Effects of Automation in the Aircraft Cockpit Environment

Group #1: Julian Archer Hambisa Keno Yul Kwon

Skill DegradationSituation Awareness

Workload

Automation Overview

What is Automation?

• Automation is any system component that removes the necessity for direct human control of certain processes (Sherman, 1997)

Types of Automation

1. Control

2. Warnings and Alerts

3. Information

Automation Overview

Early Stage

Automation Overview

Major Transition

Automation Overview

Current

Automation Overview

Benefits of Automation?

• Reduces workload and fatigue

• Precision in the handling of routine tasks

• Reliability

• Increased efficiency and productivity

• Economical utilization of machine

Skill Degradation

Overview

• Inherent disadvantage of manual flying skill decay through non-practice

Manual Flying Skills

1. Psychomotor skills o Observable e.g. physical actions

I'm planning, don't disturb me!

2. Cognitive skillso Hidden e.g. mental actions

Psychomotor Skill Degradation

• Performance decay is present regardless of time-lapse between training

• Performance quickly returns to a proficiency of 75% in 5 minutes of practice (Ammons et al., 1958)

J. M. Childs, Spears, & Prophet, 1983

Skill Degradation

Cognitive Skill Degradation

• Cognitive processing is a crucial skill involved in every aspect of flighto Mental models help!

• Over-reliance of the automation inhibits the pilot’s ability to develop robust mental models for manually aircraft control (Ebbatson, 2009)

The series model of pilot control (adapted from McRuer, 1982)

Skill Degradation

General Evidence for Skill Degradation

(Adapted from Research Integrations Inc., 1997-2007)

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Skill Degradation

Accident Analysis Data

•Skill-Based Errorso Visual scanning

breakdownso Poor techniqueo Over-controlling the aircraft

•NTSB Accident recordso Commercial Aviationo 1990 -1996

•63.6% of aircraft accidentso ≥ 1 skill-based erroro Constant over 7-year

periodShappel & Wiegmann, (2000)

Skill Degradation

Case study of Colgan Air Flight 3407

• February 12th, 2009

• Continental Connection

• Bombardier Dash-8 Q400

Skill Degradation

Situation Awareness

Why Situation Awareness

• The most frequent causal factor of all accidents (41 percent) was lack of positional awareness in the air.

o (UK CAA Global Fatal Accident Review 1980 - 2007)

• The second most common primary causal factor was “lack of positional awareness in the air,” generally resulting in controlled flight into terrain

o (Flight Safety Digest December 2004–March 2005. Special FSF Report: Killers in Aviation)

(Adapted from Research Integrations Inc., 1997-2007)

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Situation Awareness

What is Situation Awareness?

“…the perception of the elements in the

environment within a volume of time

and space, the comprehension of their

meaning, and the projection of their

status in the near future”.

(Mica Endsley, 1988)

Situation Awareness

Levels of Situation Awareness

• Seek and combine data into

meaningful information (Level 1 : perception)

• Understand what the information

means (Level 2 : comprehension)

• Use your understanding to think

ahead and reconsider the plan

(Level 3 : projection)

Feedback, check, monitor

Scanning

Gathering data

1

Understanding

Comparison with

mental models

2

Thinking ahead

Updating the model

3

Situation Awareness

What Factors Reduce Situation Awareness?

• Workload

• Degraded operating conditions

• Pattern Recognition

• Crew issue

• Communication

• Attention

Situation Awareness

How does Automation Impact Loss of SA?

• Vigilance, Complacency and Monitoring

• Active vs. Passive Role

• Feedback

• Lack of understanding of automation

Sometimes you see only half of the picture

but need all of it to understand the situation

Workload

Humans have limited capacity for:

• Processing information. (display, alarm, communication, documentation)

• Holding items in memory

• Making decisions

• Performing tasks

Workload

Excess Workload can result in human performance issues such as:

• Slower task performance

• Errors such as slips, lapses and mistakes

Under-load can result in:

• Boredom

• Loss of situation awareness

• reduced alertness

Workload

Measures of Workload

• Subjective Ratings

• Physiological Measures

• Performance measures

Workload

Multi Attribute Task Battery (MATB)

• System Monitoring

• Tracking

• Communications

• Resource management

Workload

The Irony of Automation

Counterproductive workload consequences of automation where;

• Automation increases workload when already at its peak

• Lowers workload when pilots are under-loaded

Workload

Role Transition

Automation has resulted in transition of pilot role from controlling to monitoring

• Results in excessive increase in cognitive demand

• Humans are ill-suited for monitoring and will perform poorly

Workload

Cognitive Overhead

• Performing extensive cognitive evaluation of the benefit of automation against cost of performing it manually

Workload

General Evidence for Workload Issues

(Adapted from Research Integrations Inc., 1997-2007)

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• 82 documents addressed the impact of automation on workload

• 42 of these documents asserted automation can have adverse effect on pilot workload

Conclusion

Accident Statistics vs.Phases of Flight

Distribution of fatal accidents by flight phase for 1998-2007 (Boeing, 2008)

Conclusion

Addressing Skill Degradation

• Manual handling recency

• Challenges

o Operating procedures require automation

o Pilots flying Internationally are conscious of their lack of flying proficiency

Rely on automation

o Pilots are mission-oriented

Take ControlFlip the Switch

Conclusion

• Augmented Displays Display that improves upon reality by superimposing info over actual environment

Conclusion

• Automations to improve SA

Design improvements - Display design capitalizing on spatial relationships

Conclusion

Addressing Workload Issues

• Automation should allow for maintenance of optimal workload level (neither too high nor too low)

• Assessment of workload under automation should consider both steady state and transient operating conditions

• Task redistribution between team members offsets workload; automation driven single pilot operation concept needs to be approached with caution

Conclusion

Addressing Workload Issues

• Automation workload assessment should consider visual and auditory input, cognitive activity and psychomotor skills

• The 4D resource theory can be used as a design input while developing human-machine interfaces to reduce pilot workload

Conclusion

Task Allocation Strategies

• Design Time (Static) System designer sets the level of automation.

• Adaptive AutomationContextual allocation based on performance tracking

• Adaptable AutomationAutomation is a subordinatethat collaborates with thehuman.

   

Conclusion

Tasking Interface for Adaptable Automation

• User Interface

• Analysis and Planning Component

Conclusion

Proof of Concept for Adaptive Automation

Questions?