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THE PEDAGOGICAL PRESS AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF HIGH
SCHOOL TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY (WITHIN THE
CONTEXT OF THE PORTUGUESE NEW STATE)
Joaquim PintassilgoFaculdade de Ciências da Universidade de LisboaCentro de Investigação em Educação
Paper presented at the European Conference on Educational Research, University of Lisbon, 11-
14 September 2002
This paper aims to study the role of the pedagogical press produced by teachers
regarding the construction of their professional identity and at the same time to analyse
some of their main demonstrations as far as teachers’ representations are concerned.
The context is that of the Salazarist New State, with the difficulties it presents as regards
the assertion of the teaching profession, in view of the tight control the political power
kept over teachers. Our main source is a sequence of about twenty articles on the
teaching profession and teacher training, published in the 50s and 60s in the journal
Labor, practically all of which were produced by high school teachers. Specifically, we
shall attempt to grasp the rebirth of the concerns regarding the teaching profession, so
evident at that time, along with the quantitative expansion of high school teaching.
Labor came to life through a group of teachers of the Aveiro High School,
having first been published in 1926, just before the establishment of the Military
Dictatorship that would lead to the New State. In its early stage, the journal played an
important role in the teachers’ associative movement, which in turn would lead to the
high school teaching congresses. Labor’s publication was interrupted twice – once,
briefly, between 1931 and 1932, another time for about 11 years, between 1940 and
1951. It would only stop being published in 1973, when the April 25th Revolution in
1974 was about to take place, having thus accompanied a substantial part of Portuguese
history during the Salazarist period and also witnessed high school teachers’ fight for
the dignity of their profession (Nóvoa, 1993a).
1
The present analysis will focus on the last phase of Labor’s life (1951-1973),
with the exception, due to its peculiarity, of a short period already in the 70s, in view of
the fact that this period covers the paradoxical context of the Veiga Simão Reform,
during which a return to teachers’ associative movement was evident. Thus, the
hypothesis underlying our work is that over those twenty-odd years, Labor assumed a
decisive role in high school teachers’ socialisation in the beliefs and values that are
inherent to the teaching activity. Its pages contributed to make public a set of ideas and
practices related to a good professional performance, and sharing such ideas and
practices was decisive in enhancing the feeling of belonging to one and the same
symbolic community.
We shall base our analysis on the discourses produced by teachers and for
teachers, in an attempt to understand the representations conveyed in this manner about
the profession and about the teaching activity, in order to sketch a portrayal of a “good
high school teacher” in the 50s and 60s, i.e. in the heyday of the New State. The
reflections included in the articles that form our documental corpus were most certainly
assumed by the more conscientious members of the class and incorporated in their
professional patrimony.
1. The New State and the teachers: to adhere or to criticise?
From the writings included in Labor, we can infer that there was a certain
ambiguity in the relation between teachers and the authoritarian regime. First of all, it is
convenient to remember the following. One of the consequences of the process of
construction of the teaching profession was that teachers were placed under the State’s
tutorship, which resulted in a historical ambivalence regarding the relation between the
two terms of the binomial – autonomy and control. This was visible throughout the
whole process, but it became much more so under the Salazarist regime, during which
there was a constant effort by the political power to control teachers’ work and lives, a
fact that definitely contributed to a certain discredit of the teaching activity (Nóvoa,
1993b).
2
The High School Statute (1947), a key element of the high school reform then
carried out, tried to bestow upon teachers a political and ideological function, assigning
to them, among others, the duties of “collaborating in the realisation of the higher aims
of the State and the defence of the political and social principles established in the
Constitution”, and also of “respecting the Catholic conscience of the Nation and the
Christian nature inherent to high school teaching” (Reforma e Estatuto..., 1947, pp.103-
104).
However, this role of regulation and control on the part of the State did not make all
teachers conform to a total heteronomy nor fully accept their role as agents in the
normalisation of thought and behaviour in the view of the established power. In fact,
some teachers tried to assume the role of “organic intellectuals” of the regime,
contributing to the dissemination of Salazarist values; several others, however, put up
some form of ‘resistance’, for instance through the attempt to create some – albeit
limited – autonomy.
Up to a point, this ambiguity we find in the teachers’ discourses made public
through the journal Labor is natural, not least because, in such a context of political
censorship, while maintaining a certain degree of independence concerning the ruling
power, the journal could not openly assume itself as a clear opponent to this regime,
under risk of jeopardising its continuity. This necessary balance the journal tries to
keep, along with the desire to unite the teaching class around a minimally consensual
pedagogical ideal, is what gives it a certain pluralistic nature, that characterises it so
well throughout almost half a century and that probably guaranteed its longevity.
In other words, it is possible to find in Labor articles clearly in line with the
Salazarist ideology, such as one written by Virgílio de Lemos, a teacher of the Vila
Nova de Gaia High School, in which he pointed out the ground-breaking characteristic
of the “ethical and political doctrine of the New State, of which the trilogy God, Nation
and Family remains an attractive slogan”. The same author refers to the Colonial War,
begun in Angola in 1961, as “the war that was imposed upon us by the overseas
provinces”, and states it is a “war we must, above all, yield to and later win” (Lemos,
1967, Novembro, p.99). In another article, Virgílio de Lemos carries out a deep
reflection upon the necessary political framing of the Training period’s activities:
“During the Training period the State’s future teachers should undergo specific training
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by the State, for they judge and decide in the name of the State and, as civil servants and
permanent workers towards the Common Good, they need to have the mystique of the
State” (Lemos, 1968, Junho, pp.462-463).
Another author, José Bettencourt, who taught at an overseas high school – the Diogo
Cão High School –, suggests that high school students should be “educated in an
atmosphere of tradition, of national feeling, developing in them the love for their
country” (Bettencourt, 1960, Abril, p.486). What is curious is that this conservative
discourse is assumed coupled with innovative pedagogical proposals such as Virgílio de
Lemos presents, and this brings up the complexity of people and situations in a real
context, and the impossibility of reducing them to simple or linear formulas.
Among those included in our documental corpus, the article that naturally assumes a
more critical stance is written by the well-known pedagogue Delfim Santos (Belo,
1999) and deals with the problem of teacher training. Referring to some of the
educational measures of the New State, such as the extinction of the Society of
Pedagogical Studies, the (temporary) withdrawal of the Statute of Teacher-Training
from the Pedro Nunes High School and the devaluation of the Section of Pedagogical
Sciences belonging to the School of Arts of the Lisbon University, Delfim Santos
regards these measures as meaning “the full subordination of the pedagogic to the
administrative”. The author comments on the exams then in force, pointing out that they
show “the failure of teaching, the absurdity of the methods, the fabrication of the
results”. He concludes with some pessimism: “But things have gone so far, the
desolation of the so-called national pedagogy has persisted for so long” (Santos, 1958,
Junho, pp.657 e 659).
However, the performance of the minister then in power, Francisco Leite Pinto
(1955-1961) seems to generate some hope – which is evident in this and other articles -,
he being usually considered one of the members of the technocratic wing of the regime
and a strong supporter of the modernisation of the educational system in connection
with the needs posed by the economic development (Teodoro, 2001). Delfim Santos
symptomatically concludes his article “with a word of hope backed up by the interest
the Minister of National Education is showing in what we have roughly sketched”
(Santos, 1958, Junho, p.671). Such a word of hope is justified by his admission that he
4
has been asked to co-operate in the reform of the educational system. That hope,
however, will not be accomplished at this stage.
As for the intellectual and pedagogic atmosphere of the late fifties, which actually
coincided with the political activities caused by Humberto Delgado’s presidential
campaign (the first serious threat to the regime), Carlos Montenegro Miguel, a teacher
at the Military School, uses a few examples as grounds to state that “It seems that a
breath of fresh air has animated the monotonous landscape of this land and men are
beginning to understand the need for dialogue” (Miguel 1959, Março, p.375). Before
long, the hardening of the regime and particularly the context ensuing from the start of
the Colonial War will frustrate the hopes of those who believed in the possibilities of a
pedagogic and cultural renovation.
2. The belief in the value of education, in the role of the teacher and in the
student-person
One of the aspects that are common to the various discourses produced by teachers
is the belief in the vital importance of the role of education, and especially of the school
in terms of a simultaneous improvement of the student-person and of the quality of
social life. In this respect, teachers’ ideas continue to display an enlightened manner of
regarding education (Pintassilgo, 1998). One of the most emphatic followers of this
reasoning is José A. Teixeira, a teacher at the Camões High School and also director of
the journal Labor: “Without education there can be no human greatness” (Teixeira,
1957, Outubro, p.8). Assertions voiced by Manuel da Conceição Pires, a teacher at the
Ponta Delgada High School, point in the same direction: “Education is thus the first tool
of the life and the valuation of a people”. In the case of the latter author, the important
role played by high school teaching is justified by the fact that these establishments –
high schools – are “the nursery of the leading elite” (Pires, 1964, Maio, p.652). In this
case, the assumption of a traditional concept, as far as the purposes of this area of
secondary education are concerned, is quite clear: to form elites, paving the way for
their access to university.
5
The prospective dimension contained in the optimistic look upon the potential of
school education is particularly well expressed by Delfim Santos, when he claims the
school is like “a workshop where tomorrow’s men get their education” (Santos, 1958,
Junho, p.662), a formula that accounts for the socially productive role of the school. In
some texts, there are also expressions of typical ideas of the post-2nd World War era in
which these authors live, such as those associating schooling and economic
development, anticipating the theories of “human capital” that emerge shortly after
among us (Teodoro, 2001). The aforementioned author M. C. Pires, after seeing how
“far behind we are”, becomes the spokesman of that theory: “Therefore, education and
economy walk hand in hand, as if they were the spirit and body of a nation, like two
inseparable aspects of the same social unit” (Pires, 1955, Março, p.464).
This belief in school education is in tune with the respect for the student-person, an
idea shown in several articles and deriving from the diffused presence, in teachers’
discourses, of certain commonplaces of the New Education (Candeias, Nóvoa, &
Figueira, 1995). In the opinion of Delfim Santos – then a university professor who had
begun his career teaching in high school -, “the school, and within it the teacher, must
serve the student”, for which purpose they “must adapt to him/her”; the main goal of
their activity is “the child they are educating” (Santos, 1958, Junho, pp.669 e 661). This
opinion is definitely shared by various authors. Once again according to M. C. Pires, the
teacher’s mission regarding the students is to “develop their personality” and in order to
do so the teacher must “respect the students’ rights” (Pires, 1955, Março, p.449).
Thus, getting to know the student becomes “essential in the pedagogic act” (Santos,
1958, Junho, p.661). For this, it is necessary, on the one hand, to acknowledge that the
high school student “is not an adult” and “cannot and should not be treated as an adult”
(Pires, 1955, Março, p.449). On the other hand, one cannot talk “about the child with a
sense of generality that doesn’t exist. Ten years of age do not have the same
implications for Pedagogy as seventeen or eighteen” (Teixeira, 1959, Janeiro, p.248),
and the “psychological frame of the child’s evolution” should be taken into account
(Pires, 1955, Março, p.449).
3. Understanding the teacher as a professional of teaching
6
In this context, we do not view the idea of profession as an abstract ideal to be
reached, but as a social and historical construction, through which several components
were gradually incorporated, at different moments and with different intensities. Among
these we may point out the exercise of competencies based on a solid ground of
knowledge; a relatively long educational path leading to a certification; the belief in the
high social function of this activity; a relative autonomy regarding its performance; and
also a process of socialisation in certain values and rules of behaviour, sometimes
systematised in the shape of a code of conduct (Perkin, 1987; Sockett, 1987).
We do not intend to discuss in this paper the adequacy (or lack of it) of the teaching
profession to the features previously mentioned. It is our belief that now it is even
possible to overcome the polemic character of the concept of profession, while keeping
in mind the ambiguity and paradoxical character that define certain aspects of the
teaching activity, now as before, and that lead to the use of notions such as de-
professionalization, proletarianization, and so on.
Viewed as a historical project, professionalization is something we can intuit from
the teachers’ discourses when they write in the pages of the journal Labor during the
50s and 60s, for it is a notion that visibly contributes to the valuation of the teaching
activity. According to the teacher Abílio Alves Perfeito, of the D. João III Teacher-
Training High School of Coimbra, “the high school teacher should be a teacher
structurally … I think that to teach classes and rush out of school is a pseudo-
understanding of the teaching profession” (Perfeito, 1959, Março, p.374). The writer
Mário Dionísio, then a teacher at the Camões High School, is even more explicit when
he refers to the professional socialisation offered by the training period: “The two years
of training should – just through the thousand real cases of everyday life at school –
create in the future teacher the conscience of the greatness of the task he/she is destined
for and that this … is a profession and not a job” (Dionísio, 1959, Março, p.390).
Referring to the Pedro Nunes Teacher-Training High School teachers, the ex-
Headmaster Francisco Dias Agudo states the following: “The teachers of this High
School, to a large extent … have a specific preparation of their own, they are
professionals” (Liceu Normal..., 1967, Outubro, p.50). One of the implications of this
statement is the idea that teachers are the true specialists of the educational act, those
who detain such knowledge that allows them to scientifically found their activity. As
7
Mário Dionísio says: “Specialists who, naturally, only after becoming such, may
integrate a culture specialized in new specializations, that they lack, such as pedagogy
and the practice of teaching” (Dionísio, 1959, Março, p.389).
Sometimes the image of the teacher as a professional of teaching as opposed to that
of a civil service professional comes up – something rather strange in a country like
Portugal, where the process of transformation of teachers into civil servants was
relatively premature and an inseparable part not only of the structuring of the modern
State, but also of the construction of the teaching system and of teacher education
(Nóvoa, 1987). Normally supported by the teachers themselves, this situation illustrates
the ambiguity that has always marked the teaching profession in this respect: civil
servants, but aspiring to reach the statute of intellectuals by means of their social
function; asserting their statute as professionals, but assuming amateur practices in their
teaching activities. This produces contradictory profiles (Pintassilgo, 2002).
Let us take a look at some examples. When defending teachers’ “updating” and
“professional improvement” – common to all professions -, José A. Teixeira
exemplifies with what a teacher should not be – a “bored civil servant sitting at his
desk” (Teixeira, 1953, Janeiro, pp.222-223). Delfim Santos’ ideas are similar, as he
considers that teachers become “teaching civil servants” when they regard themselves
as mere “administrators of the knowledge that corresponds to the programmes’ items”
(Santos, 1958, Junho, p.658). Mário Dionísio voices a similar opinion, when he regards
these teachers as a “huge chorus mechanically reciting the programmes’ contents, for
whom school life only has two happy moments: the bell at the end of the day and the
thought of the holidays” (Dionísio, 1959, Março, p.392). Virgílio de Lemos, in an
article defending benefits for high school temporary teachers, declares: “What is
necessary is to defend intellectuals” (Lemos, 1967, Novembro, p.99), considering
teachers as such.
As intellectuals, teachers are assigned a mission, a high social ideal. The thing that
unites teachers as professionals is that they all are “champions of the same ideal of
education for youth” (Sampaio, 1964, Junho, p.690). According to Delfim Santos, “the
most important mission [for the teacher] to develop in his students” is “to promote their
development”, contributing for the “shaping of [their] personality” (Santos, 1958,
Junho, pp.663 e 658-659).
8
Hence the close link between the notions of teacher and educator that the texts
present. José A. Teixeira considers that for the teacher, being an educator means being
capable of “conducting, guiding, meditating, promoting love among people”, thus
yielding “to the cult of the most noble part of human nature – the spirit”. He concludes
with some scepticism: “Only the educator can shape characters. But how many
educators are there in the thousands of civil servant teachers the State counts on?”
(Teixeira, 1957, Outubro, p.9).
The transcendence of the teacher’s mission is responsible for the analogy some
authors draw with priesthood. Fernando Carvalho Conceição is one such author, in a
text where he also criticises the traditional duplicity of the official discourse about
teachers, while simultaneously asserting the professional character of the teaching
activity:
While for many teaching is, above all, a priesthood, for many others it is essentially a profession like any other. For these – among whom the author includes himself –, the expression priesthood is just a form of hiding the guilty conscience of those who do not pay the work of teachers well enough, but glorify their sublime task. As they say, more honours than salary are given to teachers (Conceição, 1972, Maio, p.400).
The assertion of the professional character of the teaching activity does not
imply the refusal of the emotional dimension of its performance. In the homage paid at
the time to the former Headmaster Dias Agudo, the President of the Parents’ Council
praised not only this man’s “professional vocation”, but also the “devoted love for
teaching” that he showed (Liceu Normal..., 1967, Outubro, pp.48-49). Mário Dionísio
considers that the most important elements for educational success are “the teacher’s
passion and competence”. Being a “good teacher”, according to him, “requires a rare
inner strength”, where qualities such as “freshness and enthusiasm” and “an
understanding, tolerant and giving spirit” coexist with competencies of a more
professional nature (Dionísio, 1959, Março, pp.392-393). Hence the importance some
texts attribute to the teacher’s personality, on a par with his professional training and
competence. For Delfim Santos, the teacher’s “objective preparation” must be
accompanied by his “subjective education”, which implies a “full awareness of his
personality”, for only this is “capable of influencing” (Santos, 1958, Junho, p.668).
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The recurring concern with teachers’ conduct involves modern and traditional
references at the same time. On the one hand, the effort to construct a professional
deontology is visible, but on the other hand the usual topic of the teacher’s exemplarity,
as a master, is always being brought up (Pintassilgo, 2002). In the Labor number that
includes texts paying homage to Fernando Zamith, a teacher-methodologist of Physics
and Chemistry of the D. João III Teacher-Training High School in Coimbra, deceased in
1964, there is a particular focus on the fact that he is “a great master”, “a model of
virtues” and “a noble example” for all disciples and colleagues. In the opinion of one of
the contributors to this homage, José A. Teixeira, Fernando Zamith could be considered
by many as “my best teacher”. Some of the features that define him as such are the
following: “best in competence, reflected in his graduation mark (19 out of 20) and in
his State Exam mark (17 out of 20); best in understanding, humanity, justice; best in
devotion; best in example” (Teixeira, 1964, Junho, pp.692-693).
4. Construction of a few elements of a professional conscience
The appraisal of the professional dimension of teaching and the adoption of a set
of specific values and rules for the practice of the profession contribute, among other
factors, to the teachers’ discursive assertion of an alternative identity vis-à-vis the one
the official discourse intended to give them (Lawn, 2000). In fact, the awareness of
belonging to the same professional group is one of the most important dimensions of the
teaching activity’s professionalization process at the high school level. A journal like
Labor, written by and for elements of a “class”, certainly had a decisive role in the
historical construction of the said identity, thus contributing to the creation of a
symbolic community brought together by a set of knowledges, beliefs, ideals and
practices identified with a sound practice of the teaching activity.
One of the strategies normally used has to do with homages paid to teachers who
have passed away recently or who have left their posts. These are the cases of the
homages paid to the teachers Nicodemos Pereira and Fernando Zamith, but it is also the
case of the homage to Francisco Dias Agudo when he ceased his functions as
10
Headmaster of the Lisbon Teacher-Training High School. All these examples show
rituals that aim at strengthening the sense of belonging to the same imagined
community (Pintassilgo, 2002).
The identity bonds between high school teachers, and sometimes between
teachers in general, are stressed in various manners in the pedagogic press. According to
the teacher José Bettencourt, “it is necessary . . . to defend the interests of the teacher
community better” (Bettencourt, 1960, Abril, p.485). As for Virgílio de Lemos, he adds:
“it is up to us, teachers, to defend our professional rights” (Lemos, 1967, Novembro,
p.99). The need for a symbolic unity between high school teachers is also asserted, as
the same Virgílio de Lemos does: “so there is great benefit in creating a genuine teacher
body, during the training period and in high schools, instead of bodies that work
individually” (Lemos, 1968, Junho, p.464). Therefore, the author fights to put an end to
the “isolation . . . between permanent teachers and temporary teachers”, which, he feels,
“does not bring any prestige into the class” (Lemos, 1967, Novembro, p.95).
In certain texts, the idea of identity comprises what we might call a culture of
high school teaching, or even a culture of school. At the time of his homage, Francisco
Dias Agudo defends that “a public cause … such as high school” deserves every
possible sacrifice. Further on, he considers the moment to be “a family party – the large
family of the Pedro Nunes High School”. Since this establishment was a Teacher-
Training High School at the time, that is to say, it formed teachers, it should have a
specific culture of its own that would enhance its educational character: “It is imperative
that teachers have lived in this ‘teacher nursery’ and experienced this environment,
because education is absorbed through the skin, through the senses and through the
soul” (Liceu Normal..., 1967, Outubro, pp.49-51).
In order to grow strong, an identity needs a memory. That is why one of the
most interesting articles regarding this matter evokes the heroic times of the
organisation of high school congresses, which took place in the still unstable period of
the military dictatorship that preceded the institutionalisation of the New State. While
the authoritarian regime did not forbid or punish any form of associativism, teachers’
included, high school teachers carried out five congresses, between 1927 and 1931, at
the rate of one a year. These congresses were brought to life by a Federation of the High
11
School Teachers’ Association and the journal Labor (then at the start of its publication)
played an important part in them (Bento, 1973).
In an article published in 1959, Mário de Vasconcelos e Sá, a retired teacher of
the Alexandre Herculano High School and an active participant of the teacher
associative movement of the time, “recalls the five high school congresses which took
place a while back with the exclusive initiative, organisation and presidency of high
school teachers”. The publication of this article, three decades after the events it
remembers, aims to “reach the entire class, particularly the new teachers”. Based on
memories of the profession, this statement clearly shows how much the new teachers
wish to associate. The author himself justifies his text as follows: “It is worth recalling
these thirty years back, for they relive an activity worthy of acknowledgement, as it
expresses a craving and a firm wish to value teaching and to dignify the teaching class”
(Sá, 1959, Janeiro, p.234). As we can see, the present ennoblement of the teaching
profession is an aspiration, founded on the memory of the strong points of its history. At
the same time, the idea is for teachers to construct their own thoughts about educational
problems and their pedagogic practices. This is what Mário de Vasconcelos e Sá means
when he declares:
Congresses are always a proof of vitality of who wants to live and elevate oneself, thus making clear what a class thinks and feels . . .
Actually, a class only values and asserts itself when it attempts to impose itself through its work, its way of thinking and feeling. The complex, fundamental problems of teaching must be technically dealt with and ventilated, by those who know them and live off them (Sá, 1959, Janeiro, pp.236 e 238).
Once again, we face the assertion that, given the technical requirements they
involve, matters of teaching should be handled by specialists – teachers – with the
necessary know-how, as a strategy to legitimise their work, value their social statute and
assert their identity.
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We may now conclude the reflection carried out so far, re-stating some of the
core ideas we have tried to present throughout this paper. The teachers’
professionalization process implied, among others, the construction of a symbolic
community, in which beliefs, ideas, values, specialised knowledges and desirable
practices were shared. This construction, concerning high school teachers in Portugal at
the time of the New State, was the object of our analysis.
Another idea we wish to stress is the following: Professional autonomy
regarding the teaching activity was always quite relative, but in the case of the
Portuguese authoritarian regime the constraints were very real. The political power was
acutely aware of the role that education had in socialising Portuguese youth according
to Salazarist values and it exerted heavy vigilance and control over teachers’ activities,
thus strongly conditioning their professional development. Even in adverse conditions
such as these, high school teachers gradually built certain elements of their professional
conscience and reinforced their identity, in many aspects in disagreement with the
identity the New State intended to give them.
The pedagogical press, particularly the one produced by the teachers themselves,
had a fundamental role in these processes, as it allowed the dissemination of specialised
pedagogical knowledge, the socialisation in common rules and values, the exchange of
experiences at the level of good practices, along with symbolic interchanges that
fortified the feeling of belonging to one same community in terms of thinking and
action.
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Bento, G (1973). História do movimento associativo dos professores do ensino secundário – 1891 a 1932. Porto: Edição do autor.
Bettencourt, J. (1960, Abril). A falta de professores. Labor, 193, pp.482-486.
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Candeias, A., Nóvoa, A., & Figueira, M. H. (1995). Sobre a Educação Nova: cartas de Adolfo Lima a Álvaro Viana de Lemos (1923-1941). Lisboa: Educa.
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