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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONSIN

AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY

Vol. 13, No. 6, pp. 215-234 April 12, 1922

THE FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OFNORTHERN YANA

BY

E. SAPIR

INTRODUCTORY

It is some time since the Northern and Central Yana texts, collectedin 1907, have been before the public.1 Now that we know Yana to beno completely isolated Californian language, as had been at first sup-posed, but a divergent member of the so-called "Hokan" stock, itbecame more than ever a duty to do something to help the student ofcomparative linguistics in the analysis of the published material. Atthe time that the texts were being prepared for publication considerableprogress had already been made in the analysis of the language. Un-fortunately the data then arranged had utilized only a part of theNorthern Yana texts and grammatical notes, while the Central Yanamaterial remained almost entirely untouched. It so happens that Yanais one of those complexly synthetic (polysynthetic) languages thatneed to be exhaustively studied in lexical, as well as purely grammat-ical, respects before an adequate presentation can be made of theirstructure. For this reason the material incorporated in this paper,which may be described as a selective summary of my still fragmentaryNorthern Yana collectanea, is far from constituting an adequate intro-duction to even the Northern dialect. This particularly applies to thelists of verb stems and verb suffixes, which are very far from includingall the Yana elements available in my texts and notes. Nor are thelists of more strictly formal elements measurably complete. I hopein due time to give the complete grammatical account of Yana thatthis interesting language deserves. Meanwhile I trust that the presentmaterials will serve a useful preliminary purpose, as an aid to theanalysis of the Yana texts and as a possible lever for the furtherelucidation of Hokan relationships.

1 E. Sapir, Yana Texts, this series, ix, 1-235, 1910.

216 Univer8ity of California Publioations in Am. Aroh. and Ethn. [Vol. 13

A few further remarks may help to make the lists more useful.The phonetic symbols here used are precisely the same as in the texts,with one exception-the sign for the glottal stop, e, previously usedis here replaced by the more current '. Though only the NorthernYana dialect is here considered, the lists may also be employed forthe study of the Central Yana texts, provided it is remembered thatNorthern Yana p and t at the end of primarily closed syllables cor-respond to Central Yana m and nq respectively (e.g., Northern Yanatti'psiwandja and -bitdja- are paralleled by Central Yana t'i'msiwandjaand -bindja-) ; this Northern Yana -p- becomes -bi- before 1 and y, whilebefore w syllabically final -t- appears in Northern Yana as -ru- or -ri-(-du- or -di-), before y as -di-, -ri- (Central Yana -m-i-, -m(i) -y-, -n-w-,and -n (i) -y- respectively). Northern Yana -p'- and -t'-, however,appear as -p'- and -t'- also in the Central dialect. It is well to re-member, also, that Northern Yana often has -di-, -ri-, where CentralYana has -di-, -ri-. There are, of course, other differences of detailwhich cannot be enumerated here.

This is no place to go into the details of Northern Yana phonology,but the observance of the following more important phonetic laws willfacilitate analysis:

1. Syllabically final p and t (Central Yana m and n) are assimilated to mand n before nasals; p' and t' become voiceless m' and n' before nasals.

2. -tl- (Central Yana -nl-), -t'l-, and -In- are respectively assimilated to -II-,-l'l-, and -l-.

3. Syllabically final- p and p' (Central Yana m and p') assimilate with fol-lowing w to mm and m 'm respectively.

4. Before elements beginning with -' - .(e.g., -' gat-, -e da-) long vowels areshortened (this is true also in other primarily closed syllables), while shortvowels (after the first syllable) disappear; e.g., 'e- + -'gat- becomes 'efgat-,-dja- + -eda- becomes -tceda-.

5. Certain suffixed elements have a long vowel if the preceding syllable islight (i.e., ending in a short vowel), a short vowel if the preceding syllable isheavy (i.e., ending in a long vowel, diphthong, or consonant). Thus, 'a-sd'-, but' 6'-sa-, -' na'i-sa-, ' a't-sa-.

6. Final short vowels become voiceless in absolute position and before con-sonants, in forms used by women. Preceding b, d, g, dj, w become pe, te, ke, tc',voiceless w respectively (male pea'di "place," female pea'tti). Other feminineforms are noted below. Before words beginning with smooth vowels, final shortvowels are elided in both male and female forms. Elided forms of syllables arealso used in certain grammatical forms for both sexes (e.g., dalwi'wi "hands,"but dalii'wlke i( 'a) " another 's hands"'; -si, present indicative, but -s-ke i-, presentindicative with possessive -kci-).

Sapir: The Fundamental Elements of Northern Yana

The student may rely on one rule with absolute safety-there areno prefixes in Yana. All verb forms begin with an element of thetype listed in Part I. As many of these elements are rather vague orelusive in significance, -it is possible that a certain number of homony-mous stems are really identical elements. An important percentageof the verb stems are objective, i.e., refer to the handling of particularclasses of objects (e.g., bo-, lui-) or, in their "static" form, to theposition of such classes (e.g., bd-, lai-). The fundamental importanceand extensive development of objective verbs in Yana were broughtout very clearly in my Yahi researches with Ishi. Certain verbs areinstrumental (e.g., 'e-, bui-), i.e., they refer to activitives performedwith certain objects or parts of the body.

Part II includes all non-formal verbal elements that are suffixedto the stem, with the exception of incorporated noun stems. Theseoccur after certain of the listed suffixes, before others. It is possible,indeed probable, that some of the suffixes are really incorporated stemsin origin. The suffixes include "stems" of secondary position, ad-verbial elements, local elements, and other types, but it is difficult todraw hard and fast lines between the various types. Their order isrigidly determined, but the rules governing this order are too complexto be even touched on here. The verb "suffixes" make up the mostdifficult and fascinating chapter in Yana grammar. It is quite likelythat the total number of Yana non-grammatical suffixes is greater thanthat of the initial stems. The combination of elements of the twoclasses presents a most interesting analogy to the verbal structure ofthe Algonkin languages.

I. NORTHERN YANA VERB STEMS2a-, if

*a-, *a-, have on oneself, become covered with*a-, go (one female)ea-bd-, shake (intr.)ea-bit-, go afterea-djil-, dance round-dancee a-k!au-, chop'a-s uts'-, go off

*'a-, trail runs

2 * indicates that the stem cannot be directly followed by grammatical (i.e.,tense-modal and pronominal) suffixes, but must have its meaning completed byone or more derivational suffixes.

Entries of form ea-ba-, such as can be shown to be compounded of two ormore elements, but in which no clear significance has been found for the firstelement or " stem. "

Entries of form eau- . . . 'a-, such as never occur without the derivationalsuffix - 'a-, which, however, may be separated from the stem by other elements.

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218 University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and, Ethn. [Vol. 13

*' -, sink (intr.)a-ba-, be old

*ai-, time elapsesai-, be white-haired

*!ai-, fall downai-k!u-, be sick, soreak-s'aps'i-, yawnak !p' a-, clap one 's hands'al-t da-, shake (intr.)falukk!ma-, be happy, willing*amma-, keepapbi-, who?

*?at-, go (plur.), be manyeart-gil-di-, fall downate? !-, what?e au-... 'a-, believea,uwi-, take, holdauwil-ya-, stay long with'awap-, be full of acorn mush

*ayat-, rock*ba-, move quickly, run*ba-, call upon*ba-, sun movesba-dii-t!ap-, come to life againba-gat-gu-, be shortba-gul-, be tired outba-krii-, spill (intr.)ba-lau-, plant growsba-ts !i' di-... 'a-, shout

*ba-, ba-ri-, rainbadjal-, be largebai-, onebai-, hunt deer (denominative from ba-, deer)ba'ni-, be fullbasl-, be night, yesterdaybat-di-, spherical object falls out, boundsbat-ptal-, be flatbawi-sa-, be nightbe-, be he whobedjap-, urinatebe 'na-, eat (mush) with handsb6yau-, when?b6yu-, take food alongbi-, rocks liebirK-, where?b6- (static ba-), hit with fist

*b6- (static *ba-), handle a round hard object; ba-, rock liesbop-dja-, look aboutb6tstt!ip-, laugh out loud

*bu-, dance*bu-, be unable to urinatebil-, hair comes out


bui-, kick, do with the foot*bul-, threeda-... sa-, be... in appearance

*da-, lookda-, much water lies, ice is spread out

*da- (*da-), jump, flyda-dam-ma-, bleeddasi-, catch salmon (denominative from dasi-, salmon)dat'-, be much, manydau-, count, handle set of things one after anotherdaumi-, four

*de-, peel, shear*de-, see, knowde-ts!git-di-, be ahead of, beatdedji-, nevertheless

*det-, shell, mash*dl-, move, run on in a linedimdn 'ai-, justdil '-xai-, eye waters

*dit-, put out one's hand, touchd6-, hook

*d6-, do with the fingersd6-nit-, whip, beatdui-ts'!inai-, scolddu-llai-, smear (pitch) on (cf. d6-, causative of dd, liquid lies)dum-mana-, hug, fondledut'-, be older, be doing much (cf. dat'-)

*dja-, eat, have in the mouth*dja-, dance, move on*dja-, dja'-, hang (intr.)dja-k!i-, be sullendjadji-, sit with drooping eyesdjal-, laughdjau-, get grasshoppers (denominative from djau-, grasshopper)djaudut '-, hiredjawa-, weep in mourning

*dje- (static *djf-), fill into*dje-dja-, handle door, seat*dje'-, rundj&djap-, dji- . . . 'a-, shootdjedjau-p!a- 'a-, be ready to go*dj-, *dji-, move about, water flows, smoke streamsdji-ts'!ut-dja-'a-, look on at others eating

*djf-, taste (intr.)dji-djurai-, freeze to death

*dji'-, ice is on grounddjidj&-, watch for salmondjik!u- .. . 'a-, listendjimat-, five

*dj6- (static *dju-), handle food, flesh, mass*dj6- (*dju-), offer as paydj6-yu-... 'a-, shake

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220 University of California Publicationts in Amn. Arch. and Ethn. [Vol. 13

*dju-, wind blows*djia-, *dju-, tree stands*djat-, much water movesdjii-, spear (salmon), use digging-stickdjii-, *dju-, sharp point gets stuck in part of body

*djjj-, leaf, hair movesdjux-wagal-, fingers are interlocked; djut -ld-, lie curled updjui-, carry on one's shoulderdjul-, be longdjulla-, walk bentdjun-ma 'wi-, feed (cf. *dj6-)dju'nd-, carry watere-, wait on woman in confinement

*e-, handle roots, nuts*f6-, sing, make a sound*!e, do with one's handse'-, shell acorns'ek!i-, act as shaman'emu-, stop cryingenit-, be a widowet!-sa-i-, sneeze

*ga-, *ga, talkga'-'il'ai-, be foolishgaits'-ts'eit-p !a-, feel wellget -lau-, make angrygena-'ai-, forget*gb,he in a certain state of mindgi-t!ap'-, tellg6-, hearg6k!a-, take one's partha-keftrul-, be coarse; ha-mlk!i-, be pounded fine

*hd-, be wet (cf. ha-, water)hat dai-, dreamhadjat-, tenhal-lu-, be darkha 'lai-, dawn; hanai-p !a-, be daylighthMmutdi-, be warmhatc!it-, be coldx6-sa-'a-, swallow

*hui-, wash (causative denominative from ha-, water)hui-, hop

*i-, put on article of clothing*e-, go, move (sing. subject)'l-mui-ri-, cut meati'-gal-dja-, cough; le-ts-!il-, hiccough'ibi-, build a houseFdja-, be tiredie djat-, grow'il-, there is thunderil-s&idi, rub feet against each otherie ad-, have objection'in '-, be hardly able to breathe


*'ip-, drive away, tell to gofit-, look for'itda-, make'iwa-, burden-basket lies'iwai-, carry woodlyai-, be daykeilap-, be blunt, cut off square

*keip-, let gokeit-bit-, let aloneke'u-, not; kefiyau-gu-, do not...!keunu-, not yet

*k!ul-, feel drykeul-dja-, feel lazy*kWd-, feel sore, uncomfortablek !ai-, be strong, bitterk!al-ts!au-, scratch with clawsk!a'nai-, be near

*k!/-, be slow*kW1-, swell, rise*k!u-, be longk!uni-, and, but

*k!ut-, like, wantk!utdit-, return quicklylau-, be strongliV-, turn one's head backlMli-, blow one 's nosemui-, hit with hard round objects; *lui- (static *lai-), handle several hard

round objects; lai-, several hard round objects lielulmai-, be blind

*ma-, climbmddi-, be sickmadjup-, fire is outmah&-, melt "

maits--gini-, foot, hand sleepsmal-, be worn out, hurtmala-, refusemalla-, stay away for a long timemalla-p!a-, be badmdri-, fire is covered with ashesmds-i-, be ripem&s'i-dja-, be gladm&t!adju-i-, be wintermap'-dja-mai-, have supernatural power

*mat-, summer, springmat'-dja-, get new acornsmatdja-, be sharpmau-, tellmau-, be about tomawsupekfidi-, put on leggings*m-, handle wood; ml-, wood lies*m-, look in a certain way at; *m-, be... -eyed, ... -facedme-gil-ya-, take pity on

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222 University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn. [Vol. 13

me'it-, not allow*met-, handle sticks; mit-, wood liesmet-dja-, handle garmentmi-, crymi-lap-, wake upmi-djat-tc !u-, clothing is torn; mi-ts!u-, be scratchedmi-k!ai-, be angrymidja-, be heavymil-, hit (with a stick)

*mil-, handle lump, loglike objectmildja-, runminit-, lookmit-, drill, whirl

*mits !-, have (with incorporated object)m6-, eat*m6- (static *mii-), reach, holdmo-yi-, teachmoe-, take alongm6dju-k!da-, likem6t!i-, roastmu-rul-, person lies

*mfz-, workmui-, bitemul-t!ap-, blotches, pimples break out

*mUt-, move along on one's haunches by aid of handsna-gu-, therefore; na-ke1u-, therefore notnee-, step, do with the footni-, ni-, go (one male)n6-, dissever two pieceso-... 'a-, there is...O-... 'a- (static d-... 'a-), dig up roots6-ke ui-, sew* 6-, hit with a stick

6-mai-, trackw6-dja-... 'a-, handle long object6ni-, fetche6ni-na 'wai- (static ean!-na'wai-), try, practice, look aftere 6nu-, dig a hole'op- (static wap-), wait forop'dji-, (static ap'dji), kill6tct a-, dig annis roots6wai-, get on one 's backw6wai- (static wdwai-), misspe a-, snow liespeat!gd-, have sore eyespeaii-, be distant*peX, sharpen, peel off stickpfe-, flat object, shallow basket liesp'e-ga-'a-, snorep 'e-ts'ei-, shake (basket, sack)*p'-, several go (plural of ii-)pef-ts'!ilai-, be afraid because of unseen presence


pfiyuk!ui-, have fitspeit'-, break wind, boil, burst, snappf6- (static pru-), blow, do with one's mouthpe 6-, put pitch, paint onpf6wat-... 'a- (static pfawat-... 'a-), put beads around neck

*peu-, smoke (cf. peo6-, blow)*pe,a-, swim, bathepeui-tctai-, pound roots to make mushpeuie-, be fat

pfu-lIai-, smear pitch over (cf. pe6-, put pitch on)pfun'si-, be a widowerp!uts !na-mai-, be narrow*sa '-, sleep; *s o'-, close one 's eyes'aps'i-, sleeps i-, drink

*shit-, water leakss'6-ts!uida-, crack shells off with fingerss u-... 'a-, several runteai-lau-, take out of one's moutht' ap-p !a-, seemt'i-, saytel-, do, act in a certain wayt'unna-ptc!i-, break in two (intr.)t!alap-, be whitet!amma-, even ift!ini-, be littletcil-, be bigtct 6-, eat uncooked rootsts'eup-, make biliousts 16- 'a-, make a noisets'!en'nama-k!oi-'a-, there is nobodyts- !ha- 'ai-, lovets 16k !-lau- 'a-, be dumbts !up '-, be goodu-, be

*u? -, twowuidja-, copulateui-t!at-, pile up acorns in columns'Ui-, whistle

*ul-, hit with a stick; *ul-dja-, hairdle person, stick*ful-, smell (intr.); ful-ma-, smell (tr.)'al-, liquid lies in receptacle; t!ul-... 'a-, handle receptacle with liquidul 'i-, not to hear, not to understandunna-mai-, imitate

ut-, take out a torch, handle a light*wa-, sit; *wa-k!-, stand*wa-... 'a- (with incorporated noun), have (person) as so and sowa- 'ym-, be afraidwd-, pound (acorns)wai-, think in a certain waywai-ts lut-, burstwairut-, be full of raw acorns

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224 University of Californi,a Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn. [Vol. 13

wak!i-, defecatewannup-, borrowwash-, hit with a knife, handle with a sharp pointwayal-, not to get enough to eat

*we-, take, fetchw6-bu-, dig rootswe-ri-, shooting star fallsweya-, doubtwime-dja-, hit the markwitc 'u-, be sweetya-lau-, have blood running out of one's mouthyae ... 'a-, tattooyae -wl-, sweat; yam-ma-ptc!i-, sweat in the sweat-houseyd-, hit the target

*ya-, people moveyd-, play a musical instrument

*yai-, several sit; *yai-k!-, several standyapbidjai-, playy6gai-, asky6hai-, be pregnantyui-, object burns; yut-... 'a-, build a fire

*ya-, fire burns; *yo-... 'a-, burn (trans.)yui-'la-, be rotten

*yui-, handle doughy, mushy mass*yul-, crush, mash

II. NORTHERN YANA NON-GRAMMATICAL VERB SUFFIXES

-'a-, causative (contracts with certain tense-modal elements; see Part III, B)- 'a-, to be (with noun stems)-'ai-, in the fire-'ai-, indirect object (with verbs of putting on)-'aigu-, oneself-'at-, up to, arriving at-ba-, completely-ba-, all (quasi-plural)-ba-, -ba-, to pull, put aside-badi-, -badi-, to stop making a sound-bal-, up (from ground)-balla-, to push, knock-bil-, about, here and there-di-bil-, at random, all over, to pieces-bit-, following-bitdja-, ready to, to be about to-'ba-, also, too-'batdi-, to be lost-_ bi-, -e bi-, to go first, be ahead-dada-, -teda-, to shake, tremble-dap-, rap-; -dami-, rami-, out of the house-raps i-, -raps-ui-, red


-di-, -di-, to clean-di-, -di-; -ri-, -r-, down-du-, -ru-, to go in order to-du-, -dfl-, -teu_, back home, retracing one's steps-du-, -dut-; -ru-, -ru-, straight down, moving down-duru-, to be left over-duni-, one after another-du-nitdi-, back, backwards-rul-, to lie on the ground-dummai-, again, once more-dut'-, much (cf. primary stem dut'-)-Ida-, straight ahead-_ da-p' au-gu-, too, excessivelydadja-, very, sound (asleep), plumb (tired)

-'datdi-gu-, continuously, without changedamai-, perhaps

-' di-, to leave behind, abandon-'di-, to come loose-' di 'a-, to shout-dja-, -djd-, to go while - ing-dja-, away; general movement (particularly used with certain verbs of

handling)-djari-, rising from the ground (refers to houses)-'djap-, -djap-; -edjdmi-, -djdmi-, to the north, in the north-djat-dja-, to fetch, take along home-djau-, to get ready, practice before going-djau-ri-, underneath, at the bottom-djawai-, to help, take one 's part-djiba-, everywhere, in all respects-djil-, around, in a circle-dju-, often, from time to time-'dja-, to rest-'djd-, to answer-'djai-ri, on top, on a surface-'e-, with (instrumental)-ga-bil-, to stumble, move zigzag-gal-e di-, skin, bark comes off-gap-, -gami-, from the north-gat-, to roll, eddy-gidi-, -girf-, fire goes out-gil-, moving over the crest; -g lau- ( -gil-hau-), east over a hill-git-, to a neighboring house; -glnau- ( -gin-hau-), east to a neighboring

house-git-bal-, to fall unintentionally, stumble to the ground-gu-, just, a little-gul-, to be tired, obstructed-gu-mma-, truly, indeed-gunai-, uninterruptedly, without fear-'gai-, to roll, reel about-'gat-, to break-'giyui-sa-, to stumble along (blind, very sick)-'git-, early in the morning

2251922]


-hai-, -xai-, to rest, be quiet *-haina-, also, as well, likewise-xaledi-, to make cold-hat'-, -xat'-, merely, to no purpose, nothing but-hau-, to the east (contracts with preceding u to 6-: dj6 -<dju-hau-, dwelling

in the east)-haudju-, from the west (-d6dju-, back from the west<-du-haudju-)- 'haya-, - 'haya-, - 'xaya-, - 'xayd-, alone, secretly-i-, removing; -idi-, away from, to leave-'i-, -1'-, after, in order to reach; -'i-wa-, moving over; - 'i-sa-, - 'i-sa-, moving

away in pursuit; - 'i-me dja-, -'ime dja-, coming behind in pursuit; -'i--'-, more of, another (referring to object of transitive verb)

-'ilap-, -lap-, to wake up- 'immai-, -mnmai-, to move along with, to help-'ini-gqu-i-'a-, to have nothing but (makes denominative verbs)-k i-, toward the speaker, hither-keu-u, -ke f-, crumply, gravelly, finely divided pieces-ke ui-, to sew-ke unu-, still, yet-k!upda-, to tie up-'ktit-, to be slow-k!-di- (to stand, step, sit) on; -k!- ... bal-, -k!i-. .. bal-, to get up; -k!-waldi-,

down on-k!arat-, bare and dry, on a hard surface-k!ai-, only one (refers to subject of intransitive, object of transitive verb)-k!al-, to keep-k!al-di-, to wash; -k!al-edi-, to clean out (by beating, brushing)-k!allau-, well, entirely-k!al-sa-, moving through-k!ap-, to oneself, toward the speaker-k!at-, to whirl, flutter-k!au-, to sever, cut out a piece-k!da(t)-, rather well-k!it-, unwillingly, not with one's full heart; -k!itdi-, angrily-k!sururui-, with close attention, undeviatingly-k!,u-, one after another, in a series-k !ui-, crookedly-k!ul-, sideways, slantwise-k !u 'na-, -k !u 'nd-, to stay, dwell-k!fut-, to slink (up to, away)-lak!i-, -lak!-, stopped up, obstructed-lai-, to cut off (a slice), break off (pieces)-lap-, to gleam, glimmer-lau-, out of an enclosed space: out of the mouth, (looking) out of one's

eye, (dipping up water) from a spring, from the plain up to the moun-tain, (growing, digging) out of the ground, from the water on to land;-16- (<-lau-hau-), eastward up the mountain; -l6dju- (<-lau-haudju),going up the mountain from the east; -l6-rp' a, southward up themountain

-lil-, to turn-lili-, -lili-, smooth, slippery-llai-, to put pitch on

Sapir: The Fundamental Elements of Northern Yana2

-lu-, dark; -halu-, in the darkness-'la-, -'la-, messy, sticky, wet-'lai-, to warm-'lak7!i-, to shut, close-Ili-, -1-, to cover, dress-1 lu-, in the head-mi'-, to be alive (I)-ma-, -ma-, in company with; -ma-p!a-, dit.-ma-, there, from there-ma-mi-, -ma-, added to (five) (used in verbs for 6, 7, 8, 9, also 60, 70, 80,

90)-ma-, to, for (indirect object, only with object of first or second person)-mai-, to, for (indirect object, only with object of first or second person);

-mai-, for that reason (suffixed to verb that follows interrogative stemin sense of "why?")

-mai-, over the same ground, following in one's footsteps; for good (afterunsuccessful attempts)

-mari-, -mtari-, down in a hole, pit, basket-magd-, -mdga-, about, concerning, with-mal-, to be shot, hurt, beaten-mal 'li-, just outside the house-m'dja-, to come in order to-medja-, to be wont to (usitative)-medji-, to the west; -dji- (after -git-, -wil-, -wal-, and -rK-)-megu-, near the house, right there (probably <-ma-gu-, there-just)-miri-, -miri-, to, as far as (particularly with verb following interrogative

stem for "where?")-mil-, slightly, to a small degree-mitegu-, too, also, any (refers to object)-mits-!i-, with one another, each other, (after consonants, long vowels, and

diphthongs; cf. -pts Ii-); -mits!'- (after ue -, two), -mits !i- (after bul-,three), frequently used in numeral verbs for 2 and 3

-mma-, -'amma-, almost, to try to-mminak!i-, behind-mu-, between two flat surfaces, between the palms, soles-mU? dui-, yellow-mui-, just about to, just past, young-muk!gu-, to keep ing-muts !i-, to pretend to- 'mal-, too late, after everything is over- 'mats !u-, a little bit,. somewhat-nai-sa-, all over the house-namai-, -nmdi-, narrow-nau-, food, much to eat-ba-nauma-, everybody, everywhere-nnaiwa-du-ra-, -'innaiwa-du-ru-, to go and find one -ing-nu-, to make a hole-'nim! gu-, to be left, remain-'nai-, another (object), once more; -'nai-dja-, to another place-p-, to (indirect object for first and second persons, particularly in t!i-p-, to

say to); -p' -gu-, each-peal-, flat

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228 Unmiver.sity of California Publications in An. Arch. and Ethn. [Vol. 13

-peal-, black-ptau-, to, for (indirect object for first and second persons; for third

person, see -wau-)-peft!i-, blue-pts' i-, with one another, among - selves (only after short vowels;

elsewhere appears as -mits- i-, q. v.); -ba-pts Ii-, one another (reciprocaldirect object); -da-pts-!i-, moving together, toward each other

-'pea-, -epea-, to burst, open up-p!a-, to be so and so as result of activity, to do to oneself-p!d-, for a long time, long ago-p!annai-, very-p!ii-, not completely, imperfectly-p!it-, to trim (hair)-p lit-, a long time elapses-sa-, -sd-, off, away-sa-sini-gu-, always, continually-sawa-, -sawd-, to start ing-s'dja-, -sidja-, (so and so many) times-sdja-, going up (refers to houses)-s.i-, to be ripe, satiated-s'ira-k Iai-, -sird-k Iai-, white-headed-s'idi-, to tickle, rub lightly with the hand (or foot)-s-iri-bal-... 'a-, so and so many days, nights-mu-s ut-, to rub fine between the hands (or feet)-'s ui-, raw, unboiled, unripe-te-ma-, to reach something to-t'-bal-, to start from_tea-, (to talk) a southern dialect of Yana-tdi-, -'atdi, already in progress, now; -ba-tdi,. to be through ing-rtedja-, -rts'dja-, up in the air-tegul-, to fold over-tei-, -t'l-, to bend-t il-, to slice off, to have an advantage over another-teimai-, again, (somewhere or somebody) else-tekei-, -rtekei-, from the east-tepea-, -rtepea-, to the south-tepeau-, one's own (object), for oneself; -ba-tepeau-, oneself (direct re-

flexive object)-eteaVu-, flat expanse, in the plain-'t i-, to put pitch over-t!arak!i-, to be very dry, thirsty-t!ai-, to blaze; -t!ai-si-, (to warm oneself) by the fire-t!ai-, (to smear pitch) all over (hands and feet)-t!al-, to come through, get torn, leak, make a hole; -tIal-ts-!i-, asunder,

apart, separating from one another-t!ap-, to mash, crush-t!ap'-, to emerge; to tell-t!at-, to crack, mash-t!at'a-, to pat, slap-t!gd-, -t!ga-la-, (to be in bad condition) through and through-t Iui-, -t!Iui- .. . gu-, otherwise, in distinction from others-tcea-, -tctd-, at night


-tceai-, to pound roots or acorns for mush-ts-'djai-, to be glad, impatient with pleasurable anticipation-tcegu-, too, also (refers to object)-tceit'-; to go off to the woods; straight out, way off; -tcit'-laau-, out of the

water-tsts!irat-, in a zigzag line-tc' ul-, great, excessively-ts!al-, to scrape out-ts !at-, anything, to a slight extent-ts-!at-, to make a speech-ts-!atdi-, to peel off, flake (flint)-ts'!au-, to get stuck in a cleft, claws, teeth-ts!gai-, blue, green-ts !gai-, loud-ts!gi-, alone, unaided-ts !gil-, in the water, to the, water-ts-!i-, to cut up, divide into fragments-ts-!inai-, to scold, talk meanly-ts-!it-, to crush-ts !u-, -ts hi-, to tear-ts .'ut-, to split, make a hole, break into, burst through-ts!4aya-, -ts!xaya-, quietly, to oneself, under one's breath- 'uldi-, down from a height, down the mountain-wa-, -wa-, over (see - 'iwa-, - 'Iwa-; -wa-sa-)-wadju-, to cause to, to bring about-wadju-, -w&dju-, from the south-wagal-, -wdgal-, through a hole, opening*wasa-, above, over-wai-; -'wi-, -'wi-, to see, perceive, expect, try-dja-wai-, to do for one, take one's part-wal-, on the ground, in the country; -wdlau- (<-wal-hau-), in the country

to the east-wal-di-, down on the ground-walmi-, in hiding, in the woods-walsa-, hidden in the house-du-walsa-, to be left over, survive-wanai-, belonging to some one (other than subject of verb)-wate -, red-wau-, to, for (indirect object for third person only; for other persons, see

-p-, -ma-, -pe auX-, -mai-)-wil-, across (a stream), crosswise; -w,flau-, -wilau- (<-wil-hau-), to the east

across a stream; -wil-sa-, moving across-wil-mi-, on one side, only one of a pair, half-finished-wini-gu-, similarly, in the same way, furthermore-wul-, into the house, into an enclosed space-wult'ai-, under a covering, in the shade-'witdja-, fast, to proceed quickly-ew-, to press-'wil-, to break a flat object-ya-, to stay out camping, go awa.y from home (to hunt, dance)-yagal-, quickly, in a hurry-yai-, female

2291922]

230 University of California Publications in An. Aroh. and Ethn. [Vol. 13

-yasi-, -yasi-, to feel dizzy, drunk, ill (from too much activity)-yau-gu-, surely (also in prohibitive ke i-yau-gu-)-yimai- ... (ri-), -yemai- ... (ri-), in the middle, between-yu-, -yui-, to move along gradually; to pull, rock, shake; -yiz-sa-, further,

ahead-yu-, -yut-, in the daytime, all day- 'yu-, -'y-u-, to be afraid- 'yut-, both, together with (refers to subject)- 'yut'-, to slip (down)

III. NORTHERN YANA FORMAL ELEMENTS

A. PRONOMINAL ELEMENTS

-ndja lst pers. sing. (subjective in verbs, possessive in nouns)-'nidja~-um(feii ) 2d pers. sing. (subjective in verbs, possessive in nouns)-nigi, 1st pers. plur. (subjective in verbs, possessive in nouns)-nuga, 2d pers. plur. (subjective in verbs, possessive in nouns)

-kei-, -keia- (before past -ha), immediately prefixed in all forms involving1st pers. plur. to pronominal endings proper, except in certain futureand hortatory forms

-kei,i-ke ia- (before past -ha), "his" (indicates subject of verb is possessedby some third person)

-ke i (a) " another 's " (indicates in noun that possessor is different fromsubject of verb)

-k!6 ('a), 1st pers. sing. (and pl.) fat. (see future paradigm)

-wa-ndja "he me"-wa- 'nu(ma) "he-you"-wa- 'nigi "he-us"-wa- 'nuga " he-you (pl.) "- (wd) 'ma "I-you," " we-you "- (wd) dja " you-me "-(wa)wfdja "vou (pl.) -me"- (wd) gi "you-us"-(wa)wigi "you (pl.) -us"- (wa) m'ga " I-you (pl.)," "we-you (pl.)"

i >3d pers. imperative-'q (fem.)~- a (3d pers. imperative (after a-vowels-only N. Yana)'a (fem.)-dja' imperative with 1st pers. sing. obj.-kei-gi' imperative with lst pers. plur. obj.-wi-, -wl- prefixed in imperative, in forms with 2d pers. plur. subj., to pro-

nominal endings proper

Sapir: The Fundamental Elements of Northern Yama

1. Paradigm of Present Tense (-si-)

you (him)-slwd 'ma -sindja

-si 'nu(ma)-siwa'nu(ma) -si (fem. -s)-sk' iwa 'ma -ske i 'nigi

-si 'nuga

us you (pI.)-siwdm 'ga

-sk' iw&gi-ske iwa 'nigi

-ske iwaqw,igi

-siwa 'nuga-ske iwam 'ga

2. Paradigm of Future Tense (-si-)me you (him)

-sik !6wd 'ma -sik!6 'a-sik.'6wddja *-si'nu(ma)-sik!6wandja *-siwa 'numa -si'i (fem. -si)

-sik !6k iwd 'ma -si 'nigi-sik !6wawidja *-si'nuga

-dja '

-widja '

us

-sik !6ke iwdgi-sik !6keiwa 'nigi

-sik !6ke iwawigi

you (p1.)

sik !6wam 'ga*-siwa 'nuga-sik !6k iwdm 'ga

* same as in present tense.

3. Imperative Paradigmme

you

you (p1.)we (hortatory)

Subj.

ai indefinite 3d pers.

aidje le (male) lC{taaidje (female)5

aiye 'e (male) "that yonder"

aiye (female)5

dji article with following pos-sessed noun of 1st pers. sing.or plur.

aidji article with following pos-sessed noun of 1st pers. sing.or plur. (more emphatic)

dju article with following pos-sessed noun of 2d pers. sing.or plur.

(him)i- 'i' (ferm. - 'i)

|-'a' (fem. -'a)

-wi 'i' (fem. -wi')-ha 'nigi

us

-k!igi '

-wik' igi '

4. Syntactic Elements of 3d Person

Poss. Obj.

k! "his, her, gi (used with followingits, their" noun when it is non-

subjective or is notpossessed by t h i r dperson)

aik'

aidjek'

aiyeke

aigi

aigidje 'e

I aigidje{aige'eaige

gidji

aigidji

gidju

Iyou

heweyou (p1.)

me

-siwadja-siwandja

-siwawidja

Iyou

heweyou(pl.)

1922] 231

232 Univer&ity of California Publications sn Am. Arch. and Ethn. [Vol. 13

aidju article with following pos- aigidjusessed noun of 2d pers. sing.or plur. (more emphatic)

aits' "the" (somewhat more aigits'?emphatic than ai)

aidja (male) "here, there, faigidjaaits" (female) thus" aigits-f

5. Independent Pronounts of 1st and 2d Persons

Sing. 1 a'i'nidja2 a'i'nu (ma)

Plur. 1 a'i 'nigi, a'ike i 'nigi2 a'i'nnuga

B. TENSE-MODAI SUFFIXES

-Si (3d pers. -si), present tense-si- (3d pers. -si'i), future tense-ha, -xa (3d pers. -ha), past tense, implies personal knowledge on part of

speaker-t'i (3d pers. -tti), quotative-wara (3d pers. -wara), perfect (may also be suffixed to -tfi)-'ni-, -n'-, remote past (generally prefixed to other tense-modal elements):

-n 'ha-, "quite some time ago," on personal knowledge of speaker- 'niwara, remote non-quotative past-n 'ti, "long ago, as they say" (used in myths)-n 't' iwara, remote quotative past

-ha, hortatory with 1st pers. plur. (see Imperative Paradigm)-ma-, used with interrogative stems (prefixed to tense-modal elements

proper)-ma (3d pers. -ma'a), usitative; -ma'ni, past usitative-gara- (generally prefixed to other tense-modal elements), "pray!"

appeal-magar(a'), appealing imperative-sha (ra), "true enough, as it turns out," inferential-kc!ara'(a'), imperative ("let 's see you !-kItu (3d pers. -kk!u'i), dubitative; -mak !iU, usitative dubitative-(ma) -sik!u, future dubitative ("I don't know ... will...")-p'a-(3d pers. -pea'a), potential-spe a (3d pers. -sp' a 'a), past potential ("should, would have")Yau(na) l1st pers. sing. intentive ("I shall , let me ")-yaub (fem.)

NOTE.-Several tense-modal elements contract with causative - 'a. Such are:

-prd-=-'a- + -pfa--m- - 'a + usitative -ma--gard- 'a- + -gara--mdgar (a ') =-'a- + -magar (a')-s&- (3d pers. -s&'a) = - 'a- + fut. -si-

Sapir: The Fundamental Elemnents of Northern Yana

-tf6- (3d pers. -t e6'a) = 'a- + -t' i--n 't? 6, - 'n6wara- = - 'a- + -n 't? i-, - 'niwara-- 'n6ha- - 'a- + -n 'ha- (-- 'ni-ha-)- 'ha-- 'a- + -ha--k !6- (3d pers. -k ! 'a) =-'a- + -k !u--'a' (fem. -'a) -'a- + imperative -'a' (fem. 'a)- 'a (fem. - 'a)= -'a- + infinitive - 'a (feem. - 'a)

C. PASSIVE AND ACTIVE FORMS

Where possible, stem vowel (vowel of first syllable) undergoes change inpassive forms:,

o becomes a, ao becomes a6 becomes i, ie becomes i

All forms with first or second personal object are treated, as regards vocalism,like passives, as are also certain other "static" forms, e.g., forms with suffixed-p!a- (see under Part II).

Conversely, when possible, stem vowel (vowel of first syllable) takes on" causative " or "active " vocalism in causative and certain other transitivizingforms:

a becomes o6 (in open syllables); o, u (in closed syllables; always o in Yahi)a becomes 6ii, X (in open syllables) becomes 6ut (in closed syllables) becomes o, u (always o in Yahi)i becomes 6 (in open syllables); e, i (in closed syllables; always e in Yahi)i becomes 6

Diphthongs (ai and au) remain unaffected. Secondarily passive forms of causa-tives derived from verbs with "active" vocalism to begin with retain theircausative vocalism. Examples:

Primary 6: m6'sindja, I eat (it)ina'siwa'a, it is eatenma'siwandja, he eats mema'siwadja, you eat mem6"asindja, I cause him to eat (it)m6"asiwandja, he causes me to eat (it)

Primary a: 'asd'si, she goes away?6'sa'asi, he causes her to go awayfas'"asiwandj(a), he causes me (female) to go away

Two passive elements are found:

1. -wa- (3d pers. -wa'a); all forms in transitive paradigm with -wa-, -wa-,are really passives

2. Lengthening of final short vowel; or suffixing of - ' to final consonant,long vowel, or diphthong, e.g.:

passive of perfective -wara- is -ward-passive of infinitive - 'i is - ipassive of verbal noun -yau (na) is -yau 'i

1922] 233


D. SUBSTANTIVAL DERIVATIVES OF VERBS

- 'i (fem. - 'i), infinitive; passive - '1-'a (fem. -la) after a-vowels (only in N. Yana), infinitive; passive - 'a-yau (na) (fem. -yau), verbal noun; passive -yau 'i-mau(na) (fem. -mau), participle (passive in force in transitive verbs)-wa, -w (fem.), participial or nominal suffix used with preceding article

(dji...-wa " my"; dju... -wa "your"), particularly to subordinateafter interrogative stems

E. INTERROGATIVE ELEMENTS

-n (used by men)-i after consonants, -yf after long vowels and diphthongs; or lengthening

of final short vowel of male form (used by women){-na (male) requires negative answer-ga (female) requires negative answer

-kei- -itn1-(ale), emphatic affirmative (e.g.," I did...")-keia- (before -ha) *--long vowel (female)

IV. NORTHERN YANA NOUN SUFFIXES

-na (male only); -la added to all nouns ending in consonant, long(after -I-) vowel, or diphthong, and to all monosyllabicor no ending (female)J l noun stems

-si, -djiis i, agentive; -dj'iya, female agent-ya, female (all names of females are included)-djuwa, found in some animal names-k!u forms small number of derivatives from verbs in -di-, -ri- "down"

(e.g., bare'k!u "rain" from barn- "to rain"); forms adverbial nounsfrom "colorless stem" i- and local verb suffix -di-, -ri- "down" (e.g.,irl'k!u "below")

-madu, locative element suffixed to nouns ("place of; at")-p!a, diminutive-ts !gi, -ts !&gi, diminutive plural-p!d(na), result of activity (1)-ri'mau(na), -di'mau(na), place of activity (suffixed to verbs)-ts !i, "scattered pieces'" ('I)-wi, -t'. ..-wi, plural, collective

NOTE.-Many nouns in -yauna and -mauna have lost most of their verbalforce (e.g., m6'yauna "food" from m6- "to eat").

UxiVBZIYOF OAIOIL PU8tOATOB(*t3u)

So low Iadinn 3aakOtmym & A. Ba 1806, plte 150, 231te$t figumte ehsinb -- 1.75

4 Sheim d o -the,aan Tra sc a.Beglou- bs 085 Plt1 32. Dpeembe 1909 ._0

53. Tb. Elll1 Landing Sbell , bYN~. 0. )reln.; Pp. 53742 plates 36650.Ine,pp.24,

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pleHs 20. August, 108 e . . .. I.. -. . ..o5. ,: R:X otesUrl-asYeulleto tr Oalf b A..L,Kr:ber.

Pp.-235-269t September, 1909 ~ ..... . . ........8. The Illglu Pratl.esof 'the DiegeoIdas by -T. T. Waterman. Pp.

271.358, ple2L1-28l ................... ,~rh 191.. ... ......!80*Index,ppt-.-3m6e9

VoL 1 Tan Texts, by Edd,ae rtgether. with Tan. MYths clestePbP.~~~~ol! ;l DIxon. Pt).@ 14.2A-f F~ebray,1-910.~ >........a--- ^2. Th* 0htuaimadotadzXL-gaes y A.~ Lk roebor., p. 2S7.271.-:w

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t 0 ~Inex, pp.487439.-l.*:10. 1. PhonetIc Cdonstltueus ofX th at1 anguages of.:Ofoia,bro A. L.-

0 ) >Kroehr,. Pp.12. Myg,.1911 * . - . .1-X!-*--)s2--t.Th2-ontEc :Blezunt of theI1rErn Painte-Langage7 b TT.1-.Wja :e-

ma: . Pp. 134,plste 1.5 Ro0...em.e.,.011..... ......... 45. $Phonet lemnt 01t MobaveIanigbage, bY A. L. }re Pp 4596,

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pltoeer17 Dece~mber~An,112-.i11

5.0 @ Papago Verb'Sems, by Jun Dolor-s. ePpf 241-f2~ .AUgut 1913 ............. .2;-.f N*tes-o the Chilula Indian OF NoQrthesten Caitnia, by lIny Ea:rlek-

7. -C.. ul,-.Tex-s, by lPliujy Earle^Goda4 lIp 289479. Novebex 1914 .....1.00'

V oli.'ItI.Eleet of th K*aoLanguag -byPtin Earl Goddard. Pp'178 plat''es

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13. Sal Tt, byPlOlod. Pp.12 'Fbrr1915: >4. Serla, Tequi teca, an skn, by:.A. I.. 2>Q1robet. Pp 2920. er.

2. Ofi o Ora j:.8Suth etral Catfona, by- Edard'Wnso GIfrd Pp 291-296,1 Fbruary, iPIG .................~. ............_.. ._;.05

T-The Delneationofh n teAe anArt by T.aean. Pp 273 xo6Ma-r-1916.. 1.00

7. The Mttu I~aeeo 0oat-nea Wbased on B$heO VO-abUlary of 5Do Ia Cuesta, --: y 3J. Aldena. P 894V2. Match;61916 -...... :.7

-0W ndex, pp. 478479 SL12.. Comepomtonof galio elo by EdwArd WiowrGfrd. Pp.

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2.-W,-.lie Ya3laIn,U$:;-,by 1.T.. Waterman.-Ppw.8540, pltes 120. FOrbruay, -'-

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,", r4. E.an-a Ceremenies,'by-0. Z Mose. Pp. 34-34 Oct,ob'er,F 920-..t. *..65-V-O-L--5. IfTgao Economics, lnby>.. P. Baitoi, P. 5-4 plas -45 April, -1922 1.0V;-ol. i06 1. Myths 'of--*the Sothr Sira3 Ewky 8.' A-K3aBet -< Pp 1.28. M'rch,,

2' -§. The >Latr1Iiea1--Coplex by RLobert' UI.- Xi'. ,Pp. -945. Marcli, '1919.....- .15- -8. The I4nuit- Familie- of CaliforW-a, -by Itolandl B. Dt*ou andi A.K £; --

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; -;-- --Septeber 1920-. -................ ........-,*-..*-....-.25.... . ...

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'--;olumo-- 1.'" 193-1904.' 378 'pages ad 30 ptes,_.;'. -.._...> $4.2Volume 2.s 190497. 393 pages and 21 plates -...._._.- 3.*0

V;buxle '. 1 h mopolg,, l -of-, the lips Language, 344 page -._..to.r' 3.50Volum,e 4. 19,6,1907. -374 pages. wMit S-t,ble, 1O plate; and ap......._........ 3.5ff0

..--Volu- e56. 07-1'910.,384pages, with 2 ltes..s7....342,.50.Volume 0. 1908; 400 page,wit 3 aps. . . . .m ;r50Volume';.e; 7. 1i902I4O '4b4es. and 19 pates...-.'...3.50.,-Volume 8. 19081910. 369 pags and 28l.at,.. . . *3.5Vle. 1910-1911. 439 pagf#e *.,..393.50Vo-lume 10. -191E14914'. 385 pages a.nd:41 plaWtes- '_..Z.3-'50Volume 11.,1911-1916. 479 pages and ,45 plates...... . 3.5*---",**;*+0Vfolurnea1.: 1-i61.e73!ageapd, plates ..45.... ....... .....00

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