Identification and Management of Wildlife Damage

Kurt C. VerCauteren, Richard A. Dolbeer, and Eric M. Gese

Wildlife Damage ManagementWildlife Damage Management► Wildlife Damage in the USWildlife Damage in the US

Cost is ~ $22 billion annuallyCost is ~ $22 billion annually

► Control is important due toControl is important due to Expanding human populationsExpanding human populations Intensified land-use practicesIntensified land-use practices

Wildlife Damage Management Must Wildlife Damage Management Must Be . . . Be . . .

► Based on sound economic, ecological, and sociological Based on sound economic, ecological, and sociological principlesprinciples

► Carried out as positive, necessary components of Carried out as positive, necessary components of wildlife management programswildlife management programs

Actions must be justified, environmentally safe, Actions must be justified, environmentally safe, humane, and in the public interesthumane, and in the public interest

Four Principle ComponentsFour Principle Components

(1) (1) Problem definition Problem definition Species causing problemSpecies causing problem Number of animalsNumber of animals Amount of lossAmount of loss Nature of conflict Nature of conflict

(2) Ecology of the(2) Ecology of the

problem speciesproblem species

(3) (3) Management methods Management methods

applicationapplication Develop an appropriate Develop an appropriate

management strategy using management strategy using (1) and (2)(1) and (2)

(4) Evaluation of (4) Evaluation of

management effortmanagement effort Assess the results relative to Assess the results relative to

cost and impact on target cost and impact on target and non-target populationsand non-target populations

Legal Requirements for ManagementLegal Requirements for Management

► It is important to understand the laws regarding target and It is important to understand the laws regarding target and non-target speciesnon-target species Capture, possession, or killing of Capture, possession, or killing of

most mammals, reptiles, and most mammals, reptiles, and amphibians is regulated by state amphibians is regulated by state or provincial lawsor provincial laws

Federal regulations require that Federal regulations require that

a depredation permit be obtained a depredation permit be obtained

before most migratory birds can before most migratory birds can

be captured, killed, possessed, or be captured, killed, possessed, or

transported to control transported to control

depredationdepredation

Examples of Damage by BirdsExamples of Damage by Birds

Species Damage

Gulls Aviation safety, Building damage, Nuisance

Blackbirds, Starlings Aviation safety, Crops (corn, sunflower, rice), Nuisance

Pigeons, House Sparrows Grain contamination, Building Damage

Crows, Ravens, Magpies Predation (birds, livestock), Crops (corn, fruit), Nuisance

Herons, Egrets, Cormorants Commercial and natural fisheries

Raptors Aviation safety, Predation (poultry, livestock)

Woodpeckers Damage to wooden structures, Nuisance

Ducks, Geese, Sandhill Cranes

Aviation safety, Crops, Nuisance

Examples of Control Techniques for Examples of Control Techniques for BirdsBirds

►Habitat Modification and Cultural PracticesHabitat Modification and Cultural Practices►Netting and ScreeningNetting and Screening►Frightening DevicesFrightening Devices►RepellentsRepellents►Toxicants and Capture AgentsToxicants and Capture Agents

Habitat Modification and Cultural PracticesHabitat Modification and Cultural Practices

► Can be implemented to Can be implemented to make roosting, loafing, make roosting, loafing, or feeding sites less or feeding sites less attractiveattractive

► Lure crops may be used to Lure crops may be used to control waterfowl or control waterfowl or blackbirds. blackbirds.

► Bird-resistant crops may also Bird-resistant crops may also be used to limit lossesbe used to limit losses

Proofing and ScreeningProofing and Screening

► Plastic netting to protect crops Plastic netting to protect crops ► Netting or wire screening may be used to exclude birds from Netting or wire screening may be used to exclude birds from

building structuresbuilding structures► Building ledges can be angled 45Building ledges can be angled 45oo to deter perching to deter perching ► Spikes and electric wires can be used to deter perchingSpikes and electric wires can be used to deter perching► Overhead Overhead

monofilament linesmonofilament lines

can be used to can be used to

deter many bird deter many bird

speciesspecies

Frightening DevicesFrightening Devices

► No device is 100% effectiveNo device is 100% effective Birds quickly habituateBirds quickly habituate

► Propane cannonsPropane cannons► PyrotechnicsPyrotechnics► Recorded alarm / distress Recorded alarm / distress

callscalls

► Flags, kites, and Flags, kites, and helium balloons helium balloons

► Strobe lightsStrobe lights► Ultrasonic devices Ultrasonic devices

Repellents, Toxicants, and Capture AgentsRepellents, Toxicants, and Capture Agents

► Repellents based on Repellents based on smell and taste are smell and taste are generally ineffectivegenerally ineffective

► Condition-aversive Condition-aversive repellents are more repellents are more effective effective Produce illness or Produce illness or

adverse adverse physiological physiological responses upon responses upon ingestioningestion

► Toxicants and capture agents Toxicants and capture agents require knowledge of the habits require knowledge of the habits and food preferences of the target and food preferences of the target speciesspecies DRC-1339: used to control DRC-1339: used to control

starlings, gullsstarlings, gulls

Avitrol: frightening agent Avitrol: frightening agent used to control pigeons, gulls, used to control pigeons, gulls, house sparrows, starlings, house sparrows, starlings, blackbirdsblackbirds

Alpha-chloralose: used to Alpha-chloralose: used to capture waterfowl and pigeonscapture waterfowl and pigeons

Examples of Ungulate DamageExamples of Ungulate Damage

Species Damage

Cervids (deer, elk) Aviation and vehicle safety, crops (soybean, corn, alfalfa, stored ), trees, urban landscapes, and disease

Feral swine Crops, pasture, yards, and native habitat

Examples of Control Techniques for Examples of Control Techniques for UngulatesUngulates

► Habitat and Food ModificationHabitat and Food Modification► Fencing and BarriersFencing and Barriers► Frightening and Hazing Frightening and Hazing ► Dogs as DeterrentsDogs as Deterrents

► RepellentsRepellents► Fertility ControlFertility Control

► Lethal controlLethal control Regulated Regulated

huntinghunting Sharp shootingSharp shooting

Lethal ControlLethal Control

►Regulated managed hunting is the most Regulated managed hunting is the most practical and effective method of practical and effective method of managementmanagement

►Is the most ecologically, socially, and Is the most ecologically, socially, and fiscally responsible methodfiscally responsible method

Habitat and Food ModificationHabitat and Food Modification

► Select unpalatable/ resistant plantsSelect unpalatable/ resistant plants

► Reduce permanent coverReduce permanent cover

► Harvest crops as soon as ripeHarvest crops as soon as ripe

► Lure crops / BaitingLure crops / BaitingIn some situations In some situations these may actually these may actually increase local increase local damagedamage

Exclusion: Fencing and BarriersExclusion: Fencing and Barriers► Fencing can be a long-term, Fencing can be a long-term,

nonlethal control method. nonlethal control method. Fencing provides protection by Fencing provides protection by acting as a physical barrier and/or acting as a physical barrier and/or psychological barrier psychological barrier

► Variables to consider: level of Variables to consider: level of protection desired, seasonality of protection desired, seasonality of the resource being protected, the resource being protected, physical ability of the target physical ability of the target species, motivation to breach, species, motivation to breach, behavioral characteristics, cost, behavioral characteristics, cost, longevity of materials, potential longevity of materials, potential negative effectsnegative effects

Frightening and HazingFrightening and Hazing

► Ungulates habituate quickly Ungulates habituate quickly ► Many marketed devices do not Many marketed devices do not

workwork► Devices that target multiple Devices that target multiple

senses are the most efficacioussenses are the most efficacious► Persistent hazing can be Persistent hazing can be

effectiveeffective► Dogs may be used as Dogs may be used as

deterrents deterrents

RepellentsRepellents► Limited effectivenessLimited effectiveness► Odor repellents: designed to repel Odor repellents: designed to repel

animals, and either mimic predator animals, and either mimic predator odors or are repugnantodors or are repugnant

► Contact repellents are applied Contact repellents are applied directly to the target resources and directly to the target resources and change the hedonic quality of the change the hedonic quality of the item, and/or cause illness (aversive item, and/or cause illness (aversive conditioning)conditioning)

► Systemic repellents: are Systemic repellents: are incorporated into plants naturally, incorporated into plants naturally, by supplementation, or genetic by supplementation, or genetic manipulationmanipulation

Fertility ControlFertility Control

► Wildlife contraceptives have the potential to be Wildlife contraceptives have the potential to be complimentary management tools, however; it is complimentary management tools, however; it is unlikely that fertility control will become a stand-alone unlikely that fertility control will become a stand-alone management strategymanagement strategy

► Methods include chemosterilants, intrauterine devices, Methods include chemosterilants, intrauterine devices, immunocontraceptives, and surgeryimmunocontraceptives, and surgery

► Recent developments include single-shot fertility Recent developments include single-shot fertility control methods, orally delivered contraceptives, viral- control methods, orally delivered contraceptives, viral- or bacterial-vectored delivery methodsor bacterial-vectored delivery methods

Examples of Damage by Rodents and Examples of Damage by Rodents and Small MammalsSmall Mammals

Species Damage

Beaver, Muskrat, Nutria Waterways, Wetlands, Trees, Crops (rice, sugarcane)

Deer & White-footed mice Seed predation, Crops, Home invasion

Ground Squirrel Pasture, Rangeland, Gardens, Crops (forage, grain, fruit, nut)

Marmots Burrowing, Gardens, Crops (alfalfa, soybean, vegetables, fruit)

Voles Trees, Shrubs, Crops (field & garden)

Moles Burrowing (turf, pasture, crop fields)

Pocket gopher Burrowing, Crops (field, root), Trees, Pasture

Prairie Dog Burrowing, Crops, Grasslands, Crops

Rabbits & Hares Landscape plantings, Gardens, Crops, Rangeland, Trees, Shrubs

Tree Squirrels Trees, Shrubs, Plantings, Nuisance, Power lines

Woodrats Fruit, Seed Crops, Herbaceous & Woody Plants, Nuisance

Commensal rodents Grain Crops, Birds, Livestock, Property damage, Burrowing

Rodents and Other Small MammalsRodents and Other Small Mammals

► Damage is frequently difficult to measure; most species are Damage is frequently difficult to measure; most species are nocturnal and not easily observed. Characteristics of damage may nocturnal and not easily observed. Characteristics of damage may provide clues. Quantification of damage is often made by provide clues. Quantification of damage is often made by comparing the damaged site with an undamaged area, then comparing the damaged site with an undamaged area, then converting the losses to dollars.converting the losses to dollars.

► Damage to plants may be generally grouped as:Damage to plants may be generally grouped as: Root damageRoot damage Trunk debarkingTrunk debarking Stem & branch cuttingStem & branch cutting Needle clippingNeedle clipping Debudding Debudding

Examples of Control TechniquesExamples of Control Techniques

►Habitat ModificationHabitat Modification►Cultural PracticesCultural Practices►ExclusionExclusion►Frightening DevicesFrightening Devices►RemovalRemoval

►Biological ManagementBiological Management►Fertility ControlFertility Control►RepellentsRepellents►FumigantsFumigants►ToxicantsToxicants

Habitat Modification and Cultural Habitat Modification and Cultural PracticesPractices

►Elimination of food Elimination of food and shelterand shelter

►Remove brush, Remove brush, debris, woodpiles, debris, woodpiles, garbage, refuse, tall garbage, refuse, tall vegetationvegetation

►Mechanical devicesMechanical devices

►Provision of Provision of alternative foodsalternative foods

►Remove insect and Remove insect and invertebrate food invertebrate food suppliessupplies

ExclusionExclusion

► Installation of barriers that prevent access to structures Installation of barriers that prevent access to structures or areas, or eliminate contact with specific objectsor areas, or eliminate contact with specific objects

► ““Rodent proofing”Rodent proofing”

Biological Management and Fertility Biological Management and Fertility ControlControl

►Biological Management:Biological Management: Introduction of agents of disease and predatory Introduction of agents of disease and predatory

species. Be careful, historically has led to dire species. Be careful, historically has led to dire unintended consequences (e.g., mongoose).unintended consequences (e.g., mongoose).

►Fertility Control:Fertility Control: In time may be an effective supplemental tool. In time may be an effective supplemental tool.

Oral and immunological agents are being Oral and immunological agents are being developed as are viral-vectored developed as are viral-vectored immunocontraceptives. immunocontraceptives.

RepellentsRepellents

► Repellents are most effective Repellents are most effective when applied to foods when applied to foods

► Several compounds are registered for use, Several compounds are registered for use, however; efficacy data is often lacking however; efficacy data is often lacking

► Chemical repellents include:Chemical repellents include: Sensory repellentsSensory repellents Semiochemical odorsSemiochemical odors Taste avoidance Taste avoidance

behavior compoundsbehavior compounds

Fumigants and ToxicantsFumigants and Toxicants

► Fumigants are used for lethal control of burrowing Fumigants are used for lethal control of burrowing mammals. Examples include smoke-producing gas mammals. Examples include smoke-producing gas cartridges, aluminum phosphide, choloropicrin, and cartridges, aluminum phosphide, choloropicrin, and methyl bromidemethyl bromide

► Toxicants are labor and cost efficient, and are the most Toxicants are labor and cost efficient, and are the most commonly used method of control. Potential hazards to commonly used method of control. Potential hazards to non-target wildlife must be considered prior to use. Two non-target wildlife must be considered prior to use. Two types of toxicants are commonly usedtypes of toxicants are commonly used Anit-coagulantsAnit-coagulants Non-anti-coagulantsNon-anti-coagulants

Removal► Foothold traps are commonly used to trap beaver, muskrat, Foothold traps are commonly used to trap beaver, muskrat,

and nutria; smaller sizes are used to capture small mammals. and nutria; smaller sizes are used to capture small mammals. Body gripping traps are used for beaver, muskrat, nutria, Body gripping traps are used for beaver, muskrat, nutria, moles and pocket gophers. Snap traps are typically used to moles and pocket gophers. Snap traps are typically used to control rats and mice. Snares may be used to capture or kill control rats and mice. Snares may be used to capture or kill beaver, rabbits, and other animals. beaver, rabbits, and other animals.

Shooting may be used to Shooting may be used to

selectively eliminate some selectively eliminate some pest mammals pest mammals

Live traps are often used to Live traps are often used to capture mammals of all sizescapture mammals of all sizes

Examples of Damage by Carnivores Examples of Damage by Carnivores and Other Mammalian Predatorsand Other Mammalian Predators

Species Damage

Badger Small Mammals, Birds, Lambs, Poultry, Burrowing

Black & Grizzly Bear Livestock, Field crops, Beehives, Nuisance, Trees

Coyote, Wolves, Dogs Predation (livestock, big game, poultry), Fruit crops

Mountain Lion, Bobcat, Lynx Predation (livestock, horses, big game, poultry, pets)

Foxes Predation (small mammals, livestock, poultry), Fruit crops

Opossums Predation (poultry), Nuisance

Raccoons Predation (poultry, livestock, small vertebrates, birds), Crops (corn), Nuisance

Skunks Predation (waterfowl, poultry), Nuisance

Weasels & Mink Predation (poultry, small vertebrates, birds, fish)

Feral Cats Predation (songbirds, small vertebrates)

Carnivores and Other Mammalian PredatorsCarnivores and Other Mammalian Predators

► Livestock depredation has been a concern to livestock producers Livestock depredation has been a concern to livestock producers for centuries. Accurate assessment of a predation event requires for centuries. Accurate assessment of a predation event requires careful observation. Signs of predation and the possible predator careful observation. Signs of predation and the possible predator involved should be searched for on the prey item and around the involved should be searched for on the prey item and around the kill site. Scavenging should not be confused with predation. kill site. Scavenging should not be confused with predation.

Examples of Control TechniquesExamples of Control Techniquesfor Carnivoresfor Carnivores

► Livestock Husbandry PracticesLivestock Husbandry Practices► Guard DogsGuard Dogs► Guard LlamasGuard Llamas► Guard DonkeysGuard Donkeys► Fencing and BarriersFencing and Barriers► Frightening DevicesFrightening Devices► Repellents and Aversive Repellents and Aversive ConditioningConditioning► Reproductive InterferenceReproductive Interference► RelocationRelocation

► Financial IncentivesFinancial Incentives► Livestock Protection Livestock Protection

CollarsCollars► M-44sM-44s► Aerial HuntingAerial Hunting► TrappingTrapping► Calling and ShootingCalling and Shooting► Hunting with houndsHunting with hounds► SnaresSnares

Livestock Husbandry PracticesLivestock Husbandry Practices

► Confine or concentrate herdsConfine or concentrate herds► Use of herdersUse of herders► Shed lambing/ calvingShed lambing/ calving► Remove dead livestock Remove dead livestock ► Synchronized birthingSynchronized birthing► House young livestock in House young livestock in

areas with little areas with little cover, cover, and in proximity and in proximity to to humanshumans

Guard DogsGuard Dogs

► Studies investigating the efficacy of guard dogs have Studies investigating the efficacy of guard dogs have shown the dogs to be effective in some situations. shown the dogs to be effective in some situations. Efficacy decreases in areas of thick cover, or when large Efficacy decreases in areas of thick cover, or when large flocks are dispersed over rough terrainflocks are dispersed over rough terrain

► Use of guard dogs Use of guard dogs precludes the use of precludes the use of other control devices other control devices such as traps, snares, such as traps, snares, or toxicants or toxicants

Guard Llamas and Guard DonkeysGuard Llamas and Guard Donkeys

► Llamas can be a practical and Llamas can be a practical and effective technique to deter effective technique to deter predators (especially coyotes predators (especially coyotes and dogs)and dogs)

► Donkeys may also be used Donkeys may also be used as livestock guardians as livestock guardians against coyotes and dogs. against coyotes and dogs. They are most effective in They are most effective in small, fenced pasturessmall, fenced pastures

Fencing and BarriersFencing and Barriers► Barriers include flagging, exclosures, electric fence, Barriers include flagging, exclosures, electric fence,

nest screen, moats.nest screen, moats.

► Fencing is best suited for protecting small areas. Standard Fencing is best suited for protecting small areas. Standard fencing will not always deter predators. Adding electric fencing will not always deter predators. Adding electric fence along, or above the fence improves efficacy, fence along, or above the fence improves efficacy, however; the effect of however; the effect of

the electric fence on the the electric fence on the

species being protected species being protected

must be considered. must be considered.

Burying wire mesh Burying wire mesh

helps prevent predators helps prevent predators

from digging into an area.from digging into an area.

Frightening DevicesFrightening Devices

► LightsLights► Distress callsDistress calls► Loud noisesLoud noises► ScarecrowsScarecrows► Plastic streamersPlastic streamers► Propane cannonsPropane cannons► Radio Activated Guard Radio Activated Guard

(RAG) device(RAG) device► Motion Activated Guard Motion Activated Guard

(MAG) device (MAG) device

► All of these devices All of these devices provide temporary relief provide temporary relief only. Changing the only. Changing the location, pattern of location, pattern of disruption, or combining disruption, or combining techniques may prolong techniques may prolong the success.the success.

► Light may be the most Light may be the most important component of important component of the frightening device.the frightening device.

Repellents and Aversive Repellents and Aversive ConditioningConditioning

►RepellentsRepellents There are no There are no

commercially commercially available repellents available repellents that effectively that effectively deter predationdeter predation

►Aversive conditioningAversive conditioning Use of lithium chloride Use of lithium chloride

may reduce consumption may reduce consumption of prey, but does not of prey, but does not deter predation in deter predation in coyotescoyotes

May be effective in May be effective in “teaching” black bears to “teaching” black bears to fear and avoid humansfear and avoid humans

Reproductive Interference Reproductive Interference and Relocation of Problem Animalsand Relocation of Problem Animals

Reproductive InterferenceReproductive Interference►Presently there are no Presently there are no species-specific reproductive species-specific reproductive control measures, although control measures, although use of immunocontraceptive use of immunocontraceptive agents has been investigated. agents has been investigated.

►Vasectomization of Vasectomization of coyotes and wolves has been coyotes and wolves has been investigated as well.investigated as well.

RelocationRelocation►Relocation programs have Relocation programs have had limited success with had limited success with bears and wolvesbears and wolves

►Relocation efforts are Relocation efforts are expensive, but are expensive, but are considered worthwhile and considered worthwhile and necessary in the necessary in the management of endangered management of endangered specspeciesies

Financial Incentives

► Assessment of local economic and ecologic conditions should Assessment of local economic and ecologic conditions should be performed before implementing a compensation program. be performed before implementing a compensation program. Incentives may be best realized if tied to conservation outcomesIncentives may be best realized if tied to conservation outcomes ““Predator Friendly Products” which come from ranches that Predator Friendly Products” which come from ranches that

do not kill predatorsdo not kill predators

► Problems with compensation programs: Problems with compensation programs: Producers feel they don’t receive fair market valueProducers feel they don’t receive fair market value Compensation is not paid for “missing” animalsCompensation is not paid for “missing” animals Compensation doesn’t encourage correction of poor Compensation doesn’t encourage correction of poor

management practicesmanagement practices

Livestock Protection CollarLivestock Protection Collar► The collar fits around the neck of lambs and kid goats, and contains The collar fits around the neck of lambs and kid goats, and contains

bladders filled with 1080 (an acute toxicant). It is is designed to bladders filled with 1080 (an acute toxicant). It is is designed to kill coyotes when they puncture a bladder during a predatory attack.kill coyotes when they puncture a bladder during a predatory attack.

► Advantage: Advantage: Selective removal Selective removal

of problem animalsof problem animals

► Disadvantage: Disadvantage: Cost & labor Cost & labor Accidental puncture Accidental puncture

of the bladders of the bladders

M-44M-44► A mechanical device that injects sodium cyanide into the A mechanical device that injects sodium cyanide into the

mouth of an animal when it bites/pulls on the devicemouth of an animal when it bites/pulls on the device

► M-44 is registered and authorized by different agencies M-44 is registered and authorized by different agencies depending on the country of use for coyotes, foxes, and feral depending on the country of use for coyotes, foxes, and feral dogs dogs

► Disadvantages: Disadvantages: Not species specificNot species specific Does not always Does not always

remove the problem animalremove the problem animal Numerous use restrictionsNumerous use restrictions

Aerial HuntingAerial Hunting

► Fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft Fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft are commonly used in control are commonly used in control programs for wolves, coyotes, programs for wolves, coyotes, bobcats, and foxes. Hunting is bobcats, and foxes. Hunting is most effective with snow covermost effective with snow cover

► Federal law requires each state Federal law requires each state where aerial hunting is allowed where aerial hunting is allowed to issue aerial hunting permits. to issue aerial hunting permits. Some states also require low-Some states also require low-level flying waivers.level flying waivers.

TrapsTraps► Cage traps can be used to capture predators of all sizes Cage traps can be used to capture predators of all sizes ► Foothold traps are more effective and available in various sizesFoothold traps are more effective and available in various sizes

► Most states have regulations on types of traps, baits, sets, and trap Most states have regulations on types of traps, baits, sets, and trap visitation schedules. Some states no longer allow foothold traps. visitation schedules. Some states no longer allow foothold traps. Consult state and local regulations prior to conducting any trapping Consult state and local regulations prior to conducting any trapping activityactivity

Calling and ShootingCalling and Shooting► Can be a selective means to control coyotes, bobcats, Can be a selective means to control coyotes, bobcats,

and foxes. Commercial and recorded calls mimic the and foxes. Commercial and recorded calls mimic the sound of a rabbit in distress or a pup in distress. sound of a rabbit in distress or a pup in distress. Morning and late afternoon are Morning and late afternoon are the most effective times the most effective times to employ calling, to employ calling, although calling although calling at night and using a at night and using a spotlight (where legal) spotlight (where legal) may be may be effective as well.effective as well.

Hunting HoundsHunting Hounds► Hunting dogs are used for lethal control. State and local Hunting dogs are used for lethal control. State and local

laws should be consulted prior to pursuing carnivors with laws should be consulted prior to pursuing carnivors with dogs. Two types of dogs are commonly useddogs. Two types of dogs are commonly used

► Trail houndsTrail hounds Redbone, Walker, Redbone, Walker,

Bluetick, Black & Tan Bluetick, Black & Tan Hunt by scent in packsHunt by scent in packs

► Sight houndsSight hounds GreyhoundGreyhound Most effective in open Most effective in open

terrainterrain

SnaresSnares► Constructed of wire or cable looped through a locking device that Constructed of wire or cable looped through a locking device that

allows the snare to tightenallows the snare to tighten

► Two types: Two types: Body snares are used Body snares are used

primarily on coyotes and primarily on coyotes and foxes, in areas where the foxes, in areas where the predator crawls under a predator crawls under a fence, at a den entrance, fence, at a den entrance, or in a narrow passageway or in a narrow passageway

Spring activated foot snares Spring activated foot snares are used to capture large predatorsare used to capture large predators

SUMMARYSUMMARY► Wildlife Damage Management is an increasingly important part of the Wildlife Damage Management is an increasingly important part of the

wildlife profession because of expanding human populations, wildlife profession because of expanding human populations, intensified land-use practices, increasing prominence of wildlife intensified land-use practices, increasing prominence of wildlife vectoring disease, and other reasons. vectoring disease, and other reasons.

► Many species at one time or another require management actions to Many species at one time or another require management actions to reduce conflicts with people, livestock, or other wildlife species. reduce conflicts with people, livestock, or other wildlife species.

► There are few “silver bullet” easy remedies. There are few “silver bullet” easy remedies.

► Integrated Wildlife Damage Management Strategies, using a variety Integrated Wildlife Damage Management Strategies, using a variety of techniques to dynamically target problem individuals or species are of techniques to dynamically target problem individuals or species are usually preferred and most effective for long-term management.usually preferred and most effective for long-term management.