren-abaquefrom the southeast.

In the highlandsandvalleys of Bolivia thereare twonon-alcoholicbeveragescalled chicha. Chicha dequinoa,or aloja, is usually merelywaterin which quinoa(Chen-opodium Quinoa Wilid.) has been boiled. Sometimessugarand cinnamon are added. For chic/ia de manI, ortecti in the Aymara language,peanutsare toastedandground,thentoastedagainto removetheoil. Wheneverpeanutchichais to be madesomepeanutpasteandsugarare stirred into quinoachicha and peanutoil is pouredover thesurface. Sweeteneddrinksmadeof toastedandground maize or barley are usually called tostado,al-thoughthey are occasionallycalledchicha.

A simple alcoholic chichacan be made by mixing asubstancecontainingstarchor sugarwith waterand al-lowing the liquid to ferment. However,very little chichais preparedin this way. Most chichais madeby methodswhich increasethe alcoholic content and improve theflavor, the increasein alcoholic content being broughtaboutby convertingsomeof thestarchesto sugarswhichare morereadilyavailablefor fermentation.An enzyme,diastase,will bring about this change, and in SouthAmericathemost commonsourceof diastasefor chicha-making is saliva. Thecustomof masticatingroots,fruitsandgrainsin thepreparationof beveragesis widespread.Explorershavefound chichamadein this fashionamong

~Native words are spelled in the fashion of the literate population

of the area in which theyoccur. Pronunciationandaccent follow the

usual rules for Spanish.

Ithe most primitive as well as amongsomeof the moreadvancedtribes. Therawmaterialschewedfor fermentedbeverageshave beenreportedto be mandiocain lowlandEcuador(Flornoy, 1945); mandiocaandmaizein centralBrazil (Roquette-Pinto,1938); maizeandsweetpotatoesin coastalBrazil (Métraux and Nimuendajti, 1946); al-garroba(Prosopisspp.), tusca(Acaciaaroma Gill.) andchanar fruits (Gourleia spinosa (Mol.) Skeels) in theChacoof Bolivia, Paraguayand Argentinanearthe Pu-comayoRiver (Métraux, 1946); andmaizein the high-landsof Peru(Zárate, 1853).

Malting (soakinggrain in water and thenallowing itto germinate)is anothermethodof introducingdiastase.Garcilaso de la Vega4 (1800), Joséde Acosta (1940),BernabéCobo (1890-1893) and Hipólito RuIz (1931)briefly mentionmalting. The earlywriters did not givedetailedinformationon native foodsandwere generallyscornful of indigenouscustoms.They left no oompleteaccountof chicha-making.It is probable,however,thatmalting is a pre-Columbiandevelopment.

Malting is commonin most of Bolivia and Peru,es-pecially in the highlands,but it is not commonin otherregions. It is probablethat maizeand quinoawere firstdomesticatedin Bolivia andPeru,andmandiocain east-central Brazil. The roots of mandioca could not bemalted, but they are very well suited to mastication.Whereseedcrops had beencultivated for a long timethere would have been ample opportunity to developmalting andstill continuethe chewing methodswhichhad beenfound to be adaptedto the podsof algarrobaandsimilar uncultivatedraw materials. -

4The datesgiven are thoseof the editions consulted,and are not

the dates when written, nor necessarilythe datesof the respectivefirst editions. The referencesto Acostaand Cobowere suggestedby

Dr. John Rowe.

[34] [35]

SLATE IV

EXPLANATION OF THE ILLUSTRATION

PLATE IV. A. Salivatedcorn flour or mu/co. (Left)

from cuili maize; (right) from huilcaparu. B. In-

terior of achicha-makingestablishmentin Punata,Bolivia. The steamingpanover the fire is theperol.

The large containersare wir/cis, for the temporarystorageof chicha materialswhile being processed.

C. Salivatingmaize flour or mu/ceando. Punata,Bo-livia. D. Cantarosin which chicha is placed near

theend of the process. The chicha is sold directlyfrom thesejars. Cochabamba.

[36 1

ITheauthorshavestudiedchicha-makingin Bolivia at

Tiquipaya,Quillacollo, Punata,SacabaandCochabambaainong the Quecha-whitepopulation. We wereable tosecurelittle information of value from the civilized Chi-quitano Indiansof Santiagode Chiquitos,but from otherlowland groups,particularly the ReyesanosnearReyesand the TakanasbetweenReyesand Tumapasa,we se-curedquitecompletedata. The literatureon the subjectwasof very little help exceptto confirm our observationthat chicha-makingis an old art, widespreadin SouthA merica.

CHICHA-MAKING- IN THE COCHABAMBA VALLEY

Becausethe chicha-makingmethods in use in the(~ochabarnbaValley, locatedat analtitude of morethaneight thousandfeet in the Bolivian highlands,are thetiiost complex,andbecausetheyareundergoingchanges,theywill beconsideredin greaterdetail thanthemethodsemployedby the lowland Indians.

‘rhe valleysof Bolivia areseparatedby highmountainranges,andinter-valleycommercewaslongrestrictedbyboth physiographicandethnic barriers. The consequentexistenceof manysmall centersof cultivatedplant pop-ulations which had only an occasional interchangeofplant materialconstitutesan ideal situationfor the rapidevolution of numerousforms of plants. In the Cocha-bambaValley, for example,therearemany varietiesofmaize,somewith highly specializeduses(Cutler, 1946).

RawMaterials

In Cochabamba,chichais preparedfrom maize. Theberriesof molle (SchinusMolle L.) and the chewedpodsof algarrobaare no longer utilized. At slightly higherelevationsan alcoholic chicha is sometimesmade frommaltedquinoagrains.

[391

Themost highly preferredmaizefor chichais chuspillo,a many-rowed sweetcorn. Most of this sweet corn isgrown on the larger haciendasfor use only as toastedgrains, or for the preparationof an especially strongchicha. -

Thenext choice for chichais cu/li, a cherry-redto al-mostblack maizewhich containslargeamountsof water-solubleanthocyanins.Usuallythepurplecobsaregroundand addedto the corn flour. Chichamadefrom cu/li is arich Burgundy color. Occasionallythe fruits of one ofthe various Opuntiascalled airampu(Opuntia sulphuneaG. Don in the Cochabambadistrict (P1. lYc), 0. Soeh-rensii Britt. & Rosenear La Paz,and an undescribedspeciesfrom nearArani) are addedto chichato give itthis desiredcolor. The young inflorescencesof a purpleamaranthare also said to be usedto dye chicha.

Uchu/cilla, a maizewith small earsclosely resemblingcu/li exceptthat it is white, is the third choicefor chicha-making in the CochabambaValley. Very similar smallorangeflint earsgrownat altitudesof about2,700metersare used for chicha in Totora, in the DepartmentofCochabamba.r~he chichamade from this maize is oneof the best.

Anotherpreferredsourceof chicha is paltal hualtacu,alsosomewhatlike uchukilla but with largerears,yellowflint endospermandan occasionalslight tinge of blue inthe aleurone.

Notwithstandingthe fact that chichamade from anyof thefive typesof maizealreadyreferredto is of superiorquality, themost commonsourceof the beveragein theCochabambaValley is huilcaparu the maize most fre-quently grown. This hasa rust-redcob with fourteentoeighteenrows of dentedgrains. The dentingvariesfromsmall dimplesto asmuchasis found in the mostextremeof North American dents. The endospermis yellow and

the aleuroneis a deeperblue thanthat ofpaltal hualtacu.-Thiscombinationmakesthegrainsappearbrownish,witha silvery sheenproducedby minute air spacesunderthepericarp.

Forbes(1870, p. 249)says, “In somepartsa fermenteddrink is madeby the Indians from the sweetstalk of theyounggreenIndiancorn,called “huiru” (wiru): this isthe nameof the stalk.” Although sweetyoung stalks,usuallyof cu/li or uchukilla, are sold today in the marketsto be chewedlike sugarcane,they arenot usedin chicha-making.

Preliminary Steps

The maizegrains are usually ground by hand, oftenwith a half-moon-shapedstonerocker(maran uña) on aflat stone(maran) as has beendone for centuries. Theflour is then mixed with saliva. On someof the largerhaciendasit is still the customto havewomenand child-ren gather in groups to do this (P1. IVc). The flour ismoistenedvery slightly with water, rolled into a ball ofconvenientsize and popped into the mouth. It is thor-oughly worked with the tongueuntil well mixed withsaliva, after which it is pressedagainst the roof of themouth to form a single mass,then shovedforward withthe tongueandremovedwith the fingers. The teethplayvery little part in the process. For this reasonwe preferthe term “salivation,” and use the word “mastication”only whenreferringto caseswhereit is necessaryfor theteeth to maceratethe raw materials,as is donewhen al-garroba,mandiocaor sweetpotatoesare used.

The salivatedmorselsare dried in the sun and sackedfor storageand shipment. They roughly resemblesetsof false upperteeth (P1. IVA). Since muko, as the sali-vated flour is called,commandsa muchhigherpricethanunsalivatedflour, propertyownerstry to convertasmuchflour aspossibleinto muko.

[41 ]

iLl

~ ~ -

• .~-•~•

[40 1

—~ ~.

CD

C~)t~ CCD CD

~ H

—

..~ ~~~ H

CD

— —~ C

z

• In someplacesin the CochabambaValley maize is

• - malted. In Tiquipaya this is doneby soakingthe grainsovernight in a pottery jar with enough water to cover

• them. The next daythe grainsare spreadto a depthof• aboutfour incheson someleaves,and coveredwith sev-

• eral blankets. The germinatingseedlingsgeneratecon-•~siderableheat. The temperaturein one such bed was

•84°C. Whenthe shootsarenearlyas long as the grainsthey are placed in the sun to dry. In Tiquipaya, and

also in Cuzco, Peru, it is a commonsight to see thesesproutedgrainsspreadout on bright coloredblanketsinthe dusty streets. When dry, the malted grains areground Both the germinatinggrain and the flour pre-paredfrom it are called /zuiñapu

Brewing

TheFirst Day

A wide-mouthedearthenpot (wirki) is filled aboutonethird full with dried andgroundmaltedgrains(huzñ-apu) or salivatedflour (muko) When mu/co is used,Un-salivatedmaizeflour is oftenmixedwith it Crudesugar(chancaca),or the pulp of a squash(CucurbitaficifoliaBouché) known as layacote, is occasionallyadded Thepot, which is about thirty inches high and thirty-fourinchesin diameter,is filled with water heatedto about

• :: 75°C. Boiling wateris not usedas it is said to producean undesirablepastyconsistencyAfter beingwell mixed

• • for nearlyan hour the mixture is allowed to settle andcool further Threelayerscanthen be distinguished aliquid (upi) above, an almostjelly-like layerin themid-die; and coarserparticles (lianchi) below. The cloudyliquid upi is scoopedup with a gourd (either Crescentia

• C~jeteL., knownin the Quechalanguageas tuturna; orLagenariasicerania (Mol.) Standl.,known asmate)and

• • placed in another large-mouthedpot and allowed to

• [45]

I:

stand. Themiddle layeris transferredto a largeshallowpan (perol) permanentlyinstalledon aclaysupportovera fire (P1. IVB). During the last few hours of the daythis secondlayersimmersandconcentrates.To the han-clii may be addedmore mu/coor someroughly broken-

corn (tiki) andmore hot water. Rarely quinoais addedinsteadof the ti/ci. This mixture is agitated again, al-lowed to settle,and the liquid portion is then addedtothe original upi.

TheSecondDay

The upi continuesto stand. The fire underthe perotis rebuilt and the mixture is allowed to simmer for sev-eral hours longer until it becomescaramel-likein colorand flavor. This product, called misqui k/ceta, is trans-ferredto a wirki and allowed to cool. Most of the by-productsof chicha-makingareno longerimportantsincetheir place has been taken by sweetswhich are moreeasily madewith sugar. A small amountof the misquikketamaybe eatenin the homewherethechichais beingprepared,but nearlyall of it is usedin the chichaitself.It is probablethat the misqui Ic/ceta was originally usedsolelyasa.sweetandwasnotaddedto thechicha.Chicha-makers,like alchemistsof old, surround their art withan aura of mystery, and probably emphasizesome oftheir stepsin sucha way as to confoundinquisitive con-sumers.

The hanchi left in the bottom of the original open-mouthedwirki is drainedof its remainingmoisturein thefollowing manner:A cylinderwovenof splints is pressedvertically into the layerof hanchi. The particles,insidethe cylinder are removed and packedabout the peri-phery. The last remnant of liquid filters through the‘voven cylinder. rihis is a sweet, clear, non-alcoholicliquid called chua conchuwhich may be drunk in the

The Third Day

TheFourth Day

TheFifth to the TenthDay

• housewherethe chichais made,but, more commonly,- is addedto theupi. Thefurtherdispositionof thehanchi

will be discussedlater.

Theupi, which is now slightly bitter, is transferredtotheperot, the largeshallowpanoverafire. A thick whitesC(limeflt remainsin thewirki. r~his sediment,known as,ipi alpi, is further treated by adding sugar,cinnamonandsomeorangeleavesandthenboiling. It is theneatenas a delicacyin the householdwherethe chichais beingproduced.

After the upi hasboiled for about threehoursin the

: perot it is transferredto a wirki to cool. In Cochabamba,which is ‘2,572 metersabovesea level, boiling occursat89°C. At the end of this third day the misqui kketais

- addedto the upi, an operationlocally calledicketacha.

The mixture of upi and misqui icketa hasnow begunto fermentand bubblesviolently. Thisactionsoonslows

- down and the liquid is transferredto narrower-mouthedpots(centaros)at theplacewherethe chichawill be soldor consumed(P1. IVD).

In the CochabambaValley, very few bubblesariseandfermentationis consideredto be completeafter aboutsix days. At higherand cooleraltitudesmoredays are

needed, while in thehot lowlandslessthantwo daysmay

suffice.Beforethechichais drunk,thefloating froth (acañahui)

is removed with the cuppedhand. This froth containsoil, muchyeastandsomeextraneousmaterial. It is usedas a sort of French polish for furniture. Occasionally

[46] [47]

EXPLANATION OF THE ILLUSTRATION

PLATE VI. Chicha signs. A. Sacaba. B. Arani.

C. Calla-Calla. D. -Cochabamba. E. Taquina. F.Cochabamba.

[48]

Pi.~A’rE Vi1”

U.ehiicha-makers may add someof this yeastymixture tonew batchesof greenchichaas a starter. Usually, how-

ever, this is unnecessarybecausethe porousearthenjarsarc only slightly washedout and so are normally well

supplied with yeast. The jars arewashedwith ashesandwater, swished about with a branch of molle (SchinusIJIolle L.) or huai c/ia (Senecioclivicolus Wedd.).

After the chichahas beendrunk, a layer of sedimentrelflaifls in the bottom of the pot. This sediment,thehorra de chicha, is laid on a gunny-sackstretchedover asmall jar. A liquid, the sutu,which resembleschicha incolor, but lacksthe carbonatedsparkleand cidery tangofgoodchicha,dripsthroughthesacking.Sutuis greatlyprized for it is reputedto havea higheralcoholiccontentthanchicha. It is usuallyconsumedat home,sweetenedwith sugarand dyed a wine-colorwith airampu (seep.40). For eachforty liters of chichaonly aboutone literof sutu is obtained. After thesutu is drainedoff, there-ina.iningborra is fed to pigs andchickens,or is savedtobe usedin makinga weakchichato be discussedbelow.1.t may also be added to bread dough, for it providesyeastaswell as filler.

At theendof theseconddayof chicha-makingacoarsesediment,the hanchi,remains.This is often givento pigsand chickens,but it may also be usedto make/caima, acheapand weakchicha. Cold water is mixed with thehianchi and it is allowed to stand. After a short time asedimentsettlesto the bottom. The upperpart of thissedimentis smoothand creamy.This ic/cetaordinania,asit is called, may be cookedwith brown sugarto makeacustard,or it maybe addedto themisquik/cetawhenit i-sbeing concentrated.If kiceta ordinaria is added to the-rn-isguikketa,moreborra is left after the chichahasbeendrunk. The coarser,lower part of the sedimentis fed to

pigs. The supernatantliquid (se/ce)is removedandboiled

• [51]

in theperol for two hours,thentransferredto a tall pot(cantaro) and allowed to stand for two or three days.Borra, usually from a previous lot of chicha, is thenadded.The beveragethus producedis called kaima. Itis consumedmainly by the Indian field laborerswhose.work in the hot sunmakesthemparticularly susceptibleto alcohol. Theypreferkainia to the strongerchichabe-causeit is possibleto drink morewithout becomingdrunkor sleepy.Thesedimentof the /cai’ina, also called hanchi,is fed to pigs.

ConsumptionandMarketing

Well-made chicha is an attractive drink, clear andsparkling,with a flavor somewhatsimilarto thatof applecider. Its alcoholic contentvaries greatly, from abouttwo percentin new or in weakandwateredchichato ashigh astwelve per cent in a few exceptionalsamples.Most Cochabambachicha has five per cent alcohol orless.

Whenchichais ready for sale, a sign, the aca ilantu(“Chicha flag”) is displayed.Llantu is probablyrelatedto ilaitu, the word for a fringe which denotesnobility orrulership. The frequentoccurrenceof fringes andtasselsin chichasignssuggeststhat there may be somebasis tothe local belief that the bettertypes of chichawere for-merly reservedfor the ruling class.

The simplest chichasignsarewhite flags attachedtotall poles. Theseare seenonly in the country districts.During fiestasthe flags are decoratedwith flowers andcolored ribbons (P1. VIE). Someof the signs in smallsettlementsare very ornate. Fancy tin stars, woodencondors,reed boats,cloth squares,tissue-paperfrills andwoodenplaquesare common. Someof theseare shownin PlatesV and VI. In Quillacollo and Cochabambathere are laws which prohibit these fancy devices,and

most signsare simple letteredboards.Theseusuallyan--flounce “Chicha,” “Buena Chicha” (Good Chicha),“Chicha Punateña”(Chichafrom Punata)or “Chicha

- Clizena(Chichafrom Clissa). Many chticheriasalso havea parrot in the doorway so that the illiterate may know

-. - . whereto drink. Onechicheria placesa single parrot in‘ the doorwaywhen ordinary chicha is for sale, but two

parrotswhenthe chichais exceptionallygood.Chichais taxedin Bolivia. Eachyearthe right to col-

.léct thesetaxesis auctionedto the highestbidder. The-• -T -tax is 48 Bolivian centavos(about one cent in United

Statesmoney) for each bottle of 660 c c A bottle ofchichais usuallysold for abouteight UnitedStatescents

i:~’Thetax is collectedwhenthechichais made. In Coch-I: -. ,abambaand its suburbs, with a population of about

80,000, according to the records of the Treasury ofCochabamba,taxeswere paid in 1946 by 768 licensedchicherias on 4,617,388 liters of chicha It is rumoiedthat morethantwice this amountwas actuallymade.

CHICHA-MAKING IN THE BOLIVIAN LOWLANDS

- :1 •‘ .~ - Chicha-makingin the Bolivian lowlandsis ashortand

1 simple process.Since fermentationprogressesrapidly inthe tropical heat, and sincethe nativeshave only a fewsmall pots, thereis neitherequipmentnor time for theelaboratemethodswhich prevail in thehighlandvalleys.

• • -~ -~ AmongtheTakanaIndianswho live on bothsidesof the: RIo Beni near Rurrenabaque,chichaforms a part of the

- .. daily food of most families and nearly all homescon-•stantly have somein preparation.Métraux(1942, p. 42)

- . • .. ., states: “None of the Takanatribes -is known to havebrewed any fermenteddrink a curious exception

• in an area where most tribes enjoyed several kinds of• beer.” We believe that fermented drinks have been

known in this region for a long time, and were either

I

[52] [53]

‘LATE VII

EXPLANATION OF THE ILLUSTRATION

PLATE VII. A. Grinding flour corn for chichanearBalas, RIo Beni, Bolivia. B. Germinating corn

grainsfor chicha,nearReyes,Bolivia. C. Airampu

(Opuntia suiphurea). The seedsare used to dyechicha, near Cochabamba.D. Pounding grainsof

white flint corn for somóor tuliuré, Iturrenabaque,Bolivia.

[54]

not seenor not recordedby Métraux’s sourcesof infor-mation.5

Most chichais madefrom the longearsof dull orangefjoui corn White flint maize is seldom used The ears

• • • • afe keptin the husks,tied in pairs andhungover a poleon theraftersor underthe treesuntil needed A pointedwoodenpegheld in the handis sometimesusedto facili-tatethe removal of the husksand grains

Thegrainsaie soakedovernightin a jar of water,thenplacedin a basketlined with Hehconialeavesandcov-eredwith moreleaves(P1 VIIB) Insideonebasketthetemperaturewas found to be 36°C When the shootsare nearlyas long as the seed (the sproutedgrainsarecalledehi datain Takana),theyarecrushedwith arockerstone(tumu) on a semicircular hardwoodboard (tada)(P1 VIIA) Usually someof this ground maltedgrainis salivated slightly by mixing it in the mouth Themalted,groundandsalivatedmeal (ebe tent) is immedi-ately placedin a jar and mixed with warm water Themixture is thenboiled for threeor four hours The boil-ing liquid is called e hi data du duki, the liquid afterboiling butstill hot sinamétahi, andthe liquid whencoldbut not fermentedhut na inétahi After it hascooledtheliquid is strained (dakwataz)througha pieceof cottoncloth andleft in anarrow-mouthedjar to ferment(patchia

P chenap~z,i e to becomestrong) Although the chicha1 1 is at its bestaftertwo days,drinkingusually beginssoon

after the liquid cools and beforeit has fermented,and- continuesuntil it is gone. After five daysthe chichabe-

-~ - comesvinegar-like, but it has usually been consumed

~ The little that is known of the Takanalanguageis summarizedby

• Crequi-Montfort and Rivet (1921—22). Since they list only oneword• for chicha (tupari), we are including other Takana terms recorded

• •nearRurrenabaque.Theseshould beacceptedwith cautionsincethey

wererecordedby onewho is not alinguist anddoesnot speakTakana.

[57]

beforethis. The sedimentwhich was left after strainingand that which remainsin the pot after the chicha isdrunk are thrown to thepigs and chickens.Therearenoby-products. Justas in the highlandsno yeastis added.The liquid is boiled in onepot,however,and fermentedin anotherwhich is merelyrinsed out after each lot ofchichahasbeenmade.

White flint corn is usedto maketwo drinks in the RIoBeni town of Rurrenabaque.The grainsare poundedina woodenmortar(tac~)with a pestle(manotac~in theTakanadialect of Rurrenabaque)to loosenthe pericarp(P1. VIID). After winnowing, the grains are boiled inwater for aboutthreehours. Sugaris then added.WThencool, this productis calledsomó,probably an introducedterm. If allowed to ferment, it is called tuhuré.

Referencehasbeen made to the sweet c,aramel-likepaste(misquikketa)producedin thehighlandchichapro-cess.The TakanaIndianspreparea similarsweetastheend-productin a processwhich is exactly like that forchichaup to the time of boiling. The malting, grindingandsalivationhavebeencompletedandthewateradded.The mixture is thenstrainedand boiled. However,in-steadof boiling for only a few hours, this processcon-tinues for almost a day until the liquid is sticky andcaramel-like,andtheTakanawomenjudgeit hasreachedits “point.” This meansthat when cool it will hardenjust as properly madefudge does. While still hot thesticky liquid is pouredor scrapedonto the broad leavesof anyoneof severalspeciesof Ileliconia. Usually it iseatenas a sweet (eti hua; in the TakanadialectspokennearReyes,e cuahuara). Sincesugarcaneis now com-monin the area,very few of the Takanasstill makethesweetsolely as a confection. It is usuallyutilized as aningredientfor a chichapreparedfrom the bi palm,a spe-cies of Mauritia.

[58]

Drawn by Gordon W. Dillon

“m uk 0~

Dried

Either “muko” or

“huon’hJpu” used.Sometimes algaroba,

sugar or white

squash added.

STEPS IN THE MAKING OF CHICHA AND ITS BY-PRODUCTS IN THE COCHABAMBA VALLEY OF BOLIVIA

Add water about 7Q0

Stir well and let

settle for one

~upi” begins to ferment

Boil 21iours

rung

~a ise noled.~itedt of

RIoci inthe~arpI inhenced

Ground Salivated

Furniture

like)ro-theforinged.in-on-~nd~edlentheyes

is:enm-;heanDc-

Soaked Germinalo,d 6!round

Drawn by GordonW. Dillon

The fruits of this palm are boiled in water until the

shell comesoff. The massis thenworkedwith the handsand the corn sweet (e ti hua) added. This mixture isagain boiled and brokenup with the hands,after whichit is strainedthrough a sieve. After standingin pots for-two daysit is readyto be drunk. Nativesclaim that thischiclia is stronger than that made from maize alone.Chichamadefrom the palm fruits alonewithout addingthe corn sweetis weakerand is seldomprepared.

(in the western margin of the Bolivian Chaco nearCa.iniri and Lagunillas, the Chiriguano Indians makechichaby simply mixing boiled andmasticatedgrainsofmaizewith hot water and allowing this to ferment. InSantaCruz,plain groundcorn is sometimesmixed withhot waterand left to ferment. This makesa weak chichawhich must be consumedassoon as it has fermented.According to Métraux (1946), the indiansnearthe Pil-coniayo River in the Chacoof Bolivia and Paraguayusethe fruits of algarroba(Prosopisspp.), chanar(Gourlieasp/nosa(Mol.) Skeels),and tusca (Acaciaaroma Gill.)in the preparationof alcoholic drinks. Thesefruits, par-ticularly algarroba,are usually masticatedas a prelim-inary step in the process.

These observationson the manufactureof chicha inBolivia are presentedas introductory material to a pos-siblefuturestudyofnative Americanbeverages.A com-

pletereporton themanufactureanduseof suchbeveragestogetherwith their associatedceremoniesand supersti-tions would yield valuableinformation as to the spreadof food plantsand customs. BefOre sucha study canbemade,however,it will be-necessaryfor thestudentto gointo the field and collect his own data,since the infor-ruationavailablein the literature,and even in the note-

books of ethnologists,will not suffice for morethantheroughestof outlines.

[59]

LITERATURE CITED

Acosta,Joséde, 1940. Historianaturaly moralde las Indias. MexicoCity.

Cobo, Bernabé, i890—93. Historia del Nuevo Mundo. Seville.

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uE, MASSACHUSETTS, JULY 27, 1948 VOL. 13, No. 4

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T~AN[CAL MTJSEU1YI JJEAFL1~1~HARVARD UNIVERSITY

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VASCULAR ANATOMY OF ORCHIDFLOWERS

BYB. G. L. SwAMY

Biological Laboratories,Harvard University

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‘HAT the structuralcomplexitiesof a flower can be~clearby a studyof floral anatomyin relationto itsilarization is becominga prevalentthought. While

Ii a study is being concentratedon the membersof-•ral other natural orders, orchids, characterizedby[r “over-specialized”floral organization,still remain

attackedfrom this angle.obert Brown (1831) was the first to elucidate ther’e of the orchid flower. He comparedit with the

Lcturalandothermorphologicalfeaturesoftheflowerscertainallied monocotyledonousfamilies and - inter-

~ted the labellumasa compoundstructuremadeup oflateral stamensof the outer whorl and the median1. Darwin, after studying the courseof vascular

~esin a considerablenumberof orchidflowersbelong-to different tribes, incorporatedthe results in hislograph, “The Various Contrivancesby which Or-

tids are Fertilisedby Insects” (ed. 1899). In general,confirmed Brown’sobservations,particularlywith re-

rd to the compoundnatureof the gynost~miumandbellum.Subsequentto this publication, very little has been

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