CH 1- CLIMATE OF INDIAFACTORS :-

HIMALAYAS SEAS WINDS LATITUDNAL POSITION ALTITUDE JET STREAMS RELIEF FEATURES – W. GHATS

FEATURES OF INDIAN CLIMATE : -

TROPICAL MONSOON CLIMATE DIVERSITY IN CCIMATIC CONDITIONS MONSOON MECHANISM FOUR DISTINCT SEASONS BAY CYCLONES OR TROPICAL DEPRESSIONS IN LATE MONSOON WINTER RAINFALL DUE TO W. DISTURBANCES

FEATURES OF MONSOON : -

UNEVENLY DISTRIBUTED ERRATIC UNCERTAIN UNRELIABLE

LOW RAINFALL : JAMMU, RAJASTHAN

PLACES OF MODERATE RAINFALL : CHATTISGARH, TAMIL NADU

HIGH RAINFALL : KERALA, MEGHALAYA, N. EAST, W. GHATS

MARCH TO MAY – HOT AND DRY SUMMER

Low pressure High temp. in northern parts away from sea Rivers, wells dry up

Dust storms – Punjab, Haryana, U.P. – loo Torrential rainfall due to high speed wind in w. Bengal & Assam –

kalbaisakhi High speed hot winds

JUNE TO SEPTEMBER – RAINY MONSOON

Low pressure attracting monsoon laden wind from surrounding sea Uneven rainfall Bay of Bengal branch : Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, U.P., W. Bengal Arabian sea branch : Maharashtra, Kerala, Karnataka, Orissa

OCTOBER TO NOVEMBER – RETREATING MONSOON

High pressure Dry retreating winds Clear skies and dry atmosphere October heat Low humidity Oppressive weather Tamil Nadu Andhra Pradesh – highest rainfall due to cyclones originating

in Bay of Bengal

DECEMBER TO FEBRUARY – COLD AND DRY WINTER

Low temp in north then south Clear skies Cool weather , light breeze High pressure No rains in S. W. disturbances cause rainfall in Punjab and Haryana, good for wheat and

barley Snowfall in Himalayas

CH – 2 soils in india

Soil – thin surface layer of earth, comprising mineral particles formed by weathering of rocks

Ex situ soil – transported – alluvial soil

In situ soil – found where formed – laterite, red, black/regur soil

ALLUVIAL SOIL

Transported by rivers as silt Rich in potash, humus and lime & deficient in lime On banks of Indus & tributaries, Ganga & tributaries Godavari & Krishna – mixed with regur – dark yellow and grayish in colour Punjab, Haryana, U.P. & Bihar – yellow in colour Bhangar – old – light grey Khadar – new – non porous, clayey & loamy - yellowish Crops – jute & rice

BLACK SOIL

Volcanic origin Deccan trap Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra Disintegration of basalt rich in potash, humus and lime Deep, fine grained and black to chestnut brown in colour Moisture retentive – sticky when wet & forms cracks when dry Crops – cotton & wheat

RED SOIL

Weathering of crystalline and metamorphic rocks Tamil nadu, Karnataka & Andhra Pradesh Red in colour , high iron oxide Deficient in nitrogen, lime, phosphorous & humus – rich in potash Crops – wheat rice millets

LATERITE SOIL

Leaching of lateritic rocks

Building material due to poor quality Unsuitable for cultivation Goa and kerala & malwa plateau Poor in nitrogen & lime High acidity can’t retain moisture Crops – cashew nut and tapioca

SOIL EROSION – removal of upper fertile layer by agents of denudation

CAUSES

Water – sheet erosion – gully erosion Human – deforestation Over grazing by cattle Wind Improper farming techniques

EFFECTS

Loosening of soil Landslides & flash floods Leads to unproductive soil – poor crop yield

METHODS TO PREVENT

Strip cropping and terrace farming Add organic matter, grow leguminous plants & crop rotation Af afforestation planting of shelter belts of trees Contour ploughing and contour binding Watershed management

CH 3 – NATURAL VEGETATION OF INDIA

Natural vegetation is that which grows without human interference and adopts itself to environment.

FACTORS

Rainfall Temperature Soil Topography – altitude and latitude

TROPICAL EVERGREEN FOREST

200 cm of rainfall 24° C to 27°C Diff. trees germinate & wither @ different times Dense trees, climbers & epiphytes Dark floor as no sunlight penetrates Trees not in pure stand Rosewood, ebony, shisham – making furniture – Andaman & nicobar

islands, assam, Meghalaya & Tripura

TROPICAL DECIDOUS/ MONSOON FORESTS

100 – 200 cm of rainfall Shed leaves in hot weather Pure strands of trees Economically most imp. & most exploited Sal – furniture Teak – ship building Sandalwood – handicrafts – Karnataka, m.p. chattisgarh Semal – toys, matchboxes Myrobalan – for dyeing clothes and tanning leather

TROPICAL DRY

Less than 25 cm of rainfall 25°c to 27° c Trees – long roots, small leaves & thorns

Babul – gum & its barks – tanning skin Kikar, acacias,thorny bushes Rajasthan, kutch & saurashtra in Gujarat

TIDAL/DELTA FORESTS

Dense & impenetrable Roots out in air during low tide Tangled root system Deltas of ganga. Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari Glossy leaves W. Bengal, Andhra Pradesh Sundari – hard, making boats Gorjan & hintal – source of fuel wood

MOUNTAIN FORESTS

Mountain area – Kashmir to assam Vegetation deciduous & coniferous Depending on elevation & rainfall Himachal – coniferous, taiga – Christmas tree – wood pulp – paper Himadri – tundra – moses & lichens Shivalik – deciduous Chir pine – extraction of resins and turpentine Silver fir – matches, paper Deodar – railway sleepers & house construction Kashmir, himachal Pradesh

FOREST CONSERVATION

Check deforestation Prevent overgrazing Reforestation Shifting cultivation needs to be controlled

CH 4 WATER RESOURCES OF INDIA

Irrigation is key to india’s agricultural success :

Uneven distribution of rainfall Seasonal rainfall India’s agricultural season extends over winter Indian monsoon – uncertain Diff. water requirements

METHODS

WELLS - n. plains – UP, Punjab & Rajasthan

By digging hole in ground till water table (manually) Requirements – high water table – permeable rocks – soft soil Cheapest & simplest source of irrigation Disadvantages – dry up during summer – can water limited land – time

consuming – brackish water Modern – perennial lined wells – covered – dug till permanent source (using

machines)

TANK IRRIGATION = peninsular plateau – Andhra Pradesh & tamil nadu – natural depressions – hard rocks

Constructing walls across a depression Requirements - ground should be rocky Disadvantages – silting of tanks, dry during summer, occupy large area

TUBE WELLS – U.P. Bihar

Deep bore dug & water is lifted with electricity Requirements –groundwater close to surface and plenty, regular supply of

cheap electricity, region must be fertile

MULTI PURPOSE PROJECTS

BHAKRA NANGAL dam – satluj – highest dam in asia – Punjab, Haryana & rajasthan – govind sagar lake

DAMODAR VALLEY CORPORATION – damodar – first multi pu…project after independence

HIRAKUND dam – Mahanadi – largest dam in india – Orissa

Rihand dam – rihand river – tributary of son – largest lake reservoir – govind ballab pant sagar lake – bihar

Tungabhadra - largest no. of canals – Andhra Pradesh & Karnataka – two irrigation canal on both sides – across Tungabhadra – a tributary of Krishna

IMPORTANCE

To store water To generate electricity To control floods To provide drinking water To develop pisciculture & recreational centres

WATERSHED development – an imp. Method to conserve water, increase agriculture & stop env. Degradation.

Rain water harvesting – it is a technique of increasing the recharge of ground water by capturing & storing rainwater.

Objectives –

Meet demands of water Improve groundwater quality Reduce soil erosion Avoid flooding of roads Reduce surface run-off

EG: roof water harvesting, hand pumps, recharge through stop-dams on small streams.

CH 5 MINERALS IN INDIA

COAL

Basic source of energy Production of chemicals, dyes, fertilizers and paints Steel industries By products – benzol, ammonia, naptha and sulphur

4 TYPES:

Anthracite – 90 – 95 % - jet black Bituminous – 60 – 75 % - dark brown – domestic uses Lignite – 40 – 50 % - brown Peat – below 30 % - light brown

PROBLEMS

Medium quality – more ash & smoke – water logging – fire accidents

GONDWANA – old– W. Bengal – ranigunj – oldest – Jharkhand – Jharia – largest – bokaro

TERTIARY – Kashmir – riasi – assam – lakhimpur

PETROLEUM

Source of power and fuel Generation of power By products – kerosene, tar and lubricants Assam – digboi – oldest Gujarat – ankleshwar Mumbai high – largest

IRON ORE

Production of iron & steel Used in transport, building dams & bridges Most - hematite and magnetite limonite – poorest, hematite – 68% iron Orissa – keonjarh, mayurbhanj Jharkhand – singbhum Goa – netarlim, burgadongar

Maharashtra – chandrapur Main importer – japan, iran & china

MANGANESE

Used in making iron & steel Raw material for paint & glass Japan – main importer – usa, uk Orissa – sundergarh, koraput Karnataka – bellary, chitradurg Madhya Pradesh(most) – balaghat

BAUXITE

Raw material for aluminium Making of machines & tools Making utensils Aircraft industry Orissa, Jharkhand

LIMESTONE

Used in chemicals, iron and steel, cement, glass & fertilizers Chattisgarh & Madhya Pradesh

CH 6 agriculture in india SUBSISTENCE FARMING

Farming for farmer to consume – small sized land – more manual labour – no machines – mostly food crops – double cropping, crop rotation & multiple cropping

JHUMMING, SHIFTING AGRICULTURE

Slash and burn, low quality seed, less production, improper cultivation, ecological balance disturbed, crops left to grow on their own & no irrigation or fertilization is provided

INTENSIVE COMMERCIAL FARMING

Small sized fields, more labour & scientific method to make soil more productive, use of hybrid seeds, mostly food crops.

EXTENSIVE COMMERCIAL FARMING

Big fields, machines, cash crops, sparsely populated areas with ample of land. product only for sale

MIXED FARMING

Animal rearing along with crops/livestock raising – largest no. of cattle in world – india – modern machinery & good seeds are used

PLANTATION FARMING

Predominance of single crop with some other crops – only once plantation – yield many years – scientifically managed crops only for sale

PROBLEMS

More than 60% farming dependent on monsoon Farmers – conservative, illiterate & poor Soil erosion – increased soil infertility Farmers indebted – can’t afford new machines

SOLUTION

Improving farmer’s health & lifestyle Preventing fragmentation Irrigation Educating farmers

FOOD CROPS

Cereals – collective term for all kinds of grass like plants having starchy, edible seeds.

CROPS °C RAINFALL

SOIL STATES EXTRA INFO

RICE 22-32

150-300CM

ALLUVIAL

TAMIL NADU, ANDHRA

PRADESH & W. BENGAL

HARVESTING THRESHINGHAND POUNDING

POLISHING

WHEAT 10-15

50-100CM ALLUVIAL

PUNJAB,HARYANA

RUST & SMUT

MILLETS

27-32

50-120CM ALL JOWAR – U.P. HARYANA

BAJRA – GUJ, MAHARASHTR

ARAGI –

KARNATAKA, ANDHRA

PULSES ALL

ALL ALL PUNJAB,HARYANA

PEAS, BEANS, LENTILS, MOONG,MASOOR,TOOR,UR

AD

CASH CROPS

OIL SEEDS

15°C - 25°C 150 – 200 CM RAINFALL

BLACK SOIL ALLUVIAL SOIL ANYCOTTONSEED SESAME SAFFLOWERGROUNDNUT LINT(non edible) CASTOR(non edible)SOYABEAN RAPE & MUSTARD

Oilcake – by product of oil seeds.oil is extracted from oil seeds and residue is termed ‘oilcake’.

Advantages of oilseeds : - generate employment, - earns foreign exchange Uses – seasoning of food, preservatives in pickles etc, oilcake as fodder &

manure, lubricants for machinery, in paints, inks, dyes.

CROP °C RAINFALL SOIL STATECOTTON 20 – 30 50 – 120 BLACK GUJARAT

MAHARASHTRAJUTE 25 -35 150 – 200 ALLUVIAL W. BENGAL,

GANGA BRAMAPUTRA

DELTARUBBER 25 - 35 175 – 300 RED /

LATERITEKERALA,

KARNATAKASUGAR CANE

20 – 30 100 – 200 ALLUVIAL PUNJABHARYANA

TEA 10 -20 150 – 250 RED / LATERITE

ASSAM, KERALA

COFFEE 20 – 30 125 – 200 RED / LATERITE

KERALA, KARNATAKA

BEVERAGE CROPS

TEA

Plantation crop – largest producer india Types Black Green – steaming leaves in vats – crushed & dried – no fermentation Oolong –partial fermentation of leaves Sowing seeds in nursery , 9 -12 months, transplanted to tea estates, cutting

taken from mother plant for better quality and grown into tiny shrubs – plucking early morning. For finest quality, two leaves and a bud are plucked. This is fine plucking. Flush – new bud on the shoot of a tea plant.

Withering – to reduce moisture, air is blown Rolling – twist leaves to expose their juice for fermentation Fermentation Firing or drying Tasting & blending Export – Kolkata CTC machine – crushing, tearing & curling

COFFEE

Arabica Robusta Liberica Shrub with glossy, evergreen leaves & white flowers/ Shelter belts are provided Wet or Parchment method – removal of skin, pulping, fermenting, washing

& drying Dry or native method – covering is removed by drying in sun – pounded to

remove outer covering – colour, flavour & taste are result of roasting

FIBRE CROPS

COTTON

Short staple – less than 2.2cm Medium staple – 2.2. to 2.8 cm Long staple – above 2.8 cm Ginning – separation of seeds and short fibres fromraw lint. Abundant sunshine during ripening & plucking Manual labour Sowing – broadcasting Boll worm & boll weevils Problems – frost destroys the crop, rain only during early growing period,

cloudy weather, pests

JUTE

Manual labour Clear soft water Jute mites stalks are cut near roots and then tied in bundles and steeped until outer bark

begins to rot. This is termed as ‘retting’. Retting – soaking of stalks to remove fibre from bark Rinsing Washing Cleaning Drying

Problems – stiff competition in intl. market.

COMMERCIAL CROPS

RUBBER

Coagulated sticky milk or latex of rubber tree Hold air, keeps moisture out, conducts electricity Cheap skilled labour required for tapping Insertion of strip of bark containing bud from high yielding clons under bark

till they unite in 3 – 4 weeks. The old seedling stem is then cut off below grafted bud, which grows into new rubber plant.

Cover crops Tapping – collecting latex from rubber plant Coagulation – remove impurity by adding chemicals Rolling – to remove water Drying

Crepe – dried in shade – white Smoke – smoke is supplied – ting of pink Vulcanized – instant, cut into pieces, pink

SUGARCANE

Tall, perennial Sugar cane is divided into internodes connected by joints called nodes. Each

node has a bud. Monoculture crop Dry season for harvesting More labour