ibn khalduns theory of knowledge and its …
TRANSCRIPT
IBN KHALDUN’S THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE AND ITS
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
BY
KHALED M. A. AL-HALABI
A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for
the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education
Institute of Education
International Islamic University Malaysia
JULY 2013
ii
ABSTRACT
Many researchers studied Ibn Khaldun’s thought in different scientific fields; few of
them, however, shed the light comprehensively on his theory of knowledge and
epistemological background which supported him writing his great works. In this
study, the researcher brings up Ibn Khaldun’s theory of knowledge and highlights
some of its main issues such as the nature of knowledge and source of knowledge:
their fields and characteristics. In addition, the researcher explores how Ibn Khaldun’s
theory of knowledge affects his method of analysis in the Muqaddimah and suggests
many educational implications. A brief historical analysis is used in this study to
highlight the stages of Ibn Khaldun’s life that shaped his thought and theory of
knowledge. The descriptive and analytic methods provide the researcher a lens that
leads him deeply to arrive to the following results: Ibn Khaldun’s theory of
knowledge is based on Islam and it is closely related to his view of the worlds of
existence and human nature. Knowledge has a nature covers both seen and unseen
worlds. It is all acquired and evidenced based. Knowledge is obtained mainly from
senses, intellect, revelation and inspiration. The seen world is the field of senses and
intellect while the details and secrets of unseen world are made known only by
revelation. Ibn Khaldun rejects doubt and skepticism and makes certainty his criterion
of knowledge. Ibn Khaldun’s theory of knowledge plays a direct role in delineating
his new conception of history; direct observation and rational analysis are his main
tools in proving and arriving at new concepts. Ibn Khaldun’s theory of knowledge
suggests several educational implications. It implies formulating comprehensive
educational aims, such as producing a Muslim, whose is a firm believer in Allah and
his spiritual, intellectual, and physical growth is well balanced, and supporting a
system of life where the religious and worldly affairs are inseparable and integral parts
of one whole. In addition, Ibn Khaldun’s theory of knowledge suggests building
various learning theories: the early stages of learning must be based upon the
education of the senses, learning moves from concrete to the abstract and it is
individual, collaborative and social. Ibn Khaldun’s theory of knowledge generates
effective teaching method, which prepare students to acquire a strong habit in
different fields of knowledge, begins gradually with the simple exposition of the
subject and ends with revealing all of its secrets. His theory of knowledge suggests,
also, curriculum organizations. It implies multidisciplinary approach, where barriers
between subjects are broken down and connections among curricula are made, and
discipline-based content where one of the disciplines has a priority more than others
and the students do not suffer from the problem of knowledge fragmentation. Theory
of knowledge helps us to understand reality and use the knowledge to promote our
lives and goals. It is worthy of study specially if it holds for different times, aims at
happiness in this life and hereafter and belongs to remarkable scholars such as
Ibn Khaldun.
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البحثخلاصة
ير من الباحثين بدراسة فكر ابن خلدون في عدة مجالات علمية ولكن قليل من سلط ثقام ك كانت له سندا في كتاباته وأعمالهالضوء بشكل شامل على نظرية ابن خلدون المعرفية التي
الضوء على نظرية ابن خلدون في المعرفة مركزا على الباحث العظيمة. في هذه الدراسة، يسلطقضايا رئيسية منها طبيعة المعرفة، مصادرها، مجالاتها وخصائصها. علاوة على ذلك، استكشف الباحث مدى تأثير نظرية المعرفة لدى ابن خلدون على كل من: منهجه التحليلي
التحليل التاريخي وصياغة كثير من الممارسات التربوية. اعتمد الباحث على في كتابة المقدمة، بن خلدونيساعد على فهم العوامل المؤثرة على فكر افي دراسته لأنه -بشكل موجز-
التحليلي للوصول بعمق إلى الوصفي و على المنهج الباحث كذلك اعتمدو .ونظريته في المعرفةة ابن خلدون في المعرفة على إيمانه بالدين الإسلامي؛ فهي لصيقة النتائج التالية: تستند نظري
الصلة بتصوره للوجود وطبيعة الانسان. فالمعرفة لها طبيعة تتعاطى مع عالمي الغيب والشهادة وهي كلها مكتسبة مبينة على دليل. كما ان مصادرها تتنوع لتشمل الحس والعقل والوحي
عالم الشهادة كما أن تفاصيل الغيب لا تعلم بغير الوحي. هو والإلهام. فمجال الحس والعقليرفض ابن خلدون الظن والشك ويجعل اليقين معياره في المعرفة، لذا لعبت نظرية المعرفة لدى
والتحليل العقلاني لاحظةفالم .ابن خلدون دورا مهما في رسم ملامح مفهومه الجديد للتاريخنظرية المعرفة لدى ابن خلدون تحوي بات هذا المفهوم.في اكتشاف وإث تينرئيس اتينا أدتكان
صياغة أهداف تربوية شاملة وتصميم فهي تساعد على في جنباتها تضمينات تربوية عديدة.طرائق تدريس فاعلة، صالحة حتى زمننا المعاصر. إن نظرية المعرفة و نظريات تعلم متعددة
إذا -خاصة –فنا، وهي جديرة أن تدرس هداوأتساعدنا على فهم الواقع والارتقاء بحياتنا مختلفة وتهدف إلى السعادة في الدنيا والآخرة وتخص عالما متميزا كابن عوالمكانت تتعاطى مع
خلدون.
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APPROVAL PAGE
The thesis of Khaled M. A. Alhalabi has been approved by the following:
___________________________
Rosnani Hashim
Supervisor
____________________________
Ssekamanya Siraje Abdallah
Internal Examiner
____________________________
Saeda Siraj
External Examiner
____________________________
El-Fatih Abdullahi Abdesalam
Chairman
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DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except
where otherwise stated. I also declare that is has not been previously or concurrently
submitted as a whole for my other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.
Khaled M. A. Alhalabi
Signature……………………… Date……………………..
vi
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION
OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH
Copyright © 2013 by International Islamic University Malaysia. All rights reserved.
IBN KHALDUN’S THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE AND ITS EDUCATIONAL
IMPLICATIONS
I hereby affirm that The International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) holds all
rights in the copyright of this work and henceforth any reproduction or use in any form
or by means whatsoever is prohibited without the written consent of IIUM. No part of
this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording
or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder.
Affirmed by Khaled M. A. Alhalabi
.................................... .....................................
Signature Date
vii
To my mother, wife, and children words cannot express the gratitude I hold in my
heart, you gave me hope when I thought there was none. . Thank you for the support,
encouragement and sincere prayers.
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is pertinent to take a moment and recall the help and guidance of several people who
have paved the way for me and made it possible to complete this study. But before all,
I thank Allah for his countless blessings.
My deepest appreciation and gratitude goes to the greatest supervisor ever
Prof. Dr. Rosnani Hashim. Thank you for your continuous support and your sincere
encouragement. It is an honor to have been under your supervision as I have learnt so
much from your expertise. Your unique style suited me perfectly and the pace was
more than suitable. Thank you for making me feel positive and giving me the
confidence to tackle an otherwise unfamiliar topic.
My most sincere gratitude goes to all of my amazing lecturers; thank you for
the knowledge and for the relationships that we have built solely for the sake of Allah.
May Allah bless you all with a life full of happiness and Baraka.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ………...................................................................................................... ii
Abstract in Arabic……………………………………………………………....... iii
Approval Page……………………………………………………………………. iv
Declaration ………………………………………………………………...…….. v
Copyright Page ………………………………………………………………....... vi
Dedication …………………………………………………………………..…… vii
Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………...……. viii
List of Figures ………………………………………………………………..….. xii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION……………………………...………….. 1
Background……... …………………………………………………….... 1
Statement of the Problem……………………………………...…………. 8
Purpose of The Study………………………………………………..…... 14
Definition of terms……….………………………………………………. 15
Previous Studies………………………………………………………….. 15
Significance of The study…………………………………...…………… 22
Methodology……………………………………………...……………… 24
Delimitation……………………………………………...………………. 26
Thesis Organization………………………………………………...……. 27
CHAPTER TWO: NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE……………...……………. 28
Introduction………………………………………………….….……….. 28
A Brief Biography………………………………………….………..…… 28
His Education…………………………………………….…………... 31
His Political Life……………………………………….………..….... 34
Nature of knowledge…..…………………………………….…..……...... 41
Conclusion……….……………………………………………...……….. 52
CHAPTER THREE: SENSES………………………………………..……….. 54
Introduction ……………………………………………….…….………. 54
Sensitive Faculty……………………………………………..………….. 54
Classification of Senses………………………………………...………... 56
External Senses……………………………………………...……….. 57
Internal Senses…………………………………………..….………... 59
Common Sense………………………………………...………… 60
Imagination………………………………………...……………. 62
Estimation…………………………………………………...…... 66
Memory…………………………………..………………...……. 68
Sensual Perception……………………………………………...………... 69
The Role of Senses……………………………………………..………... 72
Human Cognition………………………………………………………… 75
Characteristics of Sensual Knowledge and Its Fields……………………. 78
Conclusion…………………………………………………………...…... 82
x
CHAPTER FOUR: INTELLECT……………………………………..……… 85
Introduction………………………………………………………..…….. 85
Meaning of Intellect………………………………………………...……. 85
Blank Slate……………………………………………………………….. 95
Intellectual Perception Theory………………………………………...…. 97
Characteristics of Intellectual Knowledge…………………………..…... 101
Fields of Intellectual Knowledge……………………………………..…. 104
Conclusion………………………………………………………….…..... 108
CHAPTER FIVE: REVELATION…………………………………..….…… 110
Introduction …………...………………………………………….…….. 110
The Necessity of Revelation………………………………………..…… 110
Spiritual Needs……………………………………………….……. 112
Belief and Faith……………………………………………….…… 113
In Law…………………………………………………………..….. 114
Truth of Prophethood………………………………………………..…... 116
Historical background of Prophethood theories………………...….. 117
Ibn Khaldun’s Theory of Prophethood………………………………..… 124
Meaning of wahi……………………………………………….…...….… 131
The Procedure of wahi…………………………………………………… 133
Characteristics of Revelation……………………………………...……... 134
Divine Source…………………………………………………..…... 134
Stability and Comprehensiveness………………………………...… 136
Practicability…………………………………………….……...…... 137
Privacy……………………………………………………..…….…. 139
Fields of Revelation…………………………………………..…….…… 139
Conclusion…………………………………………………………...….. 142
CHAPTER SIX: INSPIRATION (Al- kashf)………………………..…......... 145
Introduction ……………………………………………………………… 145
Definition of Inspired Knowledge……………………………………….. 146
The Source of Inspired Knowledge………………………………...……. 152
Precondition For the State of Inspiration…………………………..…….. 152
Field of Inspired Knowledge……………………………………...……... 156
Criticism of Contemporary Sufism………………………………...…...... 159
Characteristics of Inspired Knowledge………………………………….. 162
Conclusion………………………………………………………...……... 164
CHAPTER SEVEN: SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE AND RESEARCH
METHOD……………………………………...………...
167
Introduction ………………………………………………….….……….. 167
Method of Analysis……………………………………………..………... 168
Procedure of Analysis…………………………………………………... 173
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Verifying events and reported stories aligned with the constitutive principles
underlying them.…………………………………….…...
176
Comparing events and reported stories with similar material….….… 180
Investigation by the yardstick of philosophy…………………….….. 181
Exploring intensely with the help of knowledge of what actually
exists in civilization…………………………………………….....…..
183
Probing profoundly through speculation and critical insight…………. 188
Conclusion…..……………………………………………………...……. 190
CHAPTER EIGHT: EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS………………… 192
Introduction…………………………………………………………..….. 192
Aims of Education………………………………………………….…..... 193
Formation of Mind…………………………………………………..….... 198
Learning Theories……………………………………………………....... 200
Curriculum Organization……………………………………………...…. 206
Teaching Methods……………………………………………………..… 214
General Conclusion...…………………………………………………..... 226
BIBLIOGRAPHY ………..……………………………………..……………… 229
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Page No.
3.1
Ventricles of human brain and location of internal senses
69
3.2 Ibn Khaldun’s Theory of sensual perception 79
4.1 Definition of Human Intellect 103
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND
Ibn Khaldun is one of the great Muslim scholars who had achieved prominence in
different parts of the world. In the east, Ali Al-Wardi, a well-known Iraqi professor
declares that Ibn Khaldun is one of the greatest thinkers in the world. His fame came
from being the first who studied the human community in a realistic manner1; and his
great creativity arose from the fact that he had managed to free himself from the old
logic and take for himself a new logic2. Mohammed Abid Al-Jabri, a Moroccan critic,
and a professor of philosophy and Islamic thought in Mohammed V University in
Rabat,points out that Ibn Khaldun is a real creative thinker who rationalizes the
Islamic history till his era; his attempt is truly unique not seen in the whole Islamic
legacy3.
In the west, George Sarton, a historian of science from Harvard University, did
not see him as” the greatest historian of the middle ages, towering like a giant over a
tribe of pygmies”4 but as “one of the first philosophers of history, a forerunner of
Machiavelli, Bodin, Vico, Comte and Cournot”5. Sarton believed that “among
Christian historians of the middle age there are but one or two whom we perhaps
compare to him, to wit, Otto von Freising and John of Salisbury, and the distance
between them and him is great indeed, far greater than the distance between him and
1 Ali Al-Wardi, Manṭiq Ibn Khaldūn (London: Dar Kufan, 1994), 11.
2 Ibid., 13.
3 Mohammed Abid AlJabiri, (Beirut: Markaz dirasat
al wahda alarabiya, 5th ed., 1992), 11. 4 George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, vol. III (Florida, USA: Robert E. Krieger
Publishing Company, 1975), Part III: 1262. 5 Ibid.
2
Vico”6. The British philosopher Robert Flint went further than this when he described
him "as a theorist on history he had no equal in any age… Plato, Aristotle and
Augustine were not his peers”7. For the British historian, Arnold Toynbee, Ibn
Khaldun was ‘the one outstanding personality’ of Islamic thought; he calls his
philosophy of history “the greatest work of its kind that has ever been created by any
mind in any time or place”8.
He has been a wide range theoretician and remarkably contributed and filled
the human life with great works in different fields; he excels in history, politics, law,
sociology, economy, philosophy and education. He is “a deep student of human
affairs, anxious to analyze the past of mankind in order to understand its present and
future”9. His works have been studied and analyzed by orientalists, historians, social
scientists and others who work in the interdisciplinary border areas between the
traditional academic subjects10
.
His fame is based on his scholarly book, the masterpiece which is of unrivalled
value, the Muqaddimah11
. Arnold Toynbee, in his book Growth of Civilizations,
classified it as “a piece of literature which can bear comparison with the work of a
Thucydides or the work of a Machiavelli for both breadth and profundity of vision as
well as for sheer intellectual power”12
. Saleh Faghirzadeh expresses his admiration for
the Muqaddimah and considers it “the most logical extraction of all human sciences
written at that time”13
. Mohammed A. Al-Jabri sees it as a pyramidal and unified
6 Ibid.
7 Michael Gerli, “Encyclopedia of Medieval Iberia” (New York: Routledge, 2003), 148.
8 Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History, vol. 3 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1962), 321.
9 George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, III:1262.
10 Ronald L. Nettler, “Theology in the Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun” (MA Thesis, McGill University,
1967)., 1. 11
Walter J. Fischel, Ibn Khaldun in Egypt, His Public Functions and Historical Research (1382-1406).
A Study in Islamic Historiography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967), 1. 12
Toynbee, A Study of History, 3. 13
Saleh Fagherzadeh, Sociology of Sociology, In Search of Ibn Khaldun’s Sociology Then and Now
3
construct and developed thought in its content14
. It provides a condensed version of
his ideas about various branches of knowledge during his time. It is composed of
encyclopedic knowledge about different domains. Charles Issawi confirms its
extensive coverage of various sciences and being of large scope by describing it as
“the most comprehensive synthesis in the human sciences ever achieved by the Arabs
and gives the modern non-specialist reader a vivid and accurate picture of the range of
knowledge available to the medieval Muslim world”15
.
Saleh Faghirzadeh believes that Ibn Khaldun’s Muqaddimah is the first book
“in which the science of Sociology emerged as an independent science and Ibn
Khaldun as a social thinker who made society the subject matter of a distinct
science16
. In sociology, Ibn Khaldun put theories that are all pearls of wisdom to the
extent that sociologists in particular frequently have claimed him as the precursor, if
not the founding father, of their discipline17
. James Conyers affirms that “Ibn Khaldun
has as much claim as any other one person to be called the Father of Sociology”18
.
Luduik Gumplowicz explains this claim and justifies by saying that “ long before
August Comte, even before Vico, whom the Italians regard as the first European
sociologist, an Islamic scholar ,Ibn Khaldun, studied, with accurate good sense of
moderation, the social phenomena and advanced highly valuable views on matter”19
.
Ibn Khaldun is the first to state and apply some basic principles, on which
(Tehran: the Soroush Press, 1982), 180. 14
Mohammed A. Al-Jabri, Al-Assabiya and the State in Ibn Khaldun’s Thought. (Beirut: Dar Attalia
Publisher, 1982), 118. 15
Charles Issawi, An Arab Philosophy of History. Selections from the Prolegomena of Ibn Khaldun of
Tunis (1332-1406) (London: John Murray publishers Ltd, 1969), 2. 16
Saleh Fagherzadeh, Sociology of Sociology, In Search of Ibn Khaldun’s Sociology Then and Now, 17. 17
Pitrim A. Sorokin, Charle C. Zimmerman and Charles J. Gaplin, A Systematic Book in Rural
Sociology (New York: Russel and Russel, 1969), 55. 18
James E. Conyers, “Ibn Khaldun: The Father of Sociology,” International Journal of Contemporary
Sociology 9, no. 4 (1972): 179. 19
Yazid Isa Soraty, “Ibn Khaldun’s Views on Man, Society and Education” (Ph.D Thesis, University of
Pittsburgh, 1985), 8.
4
sociology must rest. Charles Issawi studied and enumerated them in his book An Arab
philosophy of history as follows
First, those social phenomena seem to obey laws which are sufficiently
constant to cause social events to follow regular, well defined patterns
and sequences. Hence a grasp of these laws enables the sociologist to
understand the trend of events around him. Second, those laws operate
on masses and cannot be significantly influenced by isolated
individuals. Third, that these laws can be discovered only by gathering
large numbers of facts and observing concomitances and sequence.
Fourth, that much the same set of social laws operates in societies with
the same kind of structures, however much these societies may be
separated by space or time. Fifth, that societies are not static, that is to
say that social forms change and evolve. Lastly, that these laws are
sociological and not a mere reflection of biological impulses or physical
factors20
.
Ibn Khaldun’s Muqaddimah has also left an undisputedly remarkable mark on
modern economics21
by constructing “very fundamental analysis for modern
economics development”22
. Charles Issawi indicates that it was Ibn Khaldun’s views
on pure economics that have earned him the title of pioneer economist. He believes
that Ibn Khaldun’s modernity lies in part in the fact that more clearly than many
modern economists, “he saw the interrelation of political, social, economic, and
demographic factors”23
. James Conyers rightly suggests that “Ibn Khaldun should be
read in sociological theory courses along with some of the much, much later founders
or fathers of sociology (Comte, Marx, Spencer, Sumner, etc.) and given his proper
place in the field, i.e., the founder”24
.
J.D.C. Boulakia attributes the origin of the economic growth to Ibn
20
Charles Issawi, An Arab Philosophy of History. Selections from the Prolegomena of Ibn Khaldun of
Tunis (1332-1406), 7–9. 21
Mohammad Tahir Sabit Mohammad, “Principles of Sustainable Development in Ibn Khaldun
Economic Thought,” Malaysian Journal of Real Estate 5, no. 1 (2010): 5. 22
Irfan Syauqi Beik and Laily Dwi Arsyianti, “Ibn Khaldun’s Contribution on Modern Economics
Development:An Analysis Based on Selected Economic Issues”, n.d., 16,
http://www.uned.es/congreso-ibn-khaldun/pdf/06IrfanBeik.pdf. 23
Charles Issawi, An Arab Philosophy of History. Selections from the Prolegomena of Ibn Khaldun of
Tunis (1332-1406), 16. 24
James E. Conyers, “Ibn Khaldun: The Father of Sociology,” 180.
5
Khaldun25
while Mohammed Tahir affirms that Ibn Khaldun “preceded Adam Smith in
the theory of labor as a purchase price or commodity, Karl Marx in necessary and
surplus labor, and David Ricardo in arbitrarily choosing gold and silver as invariable
unit of measurement and as a commodity”26
. A.S. Soofi has confidence to assert that
“One of the most prominent contributions of Ibn Khaldun to economics is his theory
of income, expenditure, and multiplier which establishes Ibn Khaldun as a precursor
to Malthus, Khan, and Keynes”27
.
Besides, he has great contributions on the concepts of agriculture, demand and
supply, and price interdependence28
. A.S. Soofi listed a number of economic ideas
discussed in the Muqaddimah by this great Muslim scholar, Ibn Khaldun; they include
prices, growth, development, distribution, money, value, public finance, inflation,
business cycles, benefits of trade demand and rent29
. While Irfan Syauqi Beik
highlighted other economic ideas attributed to Ibn Khaldun in his Muqaddimah, they
are: “difference in two different countries as the basis for the existence of international
trade, people’s desire and government spending’ as ‘the variable affecting aggregate
demand, and product scarcity, and production cost’ as the variables affecting
aggregate supply”30
.
Not only was Ibn Khaldun recognized as a prominent sociologist or economist
but also as a pioneer historian. The Muqaddimah is still a source of reference;
25
J.D.C. Boulakia, “Ibn Khaldun: A fourteenth-Century Economist,” The Journal of Political Economy
79, no. 5 (1971): 1105–1118. 26
Mohammad Tahir Sabit Mohammad, “Principles of Sustainable Development in Ibn Khaldun
Economic Thought,” 5. 27
A.S. Soofi, “Economics of Ibn Khaldun Revisited,” History of Political Economy 27, no. 2 (1995):
387. 28
Irfan Syauqi Beik and Laily Dwi Arsyianti, “Ibn Khaldun’s Contribution on Modern Economics
Development:An Analysis Based on Selected Economic Issues,” 15. 29
A.S. Soofi, “Economics of Ibn Khaldun Revisited,” 387. 30
Irfan Syauqi Beik and Laily Dwi Arsyianti, “Ibn Khaldun’s Contribution on Modern Economics
Development:An Analysis Based on Selected Economic Issues,” 15.
6
incomparable in value by no other work specialized in the History subject31
.
Abdussalam Cheddadi highlighted the importance of Ibn Khaldun in historiography,
he says:
We can, without exaggeration, state that Ibn Khaldun is both the best
source of information for modern European historians working on North
Africa, and their theoretical guide. His periodisation of history, the main
problems he deals with and the global meaning he extracts from them
have had a decisive influence. In more general terms, whilst it is true
that his synthetic history of the Arab world as a whole has not really
been exploited, the Muqaddimah’s accounts of political and religious
institutions, of the emblems of power, of the history of the sciences and
of education have been exploited to the full. In a word, we can therefore
say that the modern history of Islam is enormously indebted to Ibn
Khaldun32
Grace Cairns believes that, in his great Muqaddimah, “Ibn Khaldun almost
four centuries before Vico explicitly calls history a science and a social science”33
.
Harry Elmer Barnes points out that Ibn Khaldun’s importance as a philosopher of
history lies in the fact that he rationalized the subject of history and reflected on its
method and purposes. Thus, he was the Roger Bacon of medieval historiography. He
believed that history should be a science and that of social development34
. That’s why
there is a “dispute between historians and sociologist for the honor of claiming him as
their own”35
.
George Sarton regards “Ibn Khaldun as the greatest theoretician of history, the
greatest philosopher of man’s experience, not only of the middle ages, but the whole
period extending from the time of the great classical historians down to that of
Machiavelli, Bodin, and Vico”36
. His historical approach is distinguished from utopia
31
Ibid., 2. 32
Abdesselam Cheddadi, “Recognising the Importance of Ibn Khaldun”, November 11, 2005, 10. 33
Grace Cairns, Philosophies of History (New York: Philosophical Library, 1962), 322. 34
Harry Elmer Barnes, A History of Historical Writing (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1962), 92. 35
Hyden V. White, “Ibn Khaldun in theWorld of Philosophy of History,” Comparative Studies in
Society and History 2, no. October,1959 (1959): 112. 36
Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, III:1262.
7
of the Greek philosophers whose ideal city is something rare and remote; and he
discussed it as a hypothesis37
, while Ibn Khaldun “always tried to show the relation or
the link between the economic, social, and political events through careful review,
examination, and analysis of historical events”38
.
Education is another main field discussed in Muqaddimah. Fahri Kayadibi
states that Ibn Khaldun’s “education-teaching views which shed light on current
educational systems and consequently provide a text from which we may take
benefit”39
. One of the most influential points of Ibn Khaldun's pedagogy is that “he
did not neglect to connect education and learning to both human psychology and to
the prevailing social conditions”40
.
He dissertated in a scientific way many other subjects and propositions:
philosophy, logic, physics, astronomy, astrology, alchemy and numerology. Ibn
Khaldun's influence on these subjects has remained paramount ever since his life. He
contributed and filled the Islamic life with great works in different fields. Rather, his
books have been translated into many languages, both in east and west, and have
inspired subsequent development of these sciences. These contributions in different
fields of knowledge confirm what some researchers claim that Ibn Khaldun’s strong
theoretical foundation and various sources of knowledge led him to his great works41
.
Many theses and publications were written to demonstrate Ibn Khaldun’s
presence, remarkable thoughts, and works42
. Despite the fact that he lived in the 14th
37
Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History (Princeton, N.J: Princeton University
Press, 2nd ed., 1967), II:137. 38
Irfan Syauqi Beik and Laily Dwi Arsyianti, “Ibn Khaldun’s Contribution on Modern Economics
Development:An Analysis Based on Selected Economic Issues,” 3. 39
Fahri Kayadibi, “Ibn Khaldoun and Education,” Http://www.monthly-
renaissance.com/issue/content.aspx?id=544, 2001. 40
A. M. Al-Araki, “Ibn Khaldun: Discourse of the Method and Concepts of Economic Sociology”,
1983, http://home.online.no/~al-araki/arabase2/ibn/khald0001.html. 41
Zaid Ahmad, Epistemology of Ibn Khaldun (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003), 2. 42
Mohammed Abid Al-Jabiri, , 3.
8
and 15th centuries, his thoughts are appropriate for discussion even today and have
become a source of scientific and political judgments43
.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Ibn Khaldun’s great works reflect his own personal philosophy; they provide “insights
into the workings of his mind”44
and they are a manifestation of a great theory of
knowledge. Some researchers attribute his famed works and theory of knowledge to
the fact that he was Ghazalian, while others claim that he was a Rushdian45
. It might
be perplexing in view of the fact that Al-Ghazali and IbnRushd were in opposition to
each other due to their philosophical orientation. Whilst Ibn Rushd was a passionate
follower of Aristotelian philosophy, Al-Ghazali was its bitterest opponent46
.
Although Ibn Khaldun has adopted from Al-Ghazali his hostility to the
Aristotelian logic, and has taken on the favorable attitudes of IbnRushd who indicated
that the masses' ways of life are worthy of being attentively taken care of by the
philosophers as against the dictation of their superior logic47
. In fact, Ibn Khaldun is
essentially different from both Al-Ghazali and Ibn Rushd. That is, despite the major
similarities between the inferences of Ibn Khaldun and Al-Ghazali, some foundations
for arguments used by Ibn Khaldun and the components upon which he established his
thought, over and above those conclusions arrived at in the name of philosophy, are
diverse from those of Al-Ghazali.
43
Taghi Azadarmaki, “Ibn Khaldun’s Social Theory and Iranian Society”, n.d., 2,
http://azadarmaki.ir/papers/en_ibn-khaldun.pdf. 44
Franz Rosenthal, “Translator’s Introduction,” in The Muqaddimah: an Introduction to History, vol. 1,
2nd ed. (Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1967), xxx. 45
Ali Husayn Al-Wardi, “Sociological Analysis of Ibn Khaldun’s Theory: A Study in the Sociology of
Knowledge” (Ph.D Thesis, University of Texas, 1950), 259. 46
Ibid., 260. 47
Ibid.
9
In his Shifa' al-sa'il, Ibn Khaldun answers the question as to whether it is
achievable to arrive at mystical knowledge without the help of a Sufi shaykh guiding
the learner along the path. Ibn Khaldun is inclined to follow Al-Ghazali in reconciling
mysticism with theology, but “he goes further than the latter in bringing mysticism
completely within the purview of the jurisprudent (faqih) and in developing a model
of the Sufi shaykh, or master, as rather similar to the theologian”48
. Indeed, Ibn
Khaldun here opposed the distinction made by Al-Ghazali between the jurisprudent
and the Sufi. Al-Ghazali was also an advocate of Sufism, though he argued that Sufi
experiences were outside the domain of jurisprudence, requiring a more expansive
gauge than the criteria employed by Islamic jurisprudence.
Again, in spite of the seeming resemblance between the efforts of Ibn Khaldun
and Ibn Rushd towards bifurcating the scopes of religion and philosophy49
Ibn
Khaldun criticized the notion of a hierarchy of being, according to which human
thought can be gradually cleansed until it goes completely around and comprehends
the first intellect which is identified with the God. He argued that “this process is
inconceivable without the participation of revelation, so that it is impossible for
human beings to achieve the highest level of understanding and happiness through the
use of reason alone”50
. The foundation of his argument here rests on the base that
logic cannot be applied to metaphysics and theology, because the empirical nature of
our knowledge of facts cannot be transferred into abstract and pure ideas at a higher
level of human consciousness51
.
48
Charles Issawi, An Arab Philosophy of History. Selections from the Prolegomena of Ibn Khaldun of
Tunis (1332-1406), 35. 49
Ömer Türker, “The Perception of Rational Sciences in the Muqaddimah: Ibn Khaldun’s Individual
Aptitude Theory,” Asian Journal of Social Science, no. 36 (2008): 466. 50
Charles Issawi, An Arab Philosophy of History. Selections from the Prolegomena of Ibn Khaldun of
Tunis (1332-1406), 36. 51
Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, III:251.
10
Logic, for Ibn Khaldun, is an instrument that cannot deal with different
realities directly, whether they exist in the mind or outside it or are external to these
two realms of existence52
. Logic, according to Ibn Khaldun, contributes to the
construction of different unreal metaphysical worlds and responsible directly or
indirectly for erroneous claims such as emanation theory, the concept of active
intellect53
and the claim that the heavenly spheres possess a soul and an intellect 54
– a
clear reference to the Neo-platonic view of reality popularized in Islam by Al-Farabi
and Ibn Sina.
Ibn Khaldun’s critique of the intellect is similar to great extent to Al-Ghazali’s,
both believe that the intellect cannot be trusted in acquiring metaphysical knowledge,
but Ibn Khaldun goes further than the latter in indicating that the intellect is incapable
of understanding the social and political issues as well55
. That’s why; Ibn Khaldun had
little respect for the social and political theories of some philosophers, with their ideas
of rational government due to the fact that they are founded on a rational ideal law. He
refused Al-Farabi’s ideal city as a simple hypothesis not worth arguing56
. For Ibn
Khaldun “the religious government is far more comprehensive than rational politics
and political utopianism”57
because “the lawgiver knows the ultimate interest of the
people and is concerned with the salvation of man in the other world”58
. Ibn Khaldun,
in addition, saw little point in using theories which dealt with ideals that have nothing
to do with the practicalities of life.
52
Ibid. 53
Ibid., III:254. 54
Ibid., III:253. 55
Ali Al-Wardi, Mant Ibn Khaldūn (London: Dar Kufan, 1994), 64. 56
Seyyed Hossien Nasr and Oliver Leaman, The History of Islamic Philosophy, vol. 1 (New York:
Routledge, 2002), I:359. 57
Ibid. 58
Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, II:138.
11
This solid position against the political philosophy can be anticipated from
such “an empiricist who is more interested in political reality as it was and as it is than
in what it ought to be ideally or in the future”59
. Epistemologically, instead of
depending merely upon the intellect in constructing social, political and historical
theories, Ibn Khaldun was a pioneer in subjecting historical data to the intellect and
social and physical laws. His position opened the gate for a unique approach integrates
the intellect and senses in new fields, i.e. sociology and history. It led him to discover
a new method of analysis and a new science- 'ilm al-'umran.
Unlike earlier philosophers or writers interpreting history mainly in a political
context, Ibn Khaldun adopted a method led him to the process of collecting empirical
facts to recognize and abstract patterns and relations between events to devise general
propositions and laws. He called attention to environmental, sociological, and
economic factors directing the visible events. In this context, he provided an analytical
study of human civilization, its beginning, factors contributing to its development and
the causes of decline. Ibn Khaldun's exceptional approach and unusual contribution
became a masterpiece in literature on philosophy of history and sociology. It revealed
most clearly both his insightfulness and the uniqueness that distinguish him from his
Muslim predecessors.
A theory of knowledge of a man of mastermind such as Ibn Khaldun which
can easily combine diverse trends and come up with new ideas and insights,
really deserve our appreciation and direct attention. Researches, however, have not
served enough to highlight his own theory of knowledge; few of them bring it up and
his epistemological background which led him craftily to write his great works in
different branches of science. Ibn Khaldun’s theory of knowledge is noteworthy; its
59
Seyyed Hossien Nasr and Oliver Leaman, The History of Islamic Philosophy, 1: I: 359.
12
excellence is not constrained only in referring to different sources of knowledge, but
rather creating new fields of investigation for these sources and investing them to
formulate new theories and applications60
. His deep thinking, within his relationship
with the past, with his present, and with the future of human civilization61
reflects a
distinguished theory of knowledge that holds different times, and aims happiness in
this life and hereafter62
. Due to the fact that although he lived during the 14th century
his thoughts, based on various sources of knowledge, still manage to shed light on
events of current times. His ideas have not lost their relevance despite the passing of
time63
.
Nowadays, Muslims face many crises. One of the most serious crises is the
crisis of undermining the epistemological and theoretical foundation of Muslim
intellect due to different factors, most crucially is the intellectual invasion of Muslims
by the western theories of knowledge in the past two centuries64
. Thus alien
intellectual trends had appeared among some affiliates to Islam who were responsible
for disseminating many issues and ideas contradicting Islamic faith and thought.
Those affiliates to Islam were faded shadows of the west by adopting the western
theories of knowledge as the unique way of salvation for the Islamic nation from its
present situation65
. They followed different approaches to preach their alien ideas;
they sometimes used the Islamic heritage by focusing on the theory of knowledge of
the philosophers of the Abbasid era, which stranded the mind away from the text of
60
- īr,” in Ibn Khaldun Wa Alfikr Alarabi
Almu’asir (Cairo: Dar al-’Arabiyah lil-Kutub, 1982), 68. 61
Melhem Korban, Khaldūniyyāt. -ma’rifah Fī Muqaddimat Ibn Khaldūn: Dirāsāt
Manhajiyyah Nāqidah Fī Al’ijtima’ Al-siyāsī (Bayrut: Mu’assasah al-Jami’iyah, 1985), 10. 62
’Imad al-Din Khalil, Ibn Khaldūn ’Islāmiyyān (Beirut: Dar Ibn Kathir, 2005), 19–20. 63
Fahri Kayadibi, “Ibn Khaldoun and Education,” Http://www.monthly-
renaissance.com/issue/content.aspx?id=544, 2001. 64
The intellectual crisis had developed during the western occupation of Muslim countries in the last
two centuries. 65
AbdulRahman Al-Zunaidi, -ma’rifah Fī Al-fikr Al-dīnī Wa-al-falsafī: Dirāsah
-Islam (alriyadh: maktabat almo’ayyad, 1992), 20.