ibn hazm on logic - anwar g chejne

Ibn Hazm of Cordova on LogicAuthor(s): Anwar G. ChejneSource: Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 104, No. 1, Studies in Islam and theAncient Near East Dedicated to Franz Rosenthal (Jan. - Mar., 1984), pp. 57-72Published by: American Oriental SocietyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/602642Accessed: 05/02/2010 10:10

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IBN HAZM OF CORDOVA ON LOGIC1

ANWAR G. CHEJNE

UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA

LOGIC (CILM AL-MANTIQ) OCCUPIED AN IMPORTANT

PLACE in Islamic culture, and received the attention of a good number of writers over the centuries.2 However, no sooner had logic developed fully than it became the object of heated controversy within the general context of the sciences. As a result, it had both ardent supporters and uncompromising opponents. To its advocates, logic is a noble science and an indispensable tool (alah) for all the sciences. To its opponents, it is not only useless, but detrimental to religious belief in that it leads to doubt and diminution of faith.3 This dichotomy of views which had its locus in eastern Islam reached al-Andalus with all the attending consequences. Due to the ultra conservative posture of Andalusians toward issues affecting religious belief and practice, logic appears to have been condemned at the outset by pietists, who were for a long time the guard- ians of an unadulterated orthodoxy. This notwithstanding, the free circulation of books from the East and the frequent travel of scholars from al-Andalus to the East and vice-versa were important factors in making logic and other unpopular disciplines known to the curious student. Under the circumstances, logic was pursued in a clandestine manner in al-Andalus, and had its early supporters prior to the time of Ibn Hazm in the eleventh century.

Ibn Hazm received a broad education in both the religious and secular sciences, and may be considered one of the most erudite scholars of al-Andalus. He was an enthusiastic defender of the sciences of the Ancients ('ul2um al-awa'il), which comprised logic, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and other sciences. He considered these not only noble and useful, but

This paper is an expanded version of some points dealt with by the author in his forthcoming work, Ibn Hazm of Cordova and His Conception of the Sciences.

2 See Rescher, Development and Studies; Madkour, Or- ganon; El', s.v. Mantik; and von Grunebaum, Logic.

3Goldziher, Stellung; Nashshar, Mandhij, 181ff.; and Rosenthal, Legacv, 75.

attempted to reconcile them within the framework of the religious sciences.4 He also emphasized the value of logic within the context of both the religious and secular sciences, and was its staunch defender through- out his career, even when he became devoted almost wholly to the study of the religious disciplines. His work on logic, Facilitating the Understanding of the Rules of Logic and Introduction Thereto (al-TaqrTb li-hudufd al-mantiq wa-madkhaluh), was written early in his career, between 1025 and 1029.5 The work is not only an apologia for logic, but a lucid treatment of the subject with the declared intention of simplifying it by using a new vocabulary and examples derived from the religious law and every day experience. He hoped, thereby, to make the discipline readily comprehensible to a large audience.6 It was this new approach, perhaps, that led some of his Andalusian contemporaries to criticize Ibn Hazm and accuse him of deviat- ing from Aristotelian logic and of dabbling in things beyond his capability.7 This assessment was followed uncritically by Eastern biographers,8 who appear to have failed to consult Ibn Hazm's TaqrTb in order to

4 This point is discussed at great length in his Maratib al- culum. See Chejne, Ibn Hazm.

In his Taqrnb, 200, Ibn Hazm states: "We composed this book of ours and many others while we were in exile and far away from homeland, family and offspring." This could not have taken place during his first exile (1013-19). See his Tawq, 251. All indications are that he stayed in Cordova until the accession of al-Mustakfi (1023-25), who placed him in jail and caused his expulsion later on. Ibn Hazm appears to have returned to Cordova in about 1029 and remained there until about 1035 when he was exiled for the third time, never to return again.

6 See below, notes 88ff.

Mainly, Sacid, Tabaqat, 101; Ibn Hayyan as quoted by Ibn Bassam, DhakhTrah, I:ii, 140; and Ibn Sa'cd, Mughrib, 1, 354. See below, notes 96ff.

8 Mainly, Yquit, Irshdd, V, 87; DhahabT, Sivar, 438, who depended on Sagid and Ibn Hayyan. See below, notes 95ff.

Journal of the American Oriental Society 104.1 (1984)

evaluate his attitude to and competence in logic. More-

over, they also appear to have overlooked his other

works, mainly Fisal,9 Ihkdm,?l TawqTf," and Mardtib

al-'ulhm,l2 where Ibn Hazm emphasizes the importance of logic and directs the reader to his TaqrTb.

It is within this framework that Ibn Hazm's views on logic will be considered. His TaqrTb and statements found in his other works will show his commitment to, and his grasp of logic, which he used as an important tool in his many polemics with Muslims, Jews, and Christians. An attempt will be made to place his views and works in a historical context with reference to the views and works of some of his predecessors.

Arabic logic was based on Aristotle's Organon and Porphyry's Eisagoge, both of which were known to the Arabs through the original Greek and later commentaries on them.13 Post-Aristotelian commentators expounded the Organon, adding to it Stoic and neo- Platonic elements.'4 Muslim scholars appear to have relied on both the original and the commentaries, and produced a recension incorporating their format and content. The Organon and the Eisagoge were translated several times into Arabic, abridged, commented on and glossed by several generations of Muslim scholars. More often than not, they were combined into one single work with the Eisagoge serving as an Introduc- tion (madkhal), followed by the Organon in eight parts: Categories (maqulat), Hermeneutics ('ibdrah), Analy- tics (qiyas), Apodictics (burhan), Topics (jadal), Sophistics (mughalatah), Rhetoric (khitabah), and Poetics (shi'r).s

The task of arriving at a final Arabic recension was a long drawn out process, and involved generations of translators and commentators. Ibn al-Muqaffa' (d. 757),16 Hunayn b. Ishaq (d. 877),'7 his son Ishaq

9 Ibn Hazm, Fisal, 111, 68, 90; V, 70. '0 Ibn Hazm, Ihkam, 9, 15, 17, 18, 69, 110, 314, 315, 414,

448, 492, 635, 657, 677, etc. " Ibn Hazm, Tawqtf, 4ff. 12 Ibn Hazm, Mardtih al-'ulum, 71/236, 79/241, 89/246.

Numbers after the dagger refer to the Rabat manuscript. 13 See Madkour, Organon, 3; Rescher, Development, 15ff. 14 See S. Van Den Berg in El' under Mantik. 's The Arabic terminology of some of these titles differs

among Muslim authors, who more often than not gave the Greek terminology and its Arabic equivalents. This procedure was adopted by Ibn Hazm. See below, notes 153ff.

16 Ibn al-NadTm, Fihrist, 249, credits 'Abdallah b. al-Mukaf- fa', the translator of the famous book of fables, KalTlah wa- Dimnah, as one of the early translators of logic. However, it

(d. 910),18 Matta b. Y0nus (d. 940),19 and Yahya b.

CAdi (d. 974),20 were among the principal translators.

Among the commentators and authors were al-Kindi (d. 873),2' his pupil al-SarakhsT (d. 899),22 al-Farabi (d. 950),23 al-RazT (d. 925),24 and Ibn STna (d. 1037),25 who wrote on some sections or on the whole of the Organon. These eastern scholars, among others, ex- erted an enormous influence on the development of Arabic logic, and were instrumental in forging an important place for logic among the Arabic sciences. As a result, logic came to permeate Arabic philology, theology, jurisprudence, rhetoric, and dialectics.26

With its important place in Islamic culture, logic could hardly be ignored by those Andalusians who depended for education on eastern masters and who were familiar with eastern logicians whose works were

imported into al-Andalus during the ninth and tenth centuries. In spite of the conservative outlook of the

Andalusians, logic appears to have been pursued by a large number of scholars. The scientist-historian Sa'id (d. 1070) of Toledo supplies valuable information about the state of the secular sciences in al-Andalus with particular reference to logic. Sa'id refers to the great library of the caliph al-Hakam II (961-76) and says that many people were driven to read the Books of the Ancients (kutub al-awa'il), and to learn the various schools of thought contained therein.27 Sacid also gives the names of scientists who concerned themselves with or wrote on logic. More often than not, those scientists were physicians, mathematicians, astron- omers, and philologists. Muhammad b. cAbdun (d. ca. 990) was an able physician, who studied in the East and introduced Aristotelian logic into al-Andalus.28 'Abd al-Rahmin b. Ism'cTl b. Zayd (tenth century), known as Euclid, was knowledgeable in geometry, and

is likely that it was his son Muhammad. See Rescher, Develop- ment, 93ff.

17 Ibid., 294; see Rescher, Development, 103ff. 18 Ibid., 285; see Rescher, Development, 11 Iff. 19 Ibid., 263. 20 Ibid., 264; see Rescher, Development, 130ff. 21

Ibid., 255; Atiyeh, Kindi; Rescher, Development, 100ff. 22 Ibid., 248ff.; Rosenthal, SarahsT, 54. 23

Ibid., 263ff.; Rescher, Development, 263ff. 24 Ibid., 299ff.; Rescher, Development, 117ff. 25

QiftT., 7TrTkh, 413ff.; Rescher, Development, 149ff. 26 Rescher, Studies, 16; Brunschvig, Logic, 10ff; Madkour,

Organon, 16. 27 Sci id, Tabaqat, 88. 28 Ibid., 107. See Rescher, Development, 135ff.

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CHEJNE: Ibn Hazm of Cordova on Logic

wrote a book abridging the eight books on logic. He also traveled to the East where he died.29 Muhammad b. Isma.'l, known as the philosopher (al-hakTm), was an expert in both logic and mathematics.30 Ibn Sidah (d. 1065), the great lexicographer of al-Andalus, is credited with a comprehensive work on logic in which he followed the method of the eastern logician Matta b. Yuinus.31 His contemporary al-Hasan b. 'Abd al- Rahman, known as Ibn al-Jallad, was an expert in

geometry, astronomy, motion of the stars, logic and the natural sciences.32 Abii-l-Walid Hisham b. Ahmad b. Khalid al-KinanT, known as Ibn al-WaqshT, was an

expert in geometry, logic, and the secular sciences.33 Thus, by the time of Ibn Hazm in the eleventh cen-

tury, logic was not only known among a good number of Andalusians, but cultivated as well. In his Fadl, an anthology exalting the excellence of al-Andalus and written about 1027, Ibn Hazm refers to two Andalusian scientists and credits them with several works on philosophy.34 They are: Sa'id b. Fathun al-SaraqustT (d. ca. 1010),35 known as al-Hammar, and Abi 'Abdallah Muhammad b. Hasan al-MadhhijT (d. 1029), known as Ibn al-KattanT.36 Ibn Hazm appears to have had an intimate knowledge of these two men, who most probably influenced his scientific preparation. Al-HumaydT quotes a poem by Ibn Fathun on the authority of his teacher Ibn Hazm in which Ibn Fathiin deplores and even ridicules the attitude of his contemporaries toward logic:

They inflict injustice on logic when describing it With things that are not there; for they are ignorant

of it. Were they aware of its merit, they would not deny it;

And were they aware of its virtue, they would like it.

But, by God! they would lie even if they knew it And would persist in all that they impute to it.37

29 Ibid., 91. See Rescher, Development, 144ff.

30 Ibid., 87.

31 Ibid., 103. 32

Ibid., 98. 33 Ibid., 98ff. 34 Ibn Hazm, Fadl, 175. 35 On Ibn Fathiin (d. ca. 1010), see Humaydi, Judhwah, no.

478; Sa'id, Tabaqat, 92; Dabbi, Bughyah, no. 813; Rescher, Development, 143.

36 On Ibn al-Kattani, see Humaydi, Judhwah, no. 35; Ibn

Juljul, Tabaqdt, 109; Dabbl, Bughyah, no. 81. 37 HumaydT, Judhwah, no. 813.

It is not clear whether Ibn Hazm studied logic under Ibn Fathiin, but there is reason to believe that he was familiar with his works and his views on logic, which he echoed in his TaqrTb. On the other hand, Ibn Hazm's relationship with Ibn al-Kattani was that of a pupil, which he acknowledges with deference when he refers to Ibn al-KattanT as "our teacher" (shaykhuna).38 Furthermore, he considers Ibn al-KattanT as an able scientist and an expert in medicine, logic, aphorisms- on all of which he wrote numerous and well known works.39 S'id acknowledges the scientific expertise of Ibn al-KattanT, and refers to his training by quoting from Ibn al-KattanT's writings that he (Ibn al-KattanT) studied logic under Muhammad b. 'Abdin,40 'Umar b. Yunus b. Ahmad al-HarranT,41 Ahmad b. Hafsiin b. 'Abdallah b. Ibrahim al-'AsimT,42 Abui CAbdallah b. Masfid,43 Muhammad b. Maymin,44 and others.45

Whether or not these men can be considered logicians is hard to tell in the absence of their works. However, one can gather from their biographical sketches that they covered the gamut of Arabic culture: poetry, philology, the religious and the secular sciences. This is the more significant in that logic had a fertile soil in al-Andalus, was pursued actively, and followed a trajectory similar in many ways to that in eastern Islam. In consequence, Ibn Hazm was a beneficiary of both the Andalusian and eastern legacies, had a suf- ficient background in the evolution and development of Arabic logic, and was quite familiar with the manifold problems facing it: namely, the polarization of views with respect to its merit or absence of merit, the difficult format of presentation, the lack of easily understood examples, and the technical but disparate vocabulary. These problems had already taken their toll in eastern Islam during the ninth and tenth centuries, and contributed to the formation of deep rooted attitudes toward logic resulting in seemingly two irreconcilable stands: that of the scientist-philosopher

38 Ibn Hazm, Maratib al-'ulum, 83. 39 Ibn Hazm, Fadl, 175. 40 See note 28. 41 Ibn Juljul, Tabaqdt, 113. 42

Ibid., 110. 43 HumaydT, Judhwah, no. 148, mentions him as a famous

poet. 44 Ibid., no. 149. 45 Sacid, Tabaqat, 108. There are also Abui-l-Hasan 'Abd

al-Rahman b. Khalaf b. cAsakir al-DarimT (d. 1070) and the physician Abi c Uthman Sacid b. Muhammad b. al-Baghuinish (d. 1052). See Rescher, Development, 164 and 148.

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supporting logic, and that of the jurist-theologian deni- grating it.

This polarization of views had enormous repercus- sions. Theologians had developed their theological dialectics consisting of argument, counterargument and conclusion.46 Their method, which was developed by the theologian al-Ash'ari (d. 935), remained essentially apologetic, an argumentum ad hominem aiming at defending one's position and triumphing over one's adversary by all means available.47 As such, it lacked the rigor and precision of Aristotelian methodology. It is for this reason, perhaps, that Ibn Hazm, who was followed by al-GhazzalT (d. 1111), and lbn Rushd (d. 1198), viewed the dialectic of the theologians as falling short of demonstrative reasoning (burhan) and of attaining certainty (yaqTn).48 Aware of the short- comings of theological dialectics, Ibn Hazm attempted to put Greek logic at the service of Islamic theology and jurisprudence with his insistence on thorough individual inquiry (ijtihad) and investigation (bahth) for ascertaining the truth.49 As a consequence, Ibn Hazm revolted against theological dialectics, and the end result hinged on the validity of the Aristotelian method versus the dialectics of the theologians.

The skirmish between the philosophers and the religious scholars concerning the merit or the absence of merit of logic, already in full swing during the tenth century, was articulated in writing and often aired in private and public debates. It remained unabated during the time of Ibn Hazm, who was decidedly on the side of the philosophers, notwithstanding his deep commitment to the religious sciences. For a full apprecia- tion of his stand, it may be relevant to point to some of the arguments of his predecessors which were ad- vanced in public debates and in writing. One such celebrated debate took place between the Christian logician Abfi Bishr Matta b. Yuinus supporting logic, and the philologist Abfi Sa'Td al-Sirafi (d. 979) deni- grating it.50 The lengthy debate dealt, among other

46 See Nashshar, Mandhij, 89ff.; van Ess, Theology, 21ff. 47 Ibn Kaldun, Muqaddimah, 111, 115, states the problem

succinctly saying that "theology merely wants to fight here- tics."

48 Ibn Hazm, Taqrib, 197; see Ibn Rushd, Fasl, 63ff.; Ghaz- zail, Munqidh, 68ff.

49 Ibn Hazm, Taqrib, 198. This attempt to put logic at the service of theology is often attributed to al-Ghazzall. See Madkour, Organon, 263. 50 TawhTdi, Imtac, I, 105-128, preserves the text of the

debate, which is analyzed by Mahdi, Language, 5 ff.

things, with the relation of logic to language. To the contention of Matta that logic is the instrument (alah) of speech, al-Sirafi retorts that it may be so for the Greek language, but is not so for the Arabic language.5'

The philosopher Abu Hasan al-'Amiri (d. 992) conveys the attitude of theologians and traditionists toward logic when he says that they despise logic and argue that works on logic contain only obscure words and strange phrases, and if their authors had been blessed with any ideas corresponding to the truth, they would surely have taken great pains to clarify them. They further argue that any intelligent person is able to draw logical conclusions without the formal study of logic. Finally, theologians and jurists considered logic detrimental to religious belief, and for this reason they came under the attack of the philosophers.52 This antagonism toward logic continued up to the time of Ibn Hazm and long after his death, and was sum- marized in the saying, "He who espouses logic espouses heresy" (man tamantaqa tazandaqa).53

On their part, philosophers and scientists, who had their training in the secular sciences, such as medicine, mathematics, and astronomy, were staunch supporters of logic. More often than not, they made provision for it in their division of the sciences. The philosopher al-KindT, who wrote works on the subject, considered logic an important science deserving a place among the philosophical sciences.54 Al-Khuwarizml (d. ca. 990), who was concerned with explaining the technical terminology of the various sciences, included logic among them, and devoted nine paragraphs to it in which he explained Porphyry's Eisagoge and the eight books of the Organon.55 The great philosopher al- Faraib wrote on logic and considered it one of the five

51 Ibid., 109; see Mahdi, Language, 81. 52 Amiri, I'lam, 89ff.; see Rosenthal, Legacy, 67ff. 3 Nashshar, Manahij, 181ff. Ibn al-Salah al-Shafic' (d.

1245), Fatdwa 35, gave the following reply to the question of whether occupation with logic is permissible: "Logic is an introduction (madkhal) to philosophy; thus, the introduction to evil is evil. Making one's occupation in teaching and learn-

ing is not condoned by God, or any of the Companions." Subsequently, the great reformer Ibn Taymiyyah devoted his Radd to refuting logicians. See Rescher, Development, 40ff. Nashshar, Manahij, 191ff.

54 Judging by the large number of titles on the secular sciences attributed to al-Kindi, it is unlikely that he would have omitted logic from his classification of the sciences.

55 Khuwarizmi, Mafatih, 140ff.

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groups of sciences.56 The Brethren of Purity, a secret and eclectic society which attempted to harmonize the religious and secular sciences, regarded logic as one of the four philosophical sciences.57

While the scientist-philosopher assigns an important place to logic in the classification of the sciences, there is no consensus of opinion as to whether logic is a "science" ('ilm), a craft (sind'ah), or an "instrument" (alah), as the Greek term organon indicates, or as to whether logic is an integral part of philosophy, or merely its tool. After dividing philosophy into theoretical and practical, al-KhuwarizmT states the problem succinctly: "Some consider logic as a third branch of philosophy; others as part of theoretical philosophy; a third group considers it an instrument of philosophy; and a fourth group regards it as a part and tool of philosophy."58 In his Inventory of the Sciences (i.hsa al-culum), al-FarabT refers to logic as a craft (sindaah) that supplies the rules for right thinking and the attain- ment of truth. As such, it is extremely useful and should be pursued.59 His contemporary al-cAmirn considered logic as an invaluable instrument of the philosophical sciences, "which alone properly enables the rational soul to distinguish between truth and untruth in speculative problems and between good and evil in practical problems.... Logic controls question and answer as well as contradiction, contrast and fallacy. It helps to resolve doubt, expose misleading statements and support ideas...."60 Alc'Amirf's views were reiterated by the Nestorian c'sa b. Ishaq b. Zurcah (d. 1008), a pupil of the famous logician Yahya b. CAdT, who offers an apologia for logic. Ibn Zur'ah maintains that "only through the application of logic in philosophical reasoning do we learn what is possible and what is impossible in the nature of things."6' He adds that logic "is a discipline whose objective includes discrimination of truth from falsehood in discourse, and distinguishing good from evil in action ...."62

These tenth-century views of leading scholars were echoed and articulated in the eleventh century by the great philosopher-scientist Ibn Sina, who devoted ample space to logic in several of his works that are written in a popular language and constitute veritable

56 Farabi, Ihsa', 7.

57 Ikhwan al-Safa , Rasa'il, I, 204. 58

KhuwarizmT, Maffit.h, 130. See Madkour, Organon, 49ff. 9 Farabi, Ihsa', 22.

60 As translated by Rosenthal, Legacy, 69. 61 As translated by Rescher, Studies, 69. 62

Ibid., p. 59.

encyclopedias of the secular sciences.63 Ibn Sina conceives of logic as a science by means of which one is able to derive knowledge from the unknown to the known; to arrive at true knowledge; to know what approximates the truth, and what is an error. Further- more, logic is a scale that determines the usefulness of the rest of the sciences.64 Ibn STna's influence on future generations was enormous, but it is not certain that Ibn Hazm knew of his works at the time he wrote his TaqrTb. However, Ibn STna's views were echoed, among others, by the great theologian al-GhazzilT, who viewed logic as a scale by means of which one is able to discern right from wrong. Furthermore, it is the servant of the sciences and the truth, which are conditions for happiness.65 In sum, logic has a primary importance in explaining words and determining their relationship to meaning. More important, its purpose is to establish a methodology by means of which the veracity or falsity of a given issue can be determined with a modicum of accuracy. In such a role, logic could not have been overlooked in the evolution of Islamic thought.

It is within this historical framework that Ibn Hazm's views on logic should be considered. It appears that Ibn Hazm realized fully not only the prominent role of logic in Islamic culture, but was quite familiar with its evolution, development, and the manifold problems facing it. He pondered all these questions in his TaqrTb, and set out to formulate his ideas about the significance of logic and its place among the sciences.

In his introduction to the TaqrTb, which is a comprehensive treatise on logic, Ibn Hazm refutes the adversaries of logic indicating its merit, importance, and the reasons behind writing the work. The arguments of adversaries have no foundation in fact since logic is meant to: 1) elucidate existing and ascertainable things; 2) give them forms and attributes that are reaffirmed by the intellect; 3) designate them by sounds; 4) or by means of signs (isharat).66 He refers to Aristotle's eight Books of the Organon, pointing to their purpose in arranging and designating things under names conveying meaning, thus making them comprehensible for

63 Mainly his Shifda', Najah, and Ddnishnama. For Ibn Sina's approach to logic, see Madkour, Organon.

64 Ibn STna, Danishnama, I, 25. 65 GhazzalT, Maqasid (Leiden, 1888), 6. In his Mustasfa,

I, 10, al-Ghazzall says, "One cannot rely absolutely on the knowledge of one who has not mastered logic." See Jabre, Certitude, 97ff.

66 Ibn Hazm, TaqrTb, 5.

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elucidating things.67 This being the purpose of logic, the argument of adversaries to the effect that logic leads to unbelief (kufr) and the triumph of heresy is utterly wrong.68 Ibn Hazm states categorically that there is nothing wrong with logic per se, except perhaps the way in which it had been described. He complains that books on logic lacked clarity through the use of letters and symbols (huruf wa-rumuz) and the use of examples that are remote from religion and alien to every day experience.69 Consequently, he proposes to remedy this difficulty by replacing letters and symbols with examples derived from the religious law, and by clarifying the technical jargon hitherto used in treatises on logic. Ibn Hazm does not mention the works of his Islamic predecessors where such difficulties in presentation occur. Instead, he refers to the Ancients (awd'il) and predecessors (mutaqaddimun) without specifying who they were.70 On the other hand, he mentions the Greek source of logic and its two leading paragons, Aristotle and Porphyry.71 Ibn Hazm also calls attention to the deficiencies in translations of works on logic, without specifying any particular translation. In sum, Ibn Hazm intends to rewrite the works of Aristotle and Porphyry with no apparent objective except simplification, in order to put an end to "the complication in translation and to the presentation of this science by use of uncommon expressions."72 Another principal objective is to correct the apprehensions of people toward the discipline, to expose the errors and the myopic attitude of its opponents, who "have been asserting confidently through vicious assumptions and without any certainty that can be arrived at on the basis of research that philosophy and the rules of logic contradict the religious law. Thus, our main purpose .. is to illuminate this darkness."73

On the whole, Ibn Hazm succeeded in his lucid treatment of logic, remaining faithful to Porphyry's Eisagoge and Aristotle's Organon in format and content. However, he often digresses to refute the methodology of theologians and jurists with respect to accepting authority (taqlrd), analogical reasoning

67 Ibid., 9, 10, 35, 78.

68 Ibid., 6. 69 Ibid., 8. 70 Ibid., 32, 44, 46, 50, 81. Ibn Taymiyyah, Radd, 131,

suggests that Ibn Hazm followed Matta b. Yfinus. 71 Ibid., 9, 10, 35, 78. 72 Ibid., 8. 73 Ibid., l15ff.

(qiyds), and other techniques.74 For the rest, he shows great enthusiasm for logic and considers it an invaluable science and an indispensable tool for all the sciences. To him, logic ('ilm al-mantiq) is the means of interpretation (Cibarah) of all the sciences.75 He assigns to it a prominent place in his classification of the sciences, and divides it into rational and sensory, the rational consisting of metaphysical and natural, and the sensory consisting of the natural only.76 He also assigns to it a prominent place in the curriculum, and urges the student to pursue it as soon as he has knowledge of reading, writing, grammar, lexicography, some poetry, numbers and astronomy. It is significant that Ibn Hazm placed logic in the curriculum ahead of the pursuit of the religious sciences. He emphasizes its utility in that logic will enable the student to have a knowledge of genera, species, simple expressions, propositions, premises, and conclusions, thus preparing him to know what is proof (burhdn) and what is contention; it will also enable the individual to avoid what is believed to be a proof but is not. It is through logic that the individual will arrive at the reality of things, and will discern falsehood without a shred of doubt.77 It is through it that proof can be ascertained regarding creation and the existence of a sole Creator.78 More- over, logic is the best weapon in disputation and debate (al-munazarah wa-l-jadal) for combating and exposing sophistry and contention.79 It is also useful in Qur'anic studies, traditions, heresiography, grammar, lexicography, poetry, rhetoric and, particularly, in legal opinions (futyd) concerning lawful, unlawful, obligatory, and permissible acts. In sum, it is helpful in understanding all things on which God legislates, on their meanings, designations, homonyms, and synonyms. "In consequence, all experts should know that the individual who does not understand the value of logic is at a distance from what Almighty God and His Prophet-may God pray for him and give him peace- had prescribed; that such an individual should not be permitted to pass legal judgment [on a dispute] between two individuals because of his ignorance of definitions

74 TaqlTd, qiyds, and other methods used in jurisprudence remained anathema to Ibn Hazm's Zahirite doctrine. See his Ibtal; and Ihkdm, 798ff.

75 Ibn Hazm, TaqrTb, 202. 76 Ibn Hazm, Maratib al- ulum, 79/241. 77 Ibid., 71/236; see his Fisal, I, 4. 78 Ibid., 72. 79 Ibn Hazm, TaqrTb, 186.

62


of words (hudud al-kaldm), their structure, the formula- tion of premises, and the drawing of conclusions on which rests the proof that is always certain; nor will he be able to discern between true and false premises."80

To Ibn Hazm, logic is measured by its high degree of utility, since it has immediate and broad applica- tions. However important and useful, the pursuit of logic for its own sake would be a futile endeavor, since logic is essentially a means to an end. "To those who attain the fundamentals of logic and claim expertise in it, we say, 'You have acquired a knowledge that has no benefit except within the framework of the rest of the sciences. You are like someone who gathered materials for building but failed to use them for that purpose, thus, leaving them idle and meaningless.'"8' In other words, logic ought to be put into practice in conformity with its true objective, that is, serving the rest of the sciences.

Ibn Hazm also devotes considerable space to refuting the arguments of the opponents of logic. The following passages reveal his thinking. To the question that the ancestors (salaf) did not cultivate, or have any need for logic, Ibn Hazm retorts:

If an ignorant man were to ask us, "Did anyone among the pious ancestors deal with this discipline?" the answer will be that this science is imbedded in the soul of anyone who possesses brains (luhh). The bright intellect can arrive at the utility of this science in pro- portion to the amount of understanding God has provided for him. The ignorant man is like a blind person and you have to caution him. This is true for all the sciences.82

He adds that the pious ancestors had the advantage of witnessing prophecy with their own eyes, and were able to reproduce the divine ordinances without making any grammatical, lexical, or legal mistakes. How- ever, after them when ignorance became rampant and people began to make gross mistakes in grammar and lexicography, the need for writing on these subjects arose. The same can be said about the need for writing books on logic, which was due mainly to the realization of its importance in understanding God's utterances and those of His Prophet, and to the attending confusion of not being able to distinguish between falsehood and the truth.

80 Ibid., 10. 81 Ibn Hazm, Maratih al-'ulIum, 89/246. 82 Ibn Hazm, TaqrTh, 3ff.

Despite such need, logic remained shrouded with gross misunderstandings among the people, whom he divides into four categories: 1) An uninformed group that condemns books on logic maintaining that they contain wrong belief and lead to heresy; they are people who "judge before ascertaining, consent without knowledge, and jump to conclusions without proofs."83 2) A group that considers logic as frivolous and an idle occupation; they belong to the majority of people who are quick to oppose things they are ignorant of, and denigrate what they do not know. 3) A group that reads books on logic with preconceived ideas and vested interests and with the pretense of knowing it all when in reality they are completely ignorant. 4) An intelligent and perceptive group that has a full understanding of logic and of its true objective; for them logic is a true companion by means of which they reaffirm God's unity, and perceive the division of created things and God's impact on them.84

It is because of the calamities (baldayat) affecting the first three groups of people that Ibn Hazm resolved to compose his TaqrTb in simple language calling attention to the inestimable value of logic and to its pre- eminent place among the sciences, hoping thereby to facilitate the understanding of the discipline to people of all walks of life. He considers it a duty to share and disseminate that knowledge by all means possible, through popularization, preaching in the streets and to groups, financial support and rewards for those who pursue and acquire the knowledge of logic.85

This notwithstanding, Ibn Hazm reflects that not all people are capable of pursuing logic, which he compares to a strong drug. If such a drug is taken by a healthy and strong person, it will benefit him enor- mously; but if taken by a sick and weak individual, it will increase his malady and may even lead to death.86

All in all, Ibn Hazm's passionate plea for the importance of logic as a tool for establishing proof (burhan) in secular and religious matters, coupled with his defense of it against the onslaught of its opponents, mainly the religious scholars, was born out of his deep commitment to and familiarity with logic. This may be attested by the following summary-analysis of his TaqrTb.

83 Ibid., 6. Ibn Hazm reiterates the point in his Fisal, 11, 95 and his Tawqtf, 41.

84 Ibid., 6ff.

85 Ibid., 7.

86 Ibid., 9. His categorization of people according to their

ability is reiterated in his Tavwqtf, 36.

63


A SUMMARY-ANALYSIS OF THE TAQRIB

The following paragraphs are intended to give a general idea of the manner in which Ibn Hazm wrote about logic, indicating his innovative approach within the framework of Aristotelian logic and the works of his Muslim predecessors in general. A summary- analysis of his TaqrTh reveals that Ibn Hazm was a logician to be reckoned with. In fact, logic appears to permeate most of his works in that he often prefers to use the Aristotelian syllogism over the dialectical method of arguments and counter-arguments of the theologians. This tendency appears early in his works, indicating that the TaqrTb was composed at an early stage of his career, probably by the time he composed his literary masterpiece, the Tawq, and his literary anthology, the Fadl al-Andalus, both of which were written in all probability between 1025 and 1030.87 However, his reference to Fisal in his TaqrTh88 and to the TaqrTb in his Fisal89 poses a problem of chronology as to which one precedes the other. The Fisal, a large composition consisting of a multiplicity of subjects, may have been written over a long span of time, which would explain such a cross reference.

In view of his passionate defense of logic and of his many references to it in his major works,90 it is easy to assume that logic had a strong impact on the formation of his intellectual perspective. On the other hand, it is difficult to determine the extent of the dissemination of the TaqrTb and its possible impact on Arabic logic. Although the majority of Ibn Hazm's biographers cite the TaqrTh as one of his principal works, they often denigrate it. An exception is al-HumaydT (d. 1095), Ibn Hazm's pupil, who says: "Facilitating the Defini- tion of Logic and Introduction Thereto is written in

popular language with juridical examples. He under- took the task of elucidating [logic], eliminating mis- conception about it, and refuting the lies of swindlers concerning it. As far as we know, no one before him had written such a work in this manner."91

On the other hand, his contemporary Sacid of Toledo says that Ibn Hazm "concerned himself with the science of logic, and composed a book on it which he called Facilitating the Definition of Logic. He ex-

plained at length the manner of attaining knowledge

87 See above, note 5. 88

TaqrTh, 27, 65, 180, 202. 89 Fisal, I, 47; 111, 68, 90; V, 70. 90 See above, notes 9, 10, 11, 12. 9' Humaydi, Judhwah, no. 708.

and used extensive juridical examples drawn from the religious law. He differed from Aristotle, the founder of this science, with respect to some of the fundamentals of logic as someone who did not understand Aristotle's aim, not having accepted his book. For this reason, his book was full of mistakes."92 Another contemporary, the historian Ibn Hayyan (d. 1075), adds that Ibn Hazm "has written many books on logic and philosophy which are full of mistakes and rubbish. This is so because of his audacity in delving into these sciences, especially logic."93 These statements by two of Ibn Hazm's contemporaries were incorporated almost verbatim by Ibn Sa'Td al-MaghribT (d. 1274),94 and the eastern scholars Yaquit (d. 1229),9 QiftT (d. 1248),96 Ibn Khallikan (d. 1282),97 and DhahabT (d. 1348).98

This general antagonism to the work must be understood within the context of Ibn Hazm's tense relationship with many religious scholars whom he attacked vehemently, and who in turn declared him a heretic and frowned upon his works. It is clear that his biographers simply incorporated the statement of a contemporary without scrutiny and without having had first hand information about the actual content and purpose of the TaqrTb. Moreover, they failed to take into account Ibn Hazm's commitment to and defense of the philosophical sciences in general, and his insistence on reconciling them with the religious sciences, in particular. As a result, such a negative evaluation remained uncontested for centuries, and has been current even among modern scholars,99 some of whom were to dismiss the value of the work and to attribute to al-GhazzalT some of its innovative approach, namely, popularizing the discipline and providing it with new examples and a new terminology.'00 These notions,

92 Sc'id, Tabaqat, 101.

93 As quoted by Ibn Bassam, DhakhTrah, l:ii, 140. 94 Ibn Sac'd, Mughrih, I, 354. 95 Yaqut, Irshdd, V, 87. 96 QiftT, Td'rTkh, 232-233. 97 Ibn Khallikan, Wafaiat, III, 13-14. 98 DhahabT, Siyar, 438. 99 For instance, C. van Arendonk in El' under Ibn Hazm;

and Nashshar, Mandhij, 81. '00 For instance, Madkour, Organon, 243; and Jabre, Certi-

tude, 108. Both of their works were written before the edition of the TaqrTh. On the other hand, Asin Palacios, Abenhdzam, 1, 250, considers Ibn Hazm the precursor of al-Ghazzal,

although he suggests that Ibn Hazm may have modeled his

TaqriT on the works of Ibn Sina.

64


however, became outmoded with the publication of the TaqrTb in 1959 by IhsAn 'Abbas, who based his edition on a manuscript of the Zaytinah Mosque of Tunis (Ahmadiyyah Collection, no. 6814).

Ibn Hazm introduces the TaqrTb with a refutation of the opponents of logic, indicating its importance and the reasons for writing the work.'?' He then pro- ceeds with a systematic treatment of logic following Porphyry's Eisagoge and Aristotle's Organon.

I. PORPHYRY'S Eisagoge (madkha)

Ibn Hazm attaches great importance to the Eisa- goge, and remains faithful to its subject matter con- centrating on the quinque voces (the five terms): genus (jins), species (naw'), difference (fasl), particular (khassah), and accident ('arad). He places great emphasis on definition (hadd) and description (rasm), and considers them the key (miftah) of the whole book. He takes up attribution (haml) and subject (wad'), and shows the difference between substance (jawhar) and accident, maintaining that they constitute the two and only categories of existing things. He elaborates on these notions by examing the nature of sound (sawt), as having or lacking a meaning. Meaningless sounds are like those uttered by a parrot or any other ani- mal,'02 while meaningful sounds are expressions (alfa.z) designating existing things by themselves, or qualifying other things; that is, they denote either a substance or an accident.'03 Here Ibn Hazm establishes a clear difference between substance and accident maintaining that substance exists independently of anything else, while an accident does not and is dependent on some- thing else. Substance and accident apply to all God's creation, except God Himself, Who is neither a substance, nor an attribute.'04 Similarly, all things, except God, are determined in two ways: either by a definition (hadd) specifying the nature of a thing, or by a description (rasm) differentiating one thing from another. This difference is important in Ibn Hazm's view, for it facilitates mutual understanding. Thus, attempting to obscure the true intent of expressions is the occupation of babblers, stupid and ignorant people.'05

Ibn Hazm explains the principal terms of the

10' See above, notes 66 to 72. 102

TaqrTb, 12. 103 Ibid., 15. '04 Ibid., 17. 'O' Ibid., 17. Ibn Hazm appears to have composed a separate

treatise on the subject of definition and description.

Eisagoge. Genus encompasses two or more species, substance being the highest genus (jins, ajnas) that can be applied to all things.'06 Species, called surah by the Ancients in conformity with the linguistic usage in Greek, is a substratum of genus comprising a group of things that agree in definition and description. Species in its various kinds (naw' al-anwd') have in common a single definition, a single nature, and the same differentiation, and differ in accidents only.'07 Below the species are individual things (ashkhas).'08 Thus, all created things are classified under genera, species, and things-difference (fasl) being particular (khassah), and accident ('arad), mere attributes (sifat). Thus difference is the differentiation of one nature from another, or a distinction between one species and another; the particular is equal to what is particularized and constitutes a definition thereof; and accident applies to and differentiates species, genera and individual things, but its absence does not constitute the dis- appearance of the thing which it qualifies.'09

II. ARISTOTLE'S Organon

Ibn Hazm adheres closely to Aristotle's Organon in arrangement and content. However, he reduces the eight headings of the Organon to five by including qiyas, jadal and safsatah under the heading of burhan, which constitutes the core of his system. His arrangement follows:

1. al-Asma' al-mufradah (Categories)

Ibn Hazm explains this heading as corresponding to the Greek qatlghfriyas and to the Arabic Maqulat consisting of ten expressions. He divides the Book into two sections, one dealing with simple expressions, and the other with the different parts of speech. Simple expressions comprise unequivocal words (al-asmad al-mutawdti'a, equivocal words (al-asma' al-mukhta- lifah), homonyms (al-asma' al-mushtarikah), synonyms

106 Ibid., 20. Jawhar corresponds to the jins al-ajnds of al- KhuwarizmT, MafatLh, 141. Ibn Hazm, ibid., 44ff., deals with it at great length when discussing the ten expressions of the Categories and considers it the principal expression, the rest being mere ancillaries.

107 Ibid., 31. 108 Ibid., 30. The term ashkhas was already used by the

Brethren of Purity, Rasa'il, I:1, 313, in addition to Porphyry's quinque voces, see Madkour, Organon, 74.

'09 Ibid., 32-34.

65


(al-asmai' al-mutaradafah), and derived words (al- asma' al-mushtaqqah). Speech consists of independent words conveying a meaning, or combinations of words (murakkab) conveying more than one thing, and consisting of five kinds: a proposition (khabar), inquiry (istikhbar), exclamation (nida'), desire (raghbah), and command (amr). The last four kinds do not admit of truth or falsity, while a proposition does.

Ibn Hazm then discusses the ten terms, substance (jawhar), quantity (kammiyyah), quality (kayfiyyah), relation (iddfah), time (zaman), place (makan), position (nusbah), possession (milk), action (fa'il), and passion (munfacil)."?O He concludes with a discussion of "similar," "opposite," "contradictory," affirmative, negative, and contrasting statements, and takes issue with some of his predecessors' misuse of certain expressions, or

misinterpretation of fundamental principles. He says that theologians had misused the word qadamah when

applying qadTm to God when He actually is the First."' Similarly, the Ancients also erred by maintaining that the genus precedes the species, arguing that it is impossible that the whole could precede its parts. The same can be said about cause and effect (al-'illah wa-l- maclul), which are simultaneous and inseparable.12 He concludes with a discussion of motion and its various kinds.

2. Kitab al-akhbar (Hermeneutics)

Ibn Hazm says that this part corresponds to the Greek Banr Arminiyas but does not mention the Arabic equivalent, cibarah, often used by some of his Muslim

predecessors."3 He says that the term akhbar (pl. of khabar) was used by the grammarians in the sense of

predicate, and by the historians in the sense of information."4 However, he hardly mentions that the term was used by some of his Muslim predecessors in its meaning as a proposition. He reiterates a previous statement that khabar is the only part of speech that can be either true or false."5 Specifically, the Book

"O Ibid., 67. Khuwarizmi, Mafaith, 143ff., uses the follow-

ing corresponding expressions: jawhar, kamm, kayf, idifah, mata, ayna, wadc/nusbah, lahu, yanfacil, and yafCal. See Ibn Hazm, ibid., 23.

X" Ibid., 75. 112

Ibid., 75. 13 Ibid., 79. 14 The term khabar in the sense of "proposition" appears

to have been used prior to the time of Ibn Hazm. See Rescher, Studies, 35; and van Ess, Theology, 30.

"5 Ibn Hazm, TaqrTb, 39.

deals with parts of speech: noun (ism); verb (kalimah), called nu'Ct by grammarians and sifat (attributes) by theologians; statement (qawl) expressing a complete thought; and elements ('andsir) conveying what is obligatory, permissible, possible, or impossible. He concludes with a discussion of the different kinds of propositions (qaddyd, pl. of qadTyah): affirmative (mujibah), negative (ndfiyah),"6 conditional (shartiyyah), deter- minate (dhat al-aswdr),"7 indeterminate (muhmalah), special (makhsusah), and a qualifier (sur),18 that is, a proposition introduced by "every," "each," and the like.

3. Kitab al-burhdn (Apodictics).

This section corresponds to the Afuidiktiqa, or the Fourth Book of the Organon, which establishes the criteria for demonstration. As such, it occupies an important place in the Organon and in Ibn Hazm's Taq- rTb as well. In fact, Ibn Hazm gives burhan precedence over qiydis (Analytics) insofar as it was used by Muslim

jurists and theologians, who are believed to have car- ried qiyds to the extreme and with negative results, thereby causing controversy and division in Islam. Moreover, he does not believe that qiyds possesses the

rigor and precision of the syllogism and, as such, could not serve as a substitute for burhan, which alone is the surest way to certainty. This notwithstanding, Ibn Hazm remained faithful to the format of the Organon and provided ample room for qiyvis, Sophistics, and Disputatio, but not without expressing grave reser- vations concerning their validity:

We combined in this part of our work the things corresponding to the contents of Aristotle's Third Book on logic called AnulutTkiyd (Analytics), and his Fourth Book called AfiudiqtTkd (Apodictics) since the

object of both is to elucidate the manner and conditions of proof .... We have also added to it Aristotle's Fifth Book called Tubfqd (Topics) dealing with disputation, to which we added the conditions that are in-

dispensable for disputants seeking the realities of

things. Essentially, this books deals with the conditions for establishing proof and things ancillary to it.

116 See KhuwarizmT, MafatTh, 146, who calls it qadTyah sdlibah.

"7 Ibid., 146, calls it qadiyah mahsurah. 118 It should be pointed out that the discussion of proposi-

tions falls under qiyds (Analytics). See KhuwarizmT, MafatTh, 149. Also, Ibn Hazm, TaqrTb, 106ff. discusses them in the Book of burhan.

66


We have also added Aristotle's Sixth Book called Sufistiya (sic) (Sophistics) dealing with the character- istics of disputants who turn away from the realities of things and advocate the triumph of ignorance and deception. The reason for including it is that it is necessary for the seekers of the realities of things to know the nature of such people and be prepared for them. "9

Although Ibn Hazm considers analogical reasoning and sophistry as false methods for establishing the realities of things, he reasons that ignoring them would do great violence to establishing proof. "For our object is to establish proof and to correct the manner of demonstration (tash.h al-istidldl) in all differences and disagreements occurring among disputants." 20

To Ibn Hazm, the essential ingredients of proof are proper demonstration, definition, and the proper for- mulation of the syllogism (jimicah). Ibn Hazm attaches importance to establishing the proof through syllogism which consists of two propositions (qadiyatdn) or premises (muqaddamatan), and a conclusion (natTjah).T' A single proposition conveys no more than what it con- tains, and constitutes a union (qarTnah) when combined with another proposition. He devotes space to the different means of arriving at proof (ashkdl al-burhdn),'22 pointing to the validity,'23 or fallacy of propositions.'24 Unlike his predecessors, he frequently uses propositions bearing on the religious law for arriving at legal decisions.'25 He also delves into the theory of the acquisi- tion of knowledge. He concludes by saying that truth and falsehood are absolute terms not admitting any degree of intensity. "It is impossible that a truth could be truer than another truth, or a falsehood more false than another."'26 In all, while the senses, the intellect, and transmission (naql) may lead to true knowledge the same cannot be said about ilhdm (divine inspira- tion) when claimed by people other than prophets.'27 And from the vantage point of logic, he conceives three methods of reasoning as invalid for establishing proof. They are qiyds, safsatah, and al-jadal wa-l- mundzarah.

19 Ibn Hazm, TaqrTb, 105. 120 Ibid., 106. 121 Ibid., 106. 122 Ibid., 117ff. 123 Ibid., 124ff. 124

Ibid., 145ff. 125 Ibid., 149ff. 126 Ibid., 158.

27 Ibid., 161.

a. Qiyds (Analytics)

Ibn Hazm disavows qiyds from the vantage point of Islamic dogmatics and logic, pointing to the belief in a proof by qiyas when actually there is none.'28 In fact, it was the object of heated controversy among Muslim jurists and theologians, some supporting its use while others disavowed it. Its advocates used it excessively, and fell into serious error by arriving at the knowledge of the universal through the particular. While the religious scholars called it qiyds, the Ancients called it istiqrd7 (induction); the Ancients also misused it and thereby arrived at wrong conclusions. This is shown in their premise that an agent is a body, thus con- cluding that the First Agent, which is God, is also a body.'29 Such a procedure is as bad as the method used by theologians and jurists which aims at arriving at the knowledge of the hidden on the basis of the visible (al-istidlal bi-l-shdhid 'ala al-ghd'ib). This is utterly wrong, "because had its advocates done their research (bahth), they would have known that what is hidden to the senses concerning existing things is not hidden to the intellect, but is as manifest as that which is perceived by the senses, no more or less.... Thus, there are no hidden things concerning known things (ma'lumdt), for that which is hidden to the intellect cannot possibly be known."'30 Ibn Hazm illustrates his point saying that even the blind knows about the existence of colors in the same manner a person with sight does, and that people admit the existence of elephants, even if they have never seen one. He concludes, "As for the things which are neither affirmed nor denied by the nature of the intellect, we shall accept those if and when we find them, and we shall not interdict those which we cannot find." 3'

Another method reprehensible to Ibn Hazm is the following of one's appetites (shahawdt) through the unbridled use of similarities (mushtabahdt). In this way, decisions are arrived at by attributing to God things not found in texts emanating from Him, but on

128 Ibid., 162ff. 129 Ibid., 165. 130 Ibid., 166. See van Ess, Theology, 34ff. Prior to Ibn

Hazm, theologians appear to have inferred the "hidden" from the "visible" (al-istidlal bi-l-shdhid 'ald al-ghd'ib) as an extension of analogy (qiyds) to which Ibn Hazm addresses himself in vehement terms.

13' Ibid., 167. Ibn Hazm, ibid., 162, also rejects the vicious circle (burhdn al-dawr) and the definition of the unknown on the basis of the unknown (bavdn al-majhul fT-l-majhal).

67


the basis of similarity, by applying ordinances for speci- fied things to unspecified things. Untold erosion is thus created in the application of the religious law.32 Similarly, Ibn Hazm ponders the question of the relationship between cause and effect (al-'illah wa-l- ma'll), and refutes those who maintain that cause must have an impelling reason for its effect. He argues that such a view would compromise God's intent, and would subject Him to strictures, for the Almighty acts voluntarily as He wishes and does things for no cause. Aside from this religious consideration, Ibn Hazm conceives cause and effect as interwined and always acting interdependently. "It is impossible that a cause could ever be found in time without having an effect." This is true for both ordinary things and legal ordinances.'33

After showing the flaws of qiyds in its various ramifi- cations, Ibn Hazm concludes, "Know that liberality (musamahah) in seeking the realities of things is absolutely inadmissible; there is either truth, or falsehood, and it is impossible that a thing can be true and false at one and the same time." 34 He maintains that there is no discrepancy between the religious ordinances and the way of proof (burhdn).'35 However, the analogists (al-qayydsun) had distorted the whole concept of qiyds, converting it into trickery and sophistry.

Know that the Ancients (al-mutaqaddiman) called the premises qiyas; then came the trickery of our brethren, the analogists, who used [qiyds] as a sophistical and weak ruse for arbitrariness and sophistry. They called qiyds the arbitrary way reached through reprehensible induction (al-istiqra' 'ald madhmam) arriving at decisions in the absence of scriptural texts in the same way as when texts exist; and they do so on the basis of certain similar features found in two different

things."136

b. Safsatah (Sophistics)

Ibn Hazm considers sophistics an extension of qiyds, and in the manner of Aristotle launches a vehement attack against it. Sophists (ahl al-shaghab) indulge in obfuscation and double-talk with intent to deceive and to turn people from the truth. Their method is built

132 Ibid., 167ff. 133 Ibid., 169. See van Ess, Theology, 34ff., Nashshar, Mana-

hij, 88. 134 Ibid., 171.

135 Ibid., 172. 136 Ibid., 173.

on false premises. He says, "Deception is the greatest weapon of the confounder and advocate of falsehood."'37 This deception may take place by affirming what cannot be affirmed, falsifying a syllogism, cleav- ing to a homonym, and particularizing or generalizing for things qualities applied to other things. He illustrates their method with copious examples, and concludes with reflections on the superiority of the intellect over the senses'38 for grasping the reality of things that can be attained with investigation alone,'39 and arrived at with proper evidence.'40

c. Al-Jadal wa-l-munazarah (Topics)

Ibn Hazm tackles disputatio and debate against an Islamic background, but using the material in Aristotle's Topics. Disputatio and debate had become current in Islamic society and at the same time con- troversial, some supporting their validity and others opposing them, but always through the invocation of prophetic traditions. On his part, Ibn Hazm considered disputatio a praiseworthy endeavor as long as it followed a strict method of demonstration, and a rigorous set of rules that would govern all its aspects including the etiquette, qualifications, and moral integrity of the disputants. In so doing, he integrated Aristotelian logic into the hitherto unyielding Islamic dialectics that con- sisted of argument, counterargument, and conclusion, but that remained essentially apologetic and an argumentum ad hominem, having the object of defending one's side and triumphing over the opponent.14' Aware of these pitfalls, Ibn Hazm made use of logic, and insisted on thorough individual search (ijtihad), investigation (bahth), and evidence for establishing truth re- gardless of the consequences.'42 In short, Ibn Hazm gives unqualified support to disputatio that is based on rigorous rules,'43 and condemns trickery in debate and fighting wrong with wrong.'44 He spells out the

'37 Ibid., 173ff. 138 Ibid., 176ff. 139 Ibid., 182ff. 140

Ibid., 183. 141 See above, note 47. This section on disputatio constitutes,

on the whole, a veritable treatise on the conduct (adab) of disputants.

142 Ibn Hazm, Taqrrb, 185ff. See note 49. Such investigation (bahth) requires that the individual study all views, opinions, the nature of things, and the different proofs presented (ibid., 197). 143 Ibid., 185. 144 Ibid., 190.

68

CHEJNE: Ibn Hazm of Cordova on Logic 6

conditions governing debates; considers sheer ignorance the claim of those who purport to turn the true into false, and vice versa; warns against blind imita- tion of the Ancestors and over-reliance on reputable authorities;'445 and disavows obscurantism in debate. He concludes with an exaltation of knowledge and the pursuit of the sciences, which alone lead to establishing the realities of things.

4. Kitdb al-baldghah (Rhetoric)

This section corresponds to R!tC7rTqd, the Seventh Book of the Organon, and to the Arabic khitilbah commonly used by Muslim logicians. It is a succinct treatment of rhetoric, with general reference to Aris- totle, Quddmah b. Jacfar, 146 Hasan al-Basri, 141 Sahl b. Hairon,'4 lbn al-Muqaffac ,l and Ibn Shuhayd.'50 Ibn Hazm says that a knowledge of rhetoric requires two or more sciences, and its merit resides in avoiding

Kind! '5 Khuwairizmi'514

excessive use of rare expressions, and in making things understood for both the average person and the elite."'5

5. Kitib aI-shicr (Poetics)

This section is also brief, referring the reader to the works of Qudiimah b. JaCfar and of Abfl 'Ali al-HatimT for further information. Ibn Hazm says simply that all things contain some elements of truthfulness except those expressed by a slanderer or a poet. He adds that the ingredients of poetry are three: craftmanship (sind'ah), innate ability (!ab C), and excellence (ha- rdacah). 152

On the whole, the format and content of the TaqrTb conform to those of Aristotle's Organon. The inclusion of Porphyry's Fisagoge as an Introduction (madkhal) appears to have been optional among Ibn Hazm's Mus- lim predecessors, as the following table shows:

Ibn al-Nadlm 116 lbn Hazm

I. Porphyry's Eisagoge

II. Aristotle's Organon:

I. Categories

2. Hermeneutics

3. Analytics

4. Apodictics 5. Topics 6. Sophistics

7. Rhetoric

8. Poetics

Madkhal

MaqCilt

Tafs Tr CAks

Iddhah

Jadaliyyah

Mughdlatah

Baldghah

Shi cr

Maqildit

Tafs Tr 'Aks

Iddh

Jadal

Tahakkum

Khitlbah

Shicr

Maqididt

cIbdrah

Qiyds

Burhdn

Jadaliyyah

al-Hikmah al-mumawwahah

Khitdbah

Sbhicr

Maqiddt

cIbjrah

TahiTi al-qiyas

Burhdn

Jadal

MughdIaiaun

Khitdbah

Shicr

41Ibid., 195ff. He argues that reputable authorities can err. 146 Qudamah b. Jacfar (d. 848), a rhetorician and author of

various works among which is the Naqd al-nathr. 1 47 Hasan al-Basr-T (d. 728) was a noted ascetic and theolo-

gian. 148 Sahl b. Hgrin (d. 830) was a famous prose writer. 14 cAbdallAih b. al-Muqaffac (d. 757) was a prominent

prose-writer and translator of the famous book of fables, KalIlah wta- Dimnah.

ISO Ibn Shuhayd (d. 1034) was a close friend of Ibn Hazm, and wrote a book of rhetoric, which Ibn Hazm confesses not to have seen. (See lbn Hazm, TaqrTb, 204.)

''Ibn Hazm, Taqrfh, 204. 52Ibid., 207.

Madkhal

al-A smd' al-mufradah

AkhbMr

Burhdn: a. Qiyiis b. Safsatah c. Jadal.

DBalIdg-ha h Shicr

69


While Ibn Hazm compresses the Eight Books of Aristotle's Organon into Five Books remaining faithful to its content, he adds numerous examples drawn from everyday experience and the religious law. His choice of terminology for the different books appears to have been derived for the most part from primitive terminology such as balaghah (rhetoric), which had been used by the philosopher al-KindT. He also appears to rely on some of the explanations of al-Farabi, who referred to the maquldt as mufradat and to the 'ibdrah as aqwdl bas.tah. He also appears to have been influenced by the grammarians in the use of khabar (predicate of a nominal clause).'57 Moreover, the significance attached to proof (burhdn) was already echoed by al- FarabT, who considered it as having precedence over the rest of the Organon since the object of logic is to accomplish the goal of burhdn, all the rest of the Organon being a mere ancillary to it with the first three books serving as preliminaries and the following four books as an aid and tool.'58 As a result, Ibn Hazm disavows qiyas as used among religious scholars, condemns Sophistics altogether, elevates disputatio to the level of burhdn,'59 and makes provision for Rhet- oric and Poetics with a modicum of tolerance.

A further distinctive feature of the TaqrTb is the careful attention given to definition (hadd) of terms, which Ibn Hazm considers paramount. He often goes to great length to elucidate terms, and to give their equivalents in logic, grammar and theology. He says that the word kalimah means "verb" to the philosopher, attributes (nu'ut) to the grammarian, and qualities (sifdt) to the theologian.'60 He often gives Greek equivalents for Arabic terminology: two premises (qadiyatdn) and a conclusion (nattjah) are called sul- lugismus in Greek and ( jdmi'ah) in Arabic.'61 He finds Latin a better equipped language than Arabic for dis- cerning the difference between quality and quantity.162

53 Rescher, Studies, 30.

54 KhuwarizmT, MafatTh, 145ff. See Rescher, Studies, 64ff. 1

FarabT, Ihsd', 46-50. 156 Ibn al-NadTm, Fihrist, 248.

157 Rescher, Studies, 35, considers khabar as a seemingly obsolete Arabic equivalent of the Greek logos apophantikos, i.e., Proposition.

I58 Farabi, Ihsd', 50. 59 Ibn Hazm, TaqrTb, 185ff.; see also his lhkdm, 19ff.

160 Ibid., 81.

161 Ibid., 106. 62 Ibid., 52 and 54. He also remarks that Latin makes a

distinction between the present and future tenses, whereas

Finally, Ibn Hazm creates new terminology for hitherto used Arabic terms, when these appear to him obscure or misleading. He says that the term didd (contrary) and naqid (contradictory) hitherto used by predecessors (mutaqaddimun) tend to lead to confusion and, for this reason, he proposes nafi Camm, or naqTd 'amm for universal denial, and nafi khiss or naqTd khdss for particular denial.163 He also replaces kull (universal) and juz' (particular) by 'dmm and khass, respec- tively.'64

In conclusion, an examination of his TaqrTb and statements on logic in his other works shows that Ibn Hazm had a great insight into, a grasp of, and a deep commitment to logic. He appreciated the value of logic for demonstrating the realities of things in both the secular and religious fields. He is conversant with the works of Aristotle and Porphyry whom he considers the paragons of the discipline, and he often refers to his Muslim predecessors (al-mutaqaddimun) but without specifying who they were. As a result, he emerges not only as a knowledgeable and enthusiastic logician, but a staunch defender of the discipline against attacks by co-religionists. He makes it crystal clear that there is nothing wrong with the discipline per se, but perhaps with the manner in which it had been presented by his predecessors. Consequently, he proposed to present it in easy language thereby eliminating the confusion sur- rounding it. He hoped that his co-religionists would then cease opposing it and would begin to appreciate its value even in religious matters.

In this connection, Ibn Hazm was in full agree- ment with his Islamic predecessors, the philosopher- scientists, and at great odds with the religious scholars, who looked upon the philosophical sciences in general with great mistrust. This position was consistent with his conception of the sciences, their relationship, and their interdependence, which he articulated in his Mardtib al-'ulum. Here as elsewhere, he disavowed the dichotomy of views separating the philosopher and the religious scholar, called for their harmonization, and insisted on offering a combined curriculum that would do justice to both the secular and religious sciences. He conceived this to be the only sure way leading to a true comprehension of the physical world and the divine mission of Muhammad.

Arabic ordinarily does not (ibid., 63). 163 Ibid., 92. 164 Ibid., 95. For one, Madkour, Organon, 243, credits al-

GhazzalT with the coinage of 'Cmm and khdss. See GhazzalT, Mihakk, 30.

70


Moreover, Ibn Hazm complains not only about the

onslaught against logic, but about those who accused him of heresy for having been an avid reader of the books of the Ancients (kutub al-awadil),'65 and about those who denigrated his works without having read them.'66 This antagonism to the man and his works is also reflected in the majority of his biographers, who

acknowledged his wide erudition. Under the circum-

stances, it is difficult to gauge the impact of his works on succeeding generations. This notwithstanding, it is

significant to note that Ibn Hazm's conception of logic, and his attempt to simplify and popularize it coincide

165 Ibn Hazm, Radd, 10. 166 Ibn Hazm, Fisal, II, 95. 167 See above, note 100. It should be added that the con-

nection between Ibn Hazm and al-Ghazzall cannot be ruled out since al-Ghazzall himself acknowledges Ibn Hazm's au-

thority with respect to the beautiful names of God. See al- GhazzalT, Maqsad, 126; Dhahabi, Siyar, 402. One may add that Ibn Taymiyyah, Radd, 131-132, mentions Ibn Hazm's involvement with logic.

168 Ibn Bajjah wrote among other things commentaries on al-FarabT's commentaries on logic. See Brockelmann, GAL, I, 460; Rescher, Development, 171ff.

169 The philosopher-physician Ibn Tufayl does not appear to have written on logic. However, his Hayy Ibn Yaqzdn

with the work of the eastern theologian al-GhazzalT, who attempted in his Mihakk and MiCyar to show not

only the utility of logic, but to make it accessible to a

large audience through simplification and the use of

examples drawn from the religious law.'67 Finally, Ibn Hazm was a towering figure in an Andalusian context, and a worthy predecessor of his compatriots-the

great philosophers Ibn Bajjah (d. 1138),168 Ibn Tufayl

(d. 1185),169 and Ibn Rushd (d. 1198)'7--who gave the intellect and demonstrative reasoning a deserving

place in the search for truth.''

covers the whole intellectual process where the intellect plays a most important role in perceiving the truth.

170 Ibn Rushd wrote commentaries on the Organon and the

Eisagoge, and other works bearing on logic. See Rescher, Development, 177ff.

171 Among other Andalusians who concerned themselves with logic may be cited: Abui-l-Salt (d. 1134) of Denia, author of the TaqwTm on logic (see Rescher, Development, 167ff.); Ibn Tumlis (d. 1223), author of the Madkhal, who lamented the neglect of logic in al-Andalus, and defended it in language similar to that used by Ibn Hazm. (See Rescher, Develop- ment, 188ff.) and the mystic Ibn Sab'Cn (d. 1270). See Rescher, Development, 201ff.

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