If we know anything, it is If we know anything, it is because we stand on the because we stand on the

backs of Giants!backs of Giants!

Origins of today’s Curriculum, Instruction and Assessment

Lao-Tse (also Lao-tzu)Lao-Tse (also Lao-tzu)

In the 5th-century BC, this In the 5th-century BC, this philosopher wrote: philosopher wrote:

"If you tell me, I will listen. "If you tell me, I will listen. If you show me, I will see. If you show me, I will see. But if you let me But if you let me

experience, I will learn." experience, I will learn."

Socrates (470-399BC)Socrates (470-399BC)

In 300 BC, he engaged his In 300 BC, he engaged his learners by asking learners by asking questions (know as the questions (know as the Socratic or dialectic Socratic or dialectic method). method).

He often insisted that he really He often insisted that he really knew nothing, but his knew nothing, but his questioning skills allowed questioning skills allowed others to learn by self-others to learn by self-generated understanding. generated understanding.

Plato (428-348 BC),Plato (428-348 BC),

A student of Socrates and the teacher of A student of Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle, he wrote down the Dialogues, Aristotle, he wrote down the Dialogues,

which have inspired thinkers for more than which have inspired thinkers for more than two thousand years. Plato called this two thousand years. Plato called this

process process the dialecticthe dialectic, and considered it the , and considered it the pinnacle of learning.. pinnacle of learning..

Plato founded what is said to be the first Plato founded what is said to be the first university - his Academy (near Athens) university - his Academy (near Athens)

around 385 BC.around 385 BC.

Along with many others in his time, Aristotle Along with many others in his time, Aristotle (384-322 BC) placed a strong emphasis on (384-322 BC) placed a strong emphasis on an all-round and balanced development. an all-round and balanced development.

technetechne

Although we often view the term technology Although we often view the term technology as hardware items, it is actually a system as hardware items, it is actually a system

of practical knowledge. Technology is of practical knowledge. Technology is derived from the ancient Greek word derived from the ancient Greek word

techne.techne.

Education for work had its beginning in Education for work had its beginning in about 2000 B.C. [organized about 2000 B.C. [organized

apprenticeship] for scribes in Egypt. apprenticeship] for scribes in Egypt.

Code of HammurabiCode of Hammurabi

The rules for governing apprenticeships were The rules for governing apprenticeships were included in the Code of Hammurabi, who included in the Code of Hammurabi, who placed a code of his laws in the temple of placed a code of his laws in the temple of

Shamash in 2100 B.C. Shamash in 2100 B.C.

Guilds, associations of people who interests Guilds, associations of people who interests or pursuits were the same or similar, were or pursuits were the same or similar, were an important part in apprenticeship as they an important part in apprenticeship as they

established the quality standards for the established the quality standards for the product and practice. product and practice.

Apprenticeship Apprenticeship

In the centuries that preceded the In the centuries that preceded the introduction of machine-made parts, introduction of machine-made parts,

craftsmanship of high order was required craftsmanship of high order was required to manufacture accurate, durable clocks to manufacture accurate, durable clocks

and watches and watches

When schools became organized around When schools became organized around the 10th century, the writings and methods the 10th century, the writings and methods

of the great teachers, such as Socrates of the great teachers, such as Socrates and Lao-Tse, were forgotten, and teaching and Lao-Tse, were forgotten, and teaching

was performed by transmitting content was performed by transmitting content from teacher to students. from teacher to students.

Today, the term has taken on new meaning. Today, the term has taken on new meaning. Now, with many schools using active Now, with many schools using active

inquiry techniques, the term "pedagogy" inquiry techniques, the term "pedagogy" does not really apply to passive methods. does not really apply to passive methods. In fact, it now closely resembles the term In fact, it now closely resembles the term "andragogy," except it is used to refer to "andragogy," except it is used to refer to

children.children.

Early Schools andEarly Schools and Pedagogy Pedagogy

Education may be Education may be thought of as the thought of as the

transmission of the transmission of the values and values and

accumulated accumulated knowledge of a knowledge of a

society. In this sense, society. In this sense, it is equivalent to what it is equivalent to what social scientists term social scientists term

socialization or socialization or enculturationenculturation..

When adult learning became systematized early in When adult learning became systematized early in this century, pedagology was the only known this century, pedagology was the only known

means to train. means to train.

Two books written in the 1920s began to change Two books written in the 1920s began to change the term "adult learning" - Thorndike's the term "adult learning" - Thorndike's Adult

Learning and Lindeman's and Lindeman's The Meaning of Adult Education

In pedagogy, development is based In pedagogy, development is based upon a content plan: upon a content plan:

What content needs to be covered?What content needs to be covered? How can this content be organized into How can this content be organized into

manageable units or modules? manageable units or modules? How can this content be transmitted in a logical How can this content be transmitted in a logical

sequence? sequence? What would be the most effective method for What would be the most effective method for

transmitting this content (media)? transmitting this content (media)?

In andragogy, development is In andragogy, development is based upon a based upon a process designprocess design: :

Design and manage a process for Design and manage a process for facilitating the acquisition of content by facilitating the acquisition of content by the learners. the learners.

Serve as a content resource and provide Serve as a content resource and provide leads for other content resources (e.g. leads for other content resources (e.g. peers, supervisors, specialists).peers, supervisors, specialists).

In pedagogy, the concern is with In pedagogy, the concern is with transmitting the content, while in transmitting the content, while in

andragogy, the concern is with facilitating andragogy, the concern is with facilitating the acquisition of the content.the acquisition of the content.

Czech educational reformer and religious leader, Czech educational reformer and religious leader, born in Moravia (now part of the Czech born in Moravia (now part of the Czech

Republic), and educated at the University of Republic), and educated at the University of Heidelberg. In 1638 he was invited by Sweden Heidelberg. In 1638 he was invited by Sweden

to assist in educational reforms. to assist in educational reforms.

John Comenius John Comenius Latin Name (Jan Komensky) Latin Name (Jan Komensky) (1592-1670)(1592-1670)

In the mid 17th century, Comenius created a In the mid 17th century, Comenius created a new educational philosophy called new educational philosophy called PansophismPansophism, or universal knowledge, , or universal knowledge,

designed to bring about worldwide designed to bring about worldwide understanding and peace understanding and peace

John LockeJohn LockeAn English philosopher, set out An English philosopher, set out

the principles of empiricism. the principles of empiricism. He He

advanced the hypothesis advanced the hypothesis that people learn primarily that people learn primarily

from external forces. Locke from external forces. Locke examined examined

how people acquire ideas in how people acquire ideas in An Essay Concerning Human An Essay Concerning Human

UnderstandingUnderstanding (1690). (1690).

Locke believed that individuals acquire Locke believed that individuals acquire knowledge most easily when they first knowledge most easily when they first consider simple ideas and then consider simple ideas and then

gradually combine them into more gradually combine them into more complex ones.complex ones.

While John Locke developed a theory of While John Locke developed a theory of testing for the validity of knowledge and testing for the validity of knowledge and

John Comenius established John Comenius established that children learn better from experience, that children learn better from experience,

who supported these educational who supported these educational approaches?approaches?

Jean Jacques Rousseau Jean Jacques Rousseau

His His Social ContractSocial Contract is a is a classic defense of the classic defense of the

democratic form of democratic form of government. government. Rousseau trusted Rousseau trusted the "general will" of a the "general will" of a democratic people, as democratic people, as expressed by a vote of expressed by a vote of the majority, to make the majority, to make

all important decisions. all important decisions.

Jean Jacques RousseauJean Jacques Rousseau

Rousseau's unconventional views antagonized Rousseau's unconventional views antagonized French and Swiss authorities and alienated French and Swiss authorities and alienated

many of his friends, and in 1762 he fled first to many of his friends, and in 1762 he fled first to Prussia and then to England. Prussia and then to England.

There, he was befriended by the Scottish There, he was befriended by the Scottish philosopher David Hume, but they soon philosopher David Hume, but they soon

quarreled and denounced each other in public quarreled and denounced each other in public letters. letters.

Jean Jacques RousseauJean Jacques Rousseau

He wrote the influential He wrote the influential EmileEmile (1762). (1762). Rousseau expounded a new theory of Rousseau expounded a new theory of

education emphasizing the importance of education emphasizing the importance of expression rather than repression to expression rather than repression to produce a well-balanced, freethinking produce a well-balanced, freethinking

child. child.

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi

Pestalozzi theories laid the groundwork for Pestalozzi theories laid the groundwork for modern elementary education. modern elementary education.

He stressed theHe stressed the individuality of the child and of the child and the the necessity for teachers to be taught

how to develop rather than to try to implant knowledge.

Johann Heinrich PestalozziJohann Heinrich Pestalozzi

In the late 1700's he put Rousseau's In the late 1700's he put Rousseau's theories into practice and thus became the theories into practice and thus became the

first applied educational psychologist. first applied educational psychologist.

PestalozziPestalozzi developed a so-called "object lesson" developed a so-called "object lesson" that involved exercises in learning form, that involved exercises in learning form,

number, and language. number, and language. Pupils determined and traced an object's form, Pupils determined and traced an object's form,

counted objects, and named them. counted objects, and named them. Students progressed from these lessons to Students progressed from these lessons to

exercises in drawing, writing, adding, exercises in drawing, writing, adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing, and reading. subtracting, multiplying, dividing, and reading.

He employed the following principles in He employed the following principles in teaching (viewed as correct even today):teaching (viewed as correct even today):

(1) begin with the concrete object before (1) begin with the concrete object before introducing abstract concepts; introducing abstract concepts;

(2) begin with the immediate environment (2) begin with the immediate environment before dealing with what is distant and before dealing with what is distant and remote; remote;

(3) begin with easy exercises before (3) begin with easy exercises before introducing complex ones; and introducing complex ones; and

(4) always proceed gradually, cumulatively, (4) always proceed gradually, cumulatively, and slowlyand slowly

Johann Friedrich Herbart Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841) (1776-1841)

German philosopher, psychologist, andGerman philosopher, psychologist, and

educator; Johann Friedrich Herbarteducator; Johann Friedrich Herbart

is acknowledged as the "father ofis acknowledged as the "father of

scientific pedagogy". scientific pedagogy".

Herbart was the first scientist to distinguish Herbart was the first scientist to distinguish instructional process from subject matter.instructional process from subject matter.

According to Herbart, interest develops According to Herbart, interest develops when already strong and vivid ideas are when already strong and vivid ideas are hospitable towards new ones, hospitable towards new ones, thus past associations motivate thus past associations motivate apperception of current ones. apperception of current ones.

He also stressed the study of the He also stressed the study of the psychological processes of learning as a psychological processes of learning as a means of devising educational programs means of devising educational programs

based on the aptitudes, abilities, and based on the aptitudes, abilities, and interests of students. interests of students.

Herbart stressed the study of the Herbart stressed the study of the psychological processes of learning as a psychological processes of learning as a means of devising educational programs means of devising educational programs

based on the aptitudes, abilities, and based on the aptitudes, abilities, and interests of students.interests of students.

Herbart's five-step teaching Herbart's five-step teaching method: method:

1. Prepare the pupils to be ready for the 1. Prepare the pupils to be ready for the new lesson. new lesson.

2. Present the new lesson. 2. Present the new lesson. 3. Associate the new lesson with ideas 3. Associate the new lesson with ideas

studied earlier. studied earlier. 4. Use examples to illustrate the lesson's 4. Use examples to illustrate the lesson's

major points. major points. 5. Test pupils to ensure they had learned 5. Test pupils to ensure they had learned

the new lesson.the new lesson.

LyceumLyceum

The largest early adult education program in the The largest early adult education program in the U.S., the Lyceum, founded in Massachusetts in U.S., the Lyceum, founded in Massachusetts in

1826 by Josiah Holbrook 1826 by Josiah Holbrook

It was a local association of men and women with It was a local association of men and women with some schooling who wanted to expand their own some schooling who wanted to expand their own

education while working to establish a public education while working to establish a public school system. school system.

In the early 1800s, factory schools were In the early 1800s, factory schools were created, due to the industrial revolution, in created, due to the industrial revolution, in which workers were trained in classrooms which workers were trained in classrooms

within the factory walls.within the factory walls.

Vestibule TrainingVestibule Training

Towards the end of the Towards the end of the 1800s, a method that 1800s, a method that combined the benefits combined the benefits of the of the

classroom with the classroom with the benefits of on-the-job benefits of on-the-job

training, called training, called vestibule trainingvestibule training, , became a became a

popular form of popular form of training training

(near-the-job) training, so(near-the-job) training, so called as it offers access tocalled as it offers access to something new (learning).something new (learning).

Vestibule TrainingVestibule Training

There are many advantages of vestibule training. There are many advantages of vestibule training. The workers are trained as if on the job, but it The workers are trained as if on the job, but it

did not interfere with the more vital task of did not interfere with the more vital task of production.production.

Transfer of skills and knowledge to the Transfer of skills and knowledge to the workplace was not required since the workplace was not required since the classroom was a model of the working classroom was a model of the working environment. environment.

Classes were small so that the learners received Classes were small so that the learners received immediate feedback and could ask questions immediate feedback and could ask questions more easily.more easily.

Case MethodCase Method (Case Study) (Case Study)

Although the case method does not Although the case method does not actually provide real experiences, it is actually provide real experiences, it is

personal as it puts the burden of thinking personal as it puts the burden of thinking on the learners and arouses their interest on the learners and arouses their interest

by making them active participants. by making them active participants.

Case Studies Case Studies

In the 1880s, Christopher Langdell, the dean In the 1880s, Christopher Langdell, the dean of the Harvard Law School, revived the of the Harvard Law School, revived the

case method that the early Chinese case method that the early Chinese Philosophers used. Philosophers used.

It slowly won acceptance in the schools of It slowly won acceptance in the schools of business, law, and medicine. business, law, and medicine.

Correspondence Schools Correspondence Schools

Correspondence Education is a method ofCorrespondence Education is a method of

instruction conducted through the mailinstruction conducted through the mail

by a school or other qualifiedby a school or other qualified

institution. institution.

In 1883, the first correspondence program in In 1883, the first correspondence program in the United States gained academic the United States gained academic respectability through recognition by respectability through recognition by

the State of New York, as a valid the State of New York, as a valid educational program was the educational program was the

Chautauqua InstituteChautauqua Institute, which trained , which trained Sunday school teachers. Sunday school teachers.

Correspondence education developed in the Correspondence education developed in the mid-19th century in Great Britain, France, mid-19th century in Great Britain, France,

Germany, and the United States, and Germany, and the United States, and spread rapidly. In 1840, the English spread rapidly. In 1840, the English

educator Sir Isaac Pitman taught educator Sir Isaac Pitman taught shorthand by mail shorthand by mail

..

Many educators consider correspondence Many educators consider correspondence education the precursor of distance education the precursor of distance

education, which is instruction that education, which is instruction that uses different communication technologies uses different communication technologies such as the internet, telephones, radio, or such as the internet, telephones, radio, or

television. television.

World War I - Show, Tell, Do, and World War I - Show, Tell, Do, and Check Check

To solve an urgent need to train shipyard To solve an urgent need to train shipyard workers in 1917, Charles R. Allen workers in 1917, Charles R. Allen

adapted Herbart's five-step adapted Herbart's five-step process. He called it the "Show, Tell, Do, process. He called it the "Show, Tell, Do, and Check" method of and Check" method of

job instruction.job instruction.

Prepare the Workers - Put them at ease. Prepare the Workers - Put them at ease. Find out what they already know Find out what they already know

about the job. about the job. Get them interested in learning. Get them interested in learning. Place each in a correct position. Place each in a correct position.

Present the Operation Present the Operation Tell, show, illustrate, and question Tell, show, illustrate, and question

carefully and patiently. carefully and patiently. Stress key points. Stress key points. Instruct clearly and completely, taking up Instruct clearly and completely, taking up

one point at a time, but no more than they one point at a time, but no more than they can master. can master.

Try Out Performance Try Out Performance Test them by having them perform the job. Test them by having them perform the job. Have them tell and show you, have them Have them tell and show you, have them

explain key points. explain key points. Ask questions and correct answers. Ask questions and correct answers. Continue until you know that they know. Continue until you know that they know.

Follow Up - Put them on their own Follow Up - Put them on their own Designate who they go to for help.Designate who they go to for help.Check frequently. Check frequently. Encourage questions. Encourage questions. Get them to look for key points as they Get them to look for key points as they

progress. progress. Taper off extra coaching and close follow-Taper off extra coaching and close follow-

ups.ups.

John DeweyJohn Dewey (1867-1949) (1867-1949)

John Dewey emphasized practical ideas in both his John Dewey emphasized practical ideas in both his philosophical and educational theories, always philosophical and educational theories, always striving to show how abstract concepts could striving to show how abstract concepts could work in everyday life. work in everyday life.

He emphasized hands-on learning, and opposed He emphasized hands-on learning, and opposed authoritarian methods in teaching. authoritarian methods in teaching.

Considered to be the leading progressive Considered to be the leading progressive educator of this century, John Dewey educator of this century, John Dewey

wrote on the great issues in education. wrote on the great issues in education.

John Dewey's significance for informal John Dewey's significance for informal educators lies in a number of areas. educators lies in a number of areas.

First, his belief that education must engage First, his belief that education must engage with and enlarge experience has with and enlarge experience has

continued to be a significant component in continued to be a significant component in informal education practice informal education practice

Second, and linked to this, Dewey's Second, and linked to this, Dewey's exploration of exploration of thinking and reflection - and - and the associated role of educators - has the associated role of educators - has continued to be an inspiration. continued to be an inspiration.

He criticized educational methods that He criticized educational methods that simply amused and entertained students simply amused and entertained students or were overly vocational. or were overly vocational.

He also advocated education that would He also advocated education that would fulfill and enrich the current lives of fulfill and enrich the current lives of

students as well as prepare them for the students as well as prepare them for the future. future.

Role-playing Role-playing

Adult learners canAdult learners can keep tuned into akeep tuned into a lecture for no morelecture for no more than 15 to 20than 15 to 20 minutes at a time minutes at a time

Role Playing Links Role Playing Links

Dr. J. L. Moreno designs the first known Dr. J. L. Moreno designs the first known role playing techniques in 1910. role playing techniques in 1910.

Role playing is a primary technique to Role playing is a primary technique to provide participation and involvement in provide participation and involvement in the learning process. In a training the learning process. In a training environment, role playing allows the environment, role playing allows the learner to receiveobjective feedback about learner to receiveobjective feedback about one's performance one's performance

Role playing techniques can be used toRole playing techniques can be used to diagnose interactive skills, to diagnose interactive skills, to

provide models and practice, and to provide models and practice, and to motivate individuals to pay more . attention motivate individuals to pay more . attention to their interpersonal impact. One of its to their interpersonal impact. One of its primary benefits is that itprimary benefits is that it

allows the learner to allows the learner to experience a real life situation in a experience a real life situation in a protected environment protected environment

Frederick Winslow TaylorFrederick Winslow Taylor(1856-1950) (1856-1950)

Taylor called his method Scientific Taylor called his method Scientific Management, which used time and motion Management, which used time and motion

studies to find the one best way to studies to find the one best way to accomplish a task. accomplish a task.

Pavlov Pavlov

conducted, perhaps, the most famous of conducted, perhaps, the most famous of all psychological experiments (1927) whenall psychological experiments (1927) when

he showed that by pairing a he showed that by pairing a conditioned stimulus (a bell) with an conditioned stimulus (a bell) with an unconditioned stimulusunconditioned stimulus

(food), a dog would begin to (food), a dog would begin to salivate (response) when the bell was rung salivate (response) when the bell was rung without presentingwithout presenting

the food.the food.

In the early twentieth century a new movement In the early twentieth century a new movement in the field of Psychology wasin the field of Psychology was

being felt in educational being felt in educational research - behaviorism. This is a theory research - behaviorism. This is a theory proposed by J.B.proposed by J.B.

Watson and based on the works Watson and based on the works of Pavlov and Bekhterev, two Russian of Pavlov and Bekhterev, two Russian psychologists who developed an animal psychologists who developed an animal training model known astraining model known as

stimulus-response (Classical stimulus-response (Classical Conditioning). Conditioning).

Watson argued that such conditioning is the basis of Watson argued that such conditioning is the basis of human behavior - if you standhuman behavior - if you stand

up every time a lady enters the room, up every time a lady enters the room, you're acting not out of 'politeness', butyou're acting not out of 'politeness', but

because behavior is a chain of well-set because behavior is a chain of well-set reflexes. He claimed that "recency" andreflexes. He claimed that "recency" and

"frequency" were particularly important "frequency" were particularly important in determining what behavior an individualin determining what behavior an individual

'emitted' next: if you usually get up when 'emitted' next: if you usually get up when a lady enters the room, you're likely toa lady enters the room, you're likely to

get up when one enters now.get up when one enters now.

Gestalt Gestalt

Saxophone player or lady? Saxophone player or lady?

The word Gestalt is used inThe word Gestalt is used in modern German to mean the waymodern German to mean the way a thing has been; i.e., "placed,"a thing has been; i.e., "placed," or "put together." There is noor "put together." There is no exact equivalent in English.exact equivalent in English. "Form" and "shape" are the"Form" and "shape" are the usual translations. usual translations.

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)

was disturbed by earlier associationists was disturbed by earlier associationists that complex ideals are just a that complex ideals are just a combination of simple ideals. He added combination of simple ideals. He added the notion that simple ideals combine into the notion that simple ideals combine into a new totality that may bear little a new totality that may bear little resemblance to its parts. resemblance to its parts.

Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), Max Wertheimer (1880-1943),

the founder of gestalt psychology, the founder of gestalt psychology, launched it in 1912 with an article on launched it in 1912 with an article on apparent motion. He had an insight while apparent motion. He had an insight while riding train that if two lights blink on and off riding train that if two lights blink on and off at a certain rate, they give the impression at a certain rate, they give the impression that one light is moving back and forth. that one light is moving back and forth.

Wertheimer told this story to illustrate the point: A school inspector wasWertheimer told this story to illustrate the point: A school inspector was impressed by the children that he had observed, but wanted to ask oneimpressed by the children that he had observed, but wanted to ask one more question before departing. "How many hairs does a horse have?" hemore question before departing. "How many hairs does a horse have?" he asked. Much to the amazement of both the inspector and the teacher, a nineasked. Much to the amazement of both the inspector and the teacher, a nine year old boy answered "3,571,962." "How do you know that your answeryear old boy answered "3,571,962." "How do you know that your answer is correct?" asked the inspector. "If you do not believe me," answered theis correct?" asked the inspector. "If you do not believe me," answered the boy, "count them yourself." The inspector broke into laughter and vowed toboy, "count them yourself." The inspector broke into laughter and vowed to tell the story to his colleagues when he returned to Vienna. When thetell the story to his colleagues when he returned to Vienna. When the inspector returned the following year for his annual visit, the teacher askedinspector returned the following year for his annual visit, the teacher asked him how his colleagues responded to the story. Disappointedly he replied, "Ihim how his colleagues responded to the story. Disappointedly he replied, "I wanted very much to tell the story but I couldn't. For the life of me, Iwanted very much to tell the story but I couldn't. For the life of me, I couldn't remember how many hairs the boy had said the horse had."couldn't remember how many hairs the boy had said the horse had."

The Teaching Machine The Teaching Machine

In 1924, Sidney L. Pressey created a crude In 1924, Sidney L. Pressey created a crude teaching machine suitable for rote-and-drillteaching machine suitable for rote-and-drill

learning. In 1926, he published the learning. In 1926, he published the first paper on the use of a teaching machine infirst paper on the use of a teaching machine in

School and Society. He showed School and Society. He showed that automated-instruction facilitated learning bythat automated-instruction facilitated learning by

providing for immediate providing for immediate reinforcement, individual pace setting, and reinforcement, individual pace setting, and active responding.active responding.

Thorndike had a great influence on Thorndike had a great influence on Pressey. In his machine Pressey sought toPressey. In his machine Pressey sought to

incorporate Thorndike's incorporate Thorndike's laws. In one version of his machine, a user laws. In one version of his machine, a user had to answer ahad to answer a

question twice correctly question twice correctly before it was eliminated; this addressed before it was eliminated; this addressed the laws of exercisethe laws of exercise

and effect.and effect.

Eduard C. Lindeman Eduard C. Lindeman

Lindeman suggests that educationLindeman suggests that education evolves from situations and evolves from situations and

not subjects and that this is the essence of not subjects and that this is the essence of adult education. adult education.

Edward L. ThorndikeEdward L. Thorndike (1874-1949) (1874-1949)

Edward Thorndike is one of the great learning Edward Thorndike is one of the great learning theorists of all time. He believed thattheorists of all time. He believed that

instruction should pursue instruction should pursue specified, socially useful goals. In 1928 his specified, socially useful goals. In 1928 his classic study,classic study,

Adult Learning, posited that the Adult Learning, posited that the ability to learn did not decline until age 35, andability to learn did not decline until age 35, and

then it declined only 1 percent then it declined only 1 percent per year, thus going against the grain of the time per year, thus going against the grain of the time thatthat

"you can't teach old dogs new "you can't teach old dogs new trick." trick."

One of his most famous theories is "The One of his most famous theories is "The Identical Elements Theory of the Transfer ofIdentical Elements Theory of the Transfer of

Training" where the amount of Training" where the amount of transfer between the familiar situation and thetransfer between the familiar situation and the

unfamiliar one is determined by unfamiliar one is determined by the number of elements that the two situations the number of elements that the two situations havehave

in common. in common.

He was also one of the first pioneers of "active" learning He was also one of the first pioneers of "active" learning in that he held low opinionsin that he held low opinions

of lectures, "The lecture and of lectures, "The lecture and demonstration methods represent an approach to ademonstration methods represent an approach to a

limiting extreme in which the teacher lets limiting extreme in which the teacher lets the student find out nothing which he couldthe student find out nothing which he could

possible be told or shown...They ask of possible be told or shown...They ask of him only that he attend to, and do his best tohim only that he attend to, and do his best to

understand, questions which he did not understand, questions which he did not himself frame and answers which he did nothimself frame and answers which he did not

himself work out." himself work out."

Thorndike specified three conditions that maximized Thorndike specified three conditions that maximized learning: learning:

The law of effect stated that the likely The law of effect stated that the likely recurrence of a response is generallyrecurrence of a response is generally

governed by its consequence or effect governed by its consequence or effect generally in the form of reward orgenerally in the form of reward or

punishment. punishment. The law of recency stated that the The law of recency stated that the

most recent response is likely to govern themost recent response is likely to govern the recurrence. recurrence. The law of exercise stated that The law of exercise stated that

stimulus-response associations arestimulus-response associations are strengthened through repetition.strengthened through repetition.

Hawthorne Effect Hawthorne Effect The HawthorneThe Hawthorne effect - an increaseeffect - an increase in workerin worker productivityproductivity produced by theproduced by the psychologicalpsychological stimulus of beingstimulus of being singled out andsingled out and made to feelmade to feel important.important.

Individual behaviors may be altered because they know they are being studied wasIndividual behaviors may be altered because they know they are being studied was demonstrated in a research project (1927 - 1932) of the Hawthorne demonstrated in a research project (1927 - 1932) of the Hawthorne

Plant of thePlant of the Western Electric Company in Cicero, Illinois. This series of research, Western Electric Company in Cicero, Illinois. This series of research,

first led byfirst led by Harvard Business School professor Elton Mayo along with associates Harvard Business School professor Elton Mayo along with associates

F.J.F.J. Roethlisberger and William J. Dickson started out by examining the Roethlisberger and William J. Dickson started out by examining the

physical andphysical and environmental influences of the workplace (e.g. brightness of lights, environmental influences of the workplace (e.g. brightness of lights,

humidity) and later,humidity) and later, moved into the psychological aspects (e.g. breaks, group pressure, moved into the psychological aspects (e.g. breaks, group pressure,

working hours,working hours, managerial leadership). The ideas that this team developed about the managerial leadership). The ideas that this team developed about the

social dynamics ofsocial dynamics of groups in the work setting had lasting influence - the collection of data,groups in the work setting had lasting influence - the collection of data, labor-management relations, and informal interaction among factory labor-management relations, and informal interaction among factory

employees. employees.

The major finding of the study was that almost The major finding of the study was that almost regardless of the experimentalregardless of the experimental

manipulation employed, the production of manipulation employed, the production of the workers seemed to improve. Onethe workers seemed to improve. One

reasonable conclusion is that the workers reasonable conclusion is that the workers were pleased to receive attention from thewere pleased to receive attention from the

researchers who expressed an interest in researchers who expressed an interest in them. The study was only expected to last onethem. The study was only expected to last one

year, but because the researchers were year, but because the researchers were set back each time they tried to relate theset back each time they tried to relate the

manipulated physical conditions to the manipulated physical conditions to the worker's efficiency, the project extended out toworker's efficiency, the project extended out to

five years.five years.

Four general conclusions were Four general conclusions were drawn from the Hawthorne studies:drawn from the Hawthorne studies:The aptitudes of individuals are imperfect The aptitudes of individuals are imperfect

predictors of job performance.predictors of job performance. Although they give some Although they give some

indication of the physical and mental indication of the physical and mental potential of thepotential of the

individual, the amount individual, the amount produced is strongly influenced by social produced is strongly influenced by social factors. factors.

Informal organization affects productivity. The Informal organization affects productivity. The Hawthorne researchersHawthorne researchers

discovered a group life among discovered a group life among the workers. The studies also showed that thethe workers. The studies also showed that the

relations that supervisors relations that supervisors develop with workers tend to influence the develop with workers tend to influence the manner inmanner in

which the workers carry out which the workers carry out directives. directives.

Work-group norms affect productivity. The Work-group norms affect productivity. The Hawthorne researchers were notHawthorne researchers were not

the first to recognize that work the first to recognize that work groups tend to arrive at norms of what is "a fairgroups tend to arrive at norms of what is "a fair

day's work," however, they day's work," however, they provided the best systematic description andprovided the best systematic description and

interpretation of this interpretation of this phenomenon. phenomenon.

The workplace is a social system. The The workplace is a social system. The Hawthorne researchers came to viewHawthorne researchers came to view

the workplace as a social the workplace as a social system made up of interdependent parts. system made up of interdependent parts.

Jean Piaget Jean Piaget

was a Swiss psychologist, whose development was a Swiss psychologist, whose development theories have beentheories have been

widely discussed in both widely discussed in both psychology and educational fields. To learn, psychology and educational fields. To learn, PiagetPiaget

stressed the holistic approach. stressed the holistic approach. A child constructs understanding through manyA child constructs understanding through many

channels: reading, listening, channels: reading, listening, exploring, and experiencing his or her exploring, and experiencing his or her environment. environment.

A Piagetian-inspired curricula emphasizes a child-centered A Piagetian-inspired curricula emphasizes a child-centered educationaleducational

philosophy. His work has been labeled an philosophy. His work has been labeled an interactionist as well as ainteractionist as well as a

constructivist. His interest in cognitive constructivist. His interest in cognitive development came from his training in thedevelopment came from his training in the

natural sciences and his interest in epistemology. natural sciences and his interest in epistemology. He saw cognitive growth as anHe saw cognitive growth as an

extension of biological growth and as being extension of biological growth and as being governed by the same laws andgoverned by the same laws and

principles. He argued that intellectual development principles. He argued that intellectual development controlled every othercontrolled every other

aspect of development - emotional, social, and aspect of development - emotional, social, and moral. moral.

Piaget may be best known for his stages of cognitive Piaget may be best known for his stages of cognitive development. Hedevelopment. He

discovered that children think and discovered that children think and reason differently at different periods in theirreason differently at different periods in their

lives. He believed that everyone lives. He believed that everyone passed through an invariant sequence of fourpassed through an invariant sequence of four

qualitatively distinct stages. Invariant qualitatively distinct stages. Invariant means that a person cannot skip stages ormeans that a person cannot skip stages or

reorder them. Although every normal reorder them. Although every normal child passes through the stages in exactlychild passes through the stages in exactly

the same order, there is some the same order, there is some variability in the ages at which children attain eachvariability in the ages at which children attain each

stage stage

. The four stages are . The four stages are Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years) - The mental structures are mainlySensorimotor (birth to 2 years) - The mental structures are mainly concerned with the mastery of concrete concerned with the mastery of concrete

objects. objects. Preoperational (2 years to 7 years) - The Preoperational (2 years to 7 years) - The

mastery of symbols takesmastery of symbols takes place. place. Concrete operational (7 years to 11 years) - Concrete operational (7 years to 11 years) -

Children learn mastery ofChildren learn mastery of classes, relations, and numbers and how to classes, relations, and numbers and how to

reason. reason. Formal operational (abstract thinking) (11 years Formal operational (abstract thinking) (11 years

and up) - The last stageand up) - The last stage deals with the mastery of thought.deals with the mastery of thought.

Constructivism Constructivism

Cognitive constructivism is based on the work of Cognitive constructivism is based on the work of Jean Piaget. HisJean Piaget. His

theory has two major theory has two major parts: an "ages and stages" component thatparts: an "ages and stages" component that

predicts what children predicts what children can and cannot understand at differentcan and cannot understand at different

ages, and a theory of ages, and a theory of development that describes how childrendevelopment that describes how children

develop cognitive develop cognitive abilities. abilities.

The main ideas underpinning constructivism learning theories areThe main ideas underpinning constructivism learning theories are not new. They began with the insights of not new. They began with the insights of

Socrates who claimedSocrates who claimed that there are basic conditions for learning that there are basic conditions for learning

that are in thethat are in the cognition of the individual (Kanuka & cognition of the individual (Kanuka &

Anderson, 1998). But itAnderson, 1998). But it was Piaget's theory of intellectual growth was Piaget's theory of intellectual growth

that had the primarythat had the primary influence on the development of current influence on the development of current

positions. Specifically,positions. Specifically, Piaget first emphasized the processes of Piaget first emphasized the processes of

conceptual change asconceptual change as interactions between existing cognitive interactions between existing cognitive

structures and newstructures and new experience experience

During the 1930s and 1940s, constructivism was the leadingDuring the 1930s and 1940s, constructivism was the leading perspective among public school educators perspective among public school educators

in the United States.in the United States. In this theory, the emphasis is placed on the In this theory, the emphasis is placed on the

student rather thanstudent rather than the teacher. Teachers are seen as the teacher. Teachers are seen as

facilitators or coaches whofacilitators or coaches who assist students construct their own assist students construct their own

conceptualizations andconceptualizations and solutions to problems. Within this theory solutions to problems. Within this theory

falls two schools offalls two schools of thought, social constructivism and cognitive thought, social constructivism and cognitive

constructivism: constructivism:

1. Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist and philosopher 1. Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist and philosopher in thein the

1930's, is most often associated 1930's, is most often associated with the social constructivistwith the social constructivist

theory. He emphasizes the theory. He emphasizes the influences of cultural and socialinfluences of cultural and social

contexts in learning and contexts in learning and supports a discovery model of learning.supports a discovery model of learning.

This type of model places the This type of model places the teacher in an active role while theteacher in an active role while the

students' mental abilities students' mental abilities develop naturally through various pathsdevelop naturally through various paths

of discovery. of discovery.

2. Cognitive constructivism is based on two different 2. Cognitive constructivism is based on two different senses ofsenses of

"construction." First, on the idea "construction." First, on the idea that people learn by activelythat people learn by actively

constructing new knowledge, constructing new knowledge, not by having information pourednot by having information poured

into their heads. Moreover, into their heads. Moreover, constructivism asserts that peopleconstructivism asserts that people

learn with particular learn with particular effectiveness when they are engaged ineffectiveness when they are engaged in

"constructing" personally "constructing" personally meaningful artifacts (e.g. computermeaningful artifacts (e.g. computer

programs, animations).programs, animations).

Discovery Learning Discovery Learning Hiero II requested that Archimedes find a method for Hiero II requested that Archimedes find a method for

determining whether adetermining whether a crown was pure gold or alloyed with crown was pure gold or alloyed with

silver. When he stepped into a bath hesilver. When he stepped into a bath he realized that a given weight of gold realized that a given weight of gold

would displace less water than an equalwould displace less water than an equal weight of silver (which is less dense weight of silver (which is less dense

than gold); at this point he shouted,than gold); at this point he shouted, "EUREKA" (I have found it!). "EUREKA" (I have found it!).

Discovery learning is based on this "Aha!"Discovery learning is based on this "Aha!" method. method.

Discovery Learning is an inquiry-based learning Discovery Learning is an inquiry-based learning method. The concept ofmethod. The concept of

discovery learning has discovery learning has appeared numerous times throughout history as appeared numerous times throughout history as a parta part

of the educational philosophy of the educational philosophy of many great philosophers particularlyof many great philosophers particularly

Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Dewey. "There is an intimate and necessary Dewey. "There is an intimate and necessary relationrelation

between the processes of between the processes of actual experience and education" wrote Dewey actual experience and education" wrote Dewey

Discovery learning takes place most Discovery learning takes place most notably in problem solving situationsnotably in problem solving situations

where the learner draws where the learner draws on his own experience and prior on his own experience and prior knowledge toknowledge to

discover the truths that discover the truths that are to be learned. It is a personal, internal,are to be learned. It is a personal, internal,

constructivist learning constructivist learning environment environment

Job Instruction Training (JIT) Job Instruction Training (JIT) During World War II (December 7, 1941 and lasting for 5 During World War II (December 7, 1941 and lasting for 5

years), the need for ayears), the need for a method of fast and efficient training arose. method of fast and efficient training arose.

Training Within Industry, an advisory serviceTraining Within Industry, an advisory service formed by the National Defense Advisory formed by the National Defense Advisory

Commission, developed the systematicCommission, developed the systematic on-the-job training method called JIT (Job on-the-job training method called JIT (Job

Instruction Training). Its goal was to trainInstruction Training). Its goal was to train supervisors in defense plants in the skills supervisors in defense plants in the skills

of instructing their workers as fast as possible.of instructing their workers as fast as possible. At first the train-the-trainer classes were At first the train-the-trainer classes were

three days long, but soon grew to a 45-hourthree days long, but soon grew to a 45-hour program.program.

Job-aid links Job-aid links

Although used for a very long time, the modern Although used for a very long time, the modern Job-Performance-AidJob-Performance-Aid

traces its modern roots to traces its modern roots to the JIT method. It began as a printed card thatthe JIT method. It began as a printed card that

contained step-by-step contained step-by-step instructions for performing a specific task. Theinstructions for performing a specific task. The

worker did not have to worker did not have to memorize the steps. memorize the steps.

Job aids are considered instructional Job aids are considered instructional interventions because they alsointerventions because they also

mediate knowledge and mediate knowledge and skills problems. However, job aids are not reallyskills problems. However, job aids are not really

intended to produce intended to produce learning, as they are a substitute for learning. learning, as they are a substitute for learning. LearningLearning

that does occur as a result that does occur as a result of using the job aid (surely considerable atof using the job aid (surely considerable at

times) is incidental.times) is incidental.

Abraham MaslowAbraham Maslow

American psychologist, Abraham Maslow, American psychologist, Abraham Maslow, published A Theory of Human Motivationpublished A Theory of Human Motivation

(1943) in the Psychological Review (1943) in the Psychological Review Journal which explains his "hierarchy of needs."Journal which explains his "hierarchy of needs."

His motivational model explained His motivational model explained that a higher need, ultimately that for self-that a higher need, ultimately that for self-actualization,actualization,

is expressed only after lower needs is expressed only after lower needs are fulfilled. are fulfilled.

Edwin R. Guthrie's study (1946) breaks skills into acts. Edwin R. Guthrie's study (1946) breaks skills into acts. Acts areActs are

defined as complicated behavior defined as complicated behavior patterns usually involving somepatterns usually involving some

goal accomplishment. Acts are goal accomplishment. Acts are made up of many individualmade up of many individual

movements. Movements are movements. Movements are specific responses to specific stimuli.specific responses to specific stimuli.

Acts are composed of muscular Acts are composed of muscular contractions that are the responsecontractions that are the response

to specific stimulus and are not to specific stimulus and are not dependent upon practice dependent upon practice

But theBut the learning of an act does depend learning of an act does depend

on practice. Learning an acton practice. Learning an act requires practice so that the requires practice so that the

proper movement is associated withproper movement is associated with its own cues. Once acquired, its own cues. Once acquired,

associations are permanent but theyassociations are permanent but they may not appear in every may not appear in every

performance due to weak associations.performance due to weak associations. These weak associations cannot These weak associations cannot

be retrieved because of strongbe retrieved because of strong interference from other interference from other

associations. associations.

. Short practice periods. Short practice periods develop weak develop weak

associations which learners are not able to associations which learners are not able to magnifymagnify

into stronger ones. into stronger ones. - Guthrie, E. R. (1952). The Psychology of- Guthrie, E. R. (1952). The Psychology of

Learning. New Learning. New York: Harper & Row. York: Harper & Row.

Adams theorized that if we practice long enough we develop aAdams theorized that if we practice long enough we develop a mental image. For example, professional players are often knownmental image. For example, professional players are often known to utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit ato utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball or throw a football, because they can instantaneouslytennis ball or throw a football, because they can instantaneously tell by the feel of the act what the result will produce. Not havingtell by the feel of the act what the result will produce. Not having balanced practice periods prevents learners from becoming fullybalanced practice periods prevents learners from becoming fully comfortable with the feel and use of the skill they are attempting tocomfortable with the feel and use of the skill they are attempting to acquire. Learners must have enough time to develop a completeacquire. Learners must have enough time to develop a complete mental image of the sequence of correct responses. Often we seemental image of the sequence of correct responses. Often we see learners who could perform in the classroom and then not be ablelearners who could perform in the classroom and then not be able to perform when they return to work. - Adams, J. (1977). Motorto perform when they return to work. - Adams, J. (1977). Motor Learning and Retention. In Marx, M. & Bunch, M. (Eds.),Learning and Retention. In Marx, M. & Bunch, M. (Eds.), Fundamentals and Applications of Learning. New York:Fundamentals and Applications of Learning. New York: Macmillan. Macmillan.

Hull discovered that when practice periods are spaced apartHull discovered that when practice periods are spaced apart (distributed practice), performance is superior to what it is (distributed practice), performance is superior to what it is

whenwhen practice periods are close together (massed practice). Also,practice periods are close together (massed practice). Also, during practice periods, the learners' performance will during practice periods, the learners' performance will

graduallygradually improve until some asymptotic (maximal) level is reached. If improve until some asymptotic (maximal) level is reached. If

thethe learners are allowed to rest, and then resume practice, theirlearners are allowed to rest, and then resume practice, their performance will tend to exceed their previous asymptotic performance will tend to exceed their previous asymptotic

levellevel (reminiscence effect). Learners that are provided rest or some(reminiscence effect). Learners that are provided rest or some other form of diversion between practice periods will reach other form of diversion between practice periods will reach

higherhigher levels of performance than learners who practice straight levels of performance than learners who practice straight

throughthrough without rest or diversion. - 7 Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles ofwithout rest or diversion. - 7 Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of Behavior. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Behavior. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:

Kurt LewinKurt Lewin(1890-1947) (1890-1947)

If you want trulyIf you want truly to understandto understand something, try tosomething, try to change it. - Kurtchange it. - Kurt Lewin Lewin

OrganizationOrganization Behavior Behavior In 1946, social scientist Kurt Lewin In 1946, social scientist Kurt Lewin

launches the Research Center for Group launches the Research Center for Group DynamicsDynamics

at the Massachusetts Institute of at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. His contributions in change theory, Technology. His contributions in change theory, actionaction

research, and action learning earn research, and action learning earn him the title of the "father of organizationhim the title of the "father of organization

development." development."

T-Groups T-Groups

In 1947, the National Training Laboratories In 1947, the National Training Laboratories Institute starts up in the Bethel ME. TheyInstitute starts up in the Bethel ME. They

pioneer the use of T-groups pioneer the use of T-groups (Sensitivity or Laboratory Training) in which the (Sensitivity or Laboratory Training) in which the learnerslearners

use feedback, problem solving, use feedback, problem solving, and role play to gain insights into themselves, and role play to gain insights into themselves, others, andothers, and

groups. The goal is to change the groups. The goal is to change the standards, attitudes and behavior of individuals. standards, attitudes and behavior of individuals.

Organizational Development Organizational Development A group of researchers from London's Tavistock A group of researchers from London's Tavistock

Institute of HumanInstitute of Human Relations, led by Eric Trist, studied Relations, led by Eric Trist, studied

a South Yorkshire coal mine ina South Yorkshire coal mine in 1949. Their research leads in the 1949. Their research leads in the

development of the Sociotechnicaldevelopment of the Sociotechnical Systems Theory which considers Systems Theory which considers

both the social and the technicalboth the social and the technical aspects when designing jobs. It aspects when designing jobs. It

marks a 180-degree departure frommarks a 180-degree departure from Frederick Taylor's scientific Frederick Taylor's scientific

management. management.

There are four basic components to There are four basic components to sociotechnical theory:sociotechnical theory:

environment environment subsystem, social subsystem, technical subsystem, social subsystem, technical subsystem, andsubsystem, and

organizational organizational design.design.

Cognitive ScienceCognitive Science "I think, therefore"I think, therefore I am" - Descartes I am" - Descartes Descartes arguedDescartes argued that the ultimatethat the ultimate truth can betruth can be deduced only fromdeduced only from the real existencethe real existence of a "thinkingof a "thinking self." He assumedself." He assumed that the "thinkingthat the "thinking self" isself" is independent ofindependent of body or matter, asbody or matter, as it does have anit does have an extension we canextension we can see and touch butsee and touch but does not think, adoes not think, a mind has nomind has no extension butextension but thinks. thinks.

By the mid 1950s, cognitive views of learning and By the mid 1950s, cognitive views of learning and development gained dominance overdevelopment gained dominance over

the stimulus-response approach. With this the stimulus-response approach. With this renewed interest, research went into deeperrenewed interest, research went into deeper

levels into how individuals acquire, retain, levels into how individuals acquire, retain, recall and transform information. Cognitiverecall and transform information. Cognitive

Psychology is an approach to the study of Psychology is an approach to the study of the human mind that relies on an informationthe human mind that relies on an information

processing metaphor and tests predictions processing metaphor and tests predictions of theories using human subjects engaged inof theories using human subjects engaged in

cognitive tasks. cognitive tasks.

The early views of mind had the Greek The early views of mind had the Greek philosophers identifying three aspects of thephilosophers identifying three aspects of the

mind: Cognition (acts of intellect), mind: Cognition (acts of intellect), conation (acts of will), and affect (acts of conation (acts of will), and affect (acts of emotions)emotions)

These are related to what we These are related to what we today identify as the distinction between today identify as the distinction between structurestructure

(organization) and process (organization) and process (action).(action).

InstructionalInstructional Systems Design Systems Design (ISD) or System (ISD) or System

Approach to Approach to Training (SAT) Training (SAT)

ISD Model ISD Model Instructional systems design arose out of the 50-60's Instructional systems design arose out of the 50-60's

as educational technologyas educational technology development paralleled and modeled the systems development paralleled and modeled the systems

approach emerging within the militaryapproach emerging within the military and industrial worlds. The traditional approach to and industrial worlds. The traditional approach to

education was viewed as piecemeal.education was viewed as piecemeal. ISD attempted to integrate all the components of the ISD attempted to integrate all the components of the

instructional process into a systeminstructional process into a system . This was accomplished by developing instructional . This was accomplished by developing instructional

systems with flow charts or lists ofsystems with flow charts or lists of steps to be followed. The term task analysis was used steps to be followed. The term task analysis was used

by the Air Force in the earlyby the Air Force in the early 1950s to refer to procedures for anticipating the job 1950s to refer to procedures for anticipating the job

requirements of new equipmentrequirements of new equipment under development.under development.

Don Kirkpatrick and Evaluating Don Kirkpatrick and Evaluating Training Training

Evaluation Evaluation Don Kirkpatrick introduces his four-level model of Don Kirkpatrick introduces his four-level model of

evaluating training in 1959 evaluating training in 1959 1.Reaction - measures how those who participate in 1.Reaction - measures how those who participate in

the program react to it. the program react to it. 2.Learning - the extent to which participants change 2.Learning - the extent to which participants change

attitudes, improve knowledge,attitudes, improve knowledge, and increase skill as a result of attending the and increase skill as a result of attending the

program. program. 3.Behavior - the extent to which a change in behavior 3.Behavior - the extent to which a change in behavior

has occurred because thehas occurred because the participants attended the training program. participants attended the training program. 4.Results - the final results that occurred because the 4.Results - the final results that occurred because the

participants attended theparticipants attended the program.program.

Herzberg's Hygiene and Herzberg's Hygiene and Motivational FactorsMotivational Factors

In 1959, Frederick Herzberg developed a In 1959, Frederick Herzberg developed a list of factors which are closely based onlist of factors which are closely based on

Maslow's Hierarchy of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, except it more closely related to Needs, except it more closely related to work. Hygiene factorswork. Hygiene factors

must be present in the job must be present in the job before motivators can be used to stimulate before motivators can be used to stimulate the workers: the workers:

Hygiene or Dissatisfiers: Hygiene or Dissatisfiers: Working conditions Working conditions Policies and administrative Policies and administrative

practices practices Salary and Benefits Salary and Benefits Supervision Supervision Status Status Job security Job security Fellow workers Fellow workers Personal life Personal life

Motivators or Satisfiers: Motivators or Satisfiers: Recognition Recognition Achievement Achievement Advancement Advancement Growth Growth Responsibility Responsibility Job challengeJob challenge

B. F. Skinner (1904 -1990) B. F. Skinner (1904 -1990)

Skinner designed an apparatus, called aSkinner designed an apparatus, called a Skinner box, that allowed him to formulateSkinner box, that allowed him to formulate important principles of animal learning. Animportant principles of animal learning. An animal placed inside the box is rewardedanimal placed inside the box is rewarded with a small bit of food each time it makeswith a small bit of food each time it makes the desired response, such as pressing athe desired response, such as pressing a lever or pecking a key. A device outside thelever or pecking a key. A device outside the box records the animal's responses. box records the animal's responses.

Theory X and Theory YTheory X and Theory Y

Douglas McGreagor developed a Douglas McGreagor developed a philosophical view of humankind with his philosophical view of humankind with his Theory XTheory X

and Theory Y in 1960. and Theory Y in 1960. These are two opposing perceptions about These are two opposing perceptions about how people viewhow people view

human behavior at work and human behavior at work and organizational life. organizational life.

Theory X - With Theory X assumptions, Theory X - With Theory X assumptions, management's role is to coerce and management's role is to coerce and controlcontrol

employees. employees.

Theory Y - With Theory Y assumptions, Theory Y - With Theory Y assumptions, management's role is to develop the management's role is to develop the potentialpotential

in employees and help them in employees and help them to release that potential towards common to release that potential towards common goals. goals.

Carl Rogers (1902-1987) Carl Rogers (1902-1987) Rogers and Feedback Rogers and Feedback Best known for his contribution Best known for his contribution

to client-centered therapy,to client-centered therapy, Rogers was one of the Rogers was one of the

founders of humanistic psychology,founders of humanistic psychology, which promotes a more person-which promotes a more person-

to-person approach to theto-person approach to the traditional therapist-patient traditional therapist-patient

relationship, and emphasizes therelationship, and emphasizes the responsibility and intention in responsibility and intention in

human behavior. Rogers also hadhuman behavior. Rogers also had much to say about education much to say about education

Albert Bandura Albert Bandura Learning by Observing Learning by Observing Observational Learning Links Observational Learning Links Self-Efficacy Links Self-Efficacy Links In the early 1960s, Albert Bandura In the early 1960s, Albert Bandura

began a series of writings thatbegan a series of writings that challenged the older explanations of challenged the older explanations of

imitative learning and expand the topicimitative learning and expand the topic into what is now referred to as into what is now referred to as

Observational Learning. According toObservational Learning. According to Bandura, observation learning may Bandura, observation learning may

or may not involve imitation or may not involve imitation

Acquisition - New responses are learned by Acquisition - New responses are learned by observing the model. observing the model.

Inhibition - A response Inhibition - A response that otherwise may be made is changedthat otherwise may be made is changed

when the observer sees when the observer sees a model being punished. a model being punished.

Disinhibition - A reduction Disinhibition - A reduction in fear by observing a model's behaviorin fear by observing a model's behavior

go unpunished in a go unpunished in a feared activity. feared activity.

Facilitation - A model elicits from an Facilitation - A model elicits from an observer a response that hasobserver a response that has

already been already been learned. learned.

Creativity - Creativity - Observing several models performing and Observing several models performing and then adaptingthen adapting

a combination of a combination of characteristics or styles. characteristics or styles.

CuingCuing Cuing refers to actions that make stimuli more salient Cuing refers to actions that make stimuli more salient

and thus more likelyand thus more likely to be noticed. Attention can be cued to be noticed. Attention can be cued

directly, e.g., "Watch this!", ordirectly, e.g., "Watch this!", or indirectly, e.g., "I wonder what will indirectly, e.g., "I wonder what will

happen when I push this button?" Inhappen when I push this button?" In general, cuing includes the directing general, cuing includes the directing

of attention through pointing, holdingof attention through pointing, holding objects up for viewing, telling objects up for viewing, telling

learners where to look, or asking questionslearners where to look, or asking questions that will cause them to process that will cause them to process

information and find the appropriateinformation and find the appropriate stimulus. stimulus.

Self-EfficacySelf-Efficacy

Bandura also researched self-efficacy. This is Bandura also researched self-efficacy. This is part of our "self system" thatpart of our "self system" that

helps us to evaluate our helps us to evaluate our performance. Perceived self-efficacy refers toperformance. Perceived self-efficacy refers to

one's impression of what one's impression of what one is capable of doing. This comes from aone is capable of doing. This comes from a

variety of sources, such as variety of sources, such as personal accomplishments and failures, seeingpersonal accomplishments and failures, seeing

others who are similar to others who are similar to oneself, and verbal persuasion. oneself, and verbal persuasion.

Instructional DesignInstructional Design

In 1962, Robert Glaser synthesized the work of In 1962, Robert Glaser synthesized the work of previous researchers and introducedprevious researchers and introduced

the concept of instructional design. the concept of instructional design. He also advocated Individually PrescribedHe also advocated Individually Prescribed

Instruction (IPI), an approach Instruction (IPI), an approach where the results of a learner's placement test where the results of a learner's placement test are usedare used

to plan learner-specific instruction. to plan learner-specific instruction.

Performance ObjectivesPerformance Objectives In 1962, Robert Mager published his work In 1962, Robert Mager published his work

Preparing Instructional Objectives on thePreparing Instructional Objectives on the construction of performance construction of performance

objectives. An objective describes in measurable objectives. An objective describes in measurable terms ofterms of

who an objective targets, the who an objective targets, the behavior they will exhibit, the conditions or behavior they will exhibit, the conditions or limitationslimitations

under which they must carry out under which they must carry out this behavior, and the criteria against which theirthis behavior, and the criteria against which their

behavior will be gauged. behavior will be gauged.

Performance or learning objectives are Performance or learning objectives are often defined as the task (behavior), often defined as the task (behavior), condition,condition,

and standard. For example, and standard. For example, "From memory, list the three requirements "From memory, list the three requirements of a well-statedof a well-stated

performance objective performance objective without error." without error."

Task - list the three requirements of a well-Task - list the three requirements of a well-stated performance objective stated performance objective

Condition - From memory Condition - From memory Standard - without errorStandard - without error

Robert GagneRobert Gagne

Conditions For Learning To Occur Conditions For Learning To Occur In 1962 when Robert Gagne In 1962 when Robert Gagne

published Military Training and Principles ofpublished Military Training and Principles of Learning he demonstrated a Learning he demonstrated a

concern for the different levels of learning. Hisconcern for the different levels of learning. His differentiation of psychomotor differentiation of psychomotor

skills, verbal information, intellectual skills,skills, verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, and cognitive strategies, and

attitudes provides a companion to Bloom's attitudes provides a companion to Bloom's Taxonomy Taxonomy

. These events are still important for. These events are still important for the basis for the design of instruction and the the basis for the design of instruction and the

selection of appropriate media: 1.gain attention selection of appropriate media: 1.gain attention 2.tell learners the learning objective 2.tell learners the learning objective 3.stimulate recall 3.stimulate recall 4.present the stimulus, content 4.present the stimulus, content 5.provide guidance, relevance, and organization 5.provide guidance, relevance, and organization 6.elicit the learning by demonstrating it 6.elicit the learning by demonstrating it 7.provide feedback on performance 7.provide feedback on performance 8.assess performance, give feedback and 8.assess performance, give feedback and

reinforcement reinforcement 9.enhance retention and transfer to other 9.enhance retention and transfer to other

contexts contexts

Gagne also distinguished eight different classes of situations in Gagne also distinguished eight different classes of situations in which humanwhich human

beings learn: 1.Signal Learning - The individual beings learn: 1.Signal Learning - The individual learns to make a general, diffuselearns to make a general, diffuse

response to a signal. Such was the classical response to a signal. Such was the classical conditioned response ofconditioned response of

Pavlov. Pavlov. 2.Stimulus-Response Learning - The learner 2.Stimulus-Response Learning - The learner

acquires a precise responseacquires a precise response to a discriminated stimulus. to a discriminated stimulus. 3.Chaining - A chain of two or more stimulus-3.Chaining - A chain of two or more stimulus-

response connections isresponse connections is acquired. acquired.

4.Verbal Association - The learning of chains that are 4.Verbal Association - The learning of chains that are verbal. verbal.

5.Discrimination Learning - The 5.Discrimination Learning - The individual learns to make differentindividual learns to make different

identifying responses to many identifying responses to many different stimuli which may resemble eachdifferent stimuli which may resemble each

other in physical appearance. other in physical appearance. 6.Concept Learning - The learner 6.Concept Learning - The learner

acquires a capability of making aacquires a capability of making a common response to a class of common response to a class of

stimuli. stimuli.

7.Rule Learning - A rule is a chain of two 7.Rule Learning - A rule is a chain of two or more concepts. or more concepts.

8.Problem Solving - A 8.Problem Solving - A kind of learning that requires the internal kind of learning that requires the internal eventsevents

usually called usually called thinking.thinking.

The Blake and Mouton Managerial The Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid Grid

Management Grid Management Grid In 1964 Robert Blake and Jane Mouton In 1964 Robert Blake and Jane Mouton

develop a model that conceptualizesdevelop a model that conceptualizes management styles and relations. management styles and relations. Their Grid uses two axis. "Concern for Their Grid uses two axis. "Concern for

people" is plotted using the vertical axis andpeople" is plotted using the vertical axis and "Concern for task" is along the horizontal "Concern for task" is along the horizontal

axis. They both have a range of 1 to 9. Theaxis. They both have a range of 1 to 9. The notion that just two dimensions can notion that just two dimensions can

describe a managerial behavior has the attraction ofdescribe a managerial behavior has the attraction of simplicity.simplicity.

Alan Tough Alan Tough

Tough's first work: (1968), Why Adults Learn: A Tough's first work: (1968), Why Adults Learn: A Study of the Major ReasonsStudy of the Major Reasons

for Beginning and Continuing a for Beginning and Continuing a Learning Project. Toronto: Ontario InstituteLearning Project. Toronto: Ontario Institute

for Studies in Education, for Studies in Education, explained why adult learners expect the learningexplained why adult learners expect the learning

experience to mirror their experience to mirror their feelings of autonomy and self-worth, and tofeelings of autonomy and self-worth, and to

acknowledge their life acknowledge their life experience. experience.

Fred Keller - The PersonalizedFred Keller - The Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) System of Instruction (PSI)

Research on PSI Research on PSI Also know as the Keller plan. First Also know as the Keller plan. First

described by Fred Keller in Good Byedescribed by Fred Keller in Good Bye Teacher - Journal of Applied Teacher - Journal of Applied

Behavior Analysis (1968). It is composedBehavior Analysis (1968). It is composed of small self-paced modularized of small self-paced modularized

units of instructions where study guidesunits of instructions where study guides direct learners through the modules. direct learners through the modules.

Unit tests are given on each moduleUnit tests are given on each module where the learners must show where the learners must show

mastery by scoring at least a 90%. Studentmastery by scoring at least a 90%. Student

Keller divided the process for creating PSI into Keller divided the process for creating PSI into four steps: four steps:

Determine the material to Determine the material to be covered in the course. be covered in the course.

Divide the material into Divide the material into self contained modules (segments). self contained modules (segments).

Create methods of Create methods of evaluating the degree to which the learner has evaluating the degree to which the learner has conquered the material in a given module. conquered the material in a given module.

Allow learners to move Allow learners to move from module to module at their own pace. from module to module at their own pace.

"(1) The go-at-your-own pace feature, which "(1) The go-at-your-own pace feature, which permits a student to movepermits a student to move

through the course at a through the course at a speed commensurate with his ability and otherspeed commensurate with his ability and other

demands of his time. (2) The demands of his time. (2) The unit-perfection requirement for advance, which unit-perfection requirement for advance, which lets the student go ahead to new material only lets the student go ahead to new material only after demonstratingafter demonstrating

mastery of that which mastery of that which preceded. (3) The use of lectures andpreceded. (3) The use of lectures and

demonstrations as vehicles demonstrations as vehicles of motivation, rather than sources of criticalof motivation, rather than sources of critical

permits repeated testing, immediate permits repeated testing, immediate scoring, almost unavoidable tutoring,scoring, almost unavoidable tutoring,

and a marked and a marked enhancement of the personal-social enhancement of the personal-social aspect of theeducational process". - Fred aspect of theeducational process". - Fred Keller - "Good-Bye Teacher..." (1968)Keller - "Good-Bye Teacher..." (1968)

Journal of Applied Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis.Behavior Analysis.

Malcom KnowlesMalcom Knowles

In 1970, Malcom Knowles began to In 1970, Malcom Knowles began to popularize andragogy by advocating the popularize andragogy by advocating the adultadult

learning theory - a set of learning theory - a set of assumptions that characterize adult assumptions that characterize adult learners. Knowles identifieslearners. Knowles identifies

four characteristics of adults four characteristics of adults as learners: as learners:

a self-concept tending towards self-a self-concept tending towards self-direction direction

a growing reservoir of a growing reservoir of experience experience

a developmental a developmental readiness to learn readiness to learn

a problem-centered and a problem-centered and present reality orientation to learning. present reality orientation to learning.

He also taught us that students enter with He also taught us that students enter with learner self-concepts shaped by the realities oflearner self-concepts shaped by the realities of

a classroom experience that a classroom experience that taught them to be dependent and passive, two taught them to be dependent and passive, two potentiallypotentially

fatal learner attributes in a fatal learner attributes in a distance learning environment. As Malcolm put it distance learning environment. As Malcolm put it soso

succinctly, "most of us only know succinctly, "most of us only know how to be taught, we haven't learned how to how to be taught, we haven't learned how to learn." learn."

Performance Through Excellence Performance Through Excellence

In 1978, Tom Gilbert published Human In 1978, Tom Gilbert published Human Competence: Engineering WorthyCompetence: Engineering Worthy

Performance. It describes Performance. It describes the behavioral-engineering model which the behavioral-engineering model which become the biblebecome the bible

of performance technology. of performance technology.

Lifelong Learning Lifelong Learning Patricia Cross' 1981 book, Adults as learners Patricia Cross' 1981 book, Adults as learners

described three features ofdescribed three features of lifelong learning: A more lifelong learning: A more

holistic concept of growth or education than that holistic concept of growth or education than that which has beenwhich has been

used in traditional formal used in traditional formal education. education.

A wider view of providers of A wider view of providers of and settings for education than merelyand settings for education than merely

schools (what she terms the schools (what she terms the learning society). learning society).

Howard Gardner and Multiple Howard Gardner and Multiple Intelligences Intelligences

Gardner suggests that our intelligences are organized Gardner suggests that our intelligences are organized 'vertically', as a number of almost'vertically', as a number of almost

different faculties, rather than 'horizontally', different faculties, rather than 'horizontally', as a set of general abilities. This viewpointas a set of general abilities. This viewpoint

was in direct contrast to many of the was in direct contrast to many of the language and logic theorists who believe that therelanguage and logic theorists who believe that there

was only one kind of intelligence, that we was only one kind of intelligence, that we either had a lot of it or not that much, and thateither had a lot of it or not that much, and that

there was virtually very little that we could there was virtually very little that we could be do about that. be do about that.

In Frames, Gardner theorized eight basic intelligences In Frames, Gardner theorized eight basic intelligences to represent these other modes: to represent these other modes:

linguistic-verbal (most widely accepted) linguistic-verbal (most widely accepted) logical-mathematical (most widely logical-mathematical (most widely

accepted) accepted) visual-spatial visual-spatial bodily-kinesthetic bodily-kinesthetic musical-rhythmic musical-rhythmic interpersonal (most criticized) interpersonal (most criticized) intrapersonal (most criticized) intrapersonal (most criticized) naturalist (recently added)naturalist (recently added)

Kolb's Learning Styles Kolb's Learning Styles

Kolb's Experiential Learning: Experience Kolb's Experiential Learning: Experience as the source of learning and developmentas the source of learning and development

(1984) theorized that people (1984) theorized that people develop preferences for different learning develop preferences for different learning styles in the samestyles in the same

way that they develop any way that they develop any other sort of style, i.e. - management, other sort of style, i.e. - management, leadership, negotiatingleadership, negotiating

etc. etc.

Adult Education Adult Education Stephen Brookfield's Understanding and Facilitating Stephen Brookfield's Understanding and Facilitating

Adult Learning (1986)Adult Learning (1986) summarized six leading principles of adult summarized six leading principles of adult

education: education: voluntary participation in learning voluntary participation in learning mutual respect among participants mutual respect among participants collaborative facilitation collaborative facilitation a praxis approach to teaching/learning a praxis approach to teaching/learning the necessity of critical reflection upon the necessity of critical reflection upon

the breadth of life, and the breadth of life, and a proactive and self-directed a proactive and self-directed

empowerment of participants. empowerment of participants.

Computer Based Training (CBT) Computer Based Training (CBT) Although PLATO, the first dedicated computer based training system,Although PLATO, the first dedicated computer based training system, was built in 1959, CBT did not really come around until was built in 1959, CBT did not really come around until

the late 80s orthe late 80s or early 1990s. The early CBT programs were little more early 1990s. The early CBT programs were little more

than programmedthan programmed instruction teaching machines. It was not until the instruction teaching machines. It was not until the

1990s that their1990s that their multimedia capabilities were put to full use. It is based multimedia capabilities were put to full use. It is based

on individualizedon individualized instruction that allows a learner to work through the instruction that allows a learner to work through the

material at her ownmaterial at her own pace. It is a natural progression from printed pace. It is a natural progression from printed

individualized instruction andindividualized instruction and teaching machines to the computer with its speed, teaching machines to the computer with its speed,

branching capabilitybranching capability and visual display. and visual display.

Learning Organization Learning Organization

In 1990, Peter Senge popularized the In 1990, Peter Senge popularized the "Learning Organization" in The Fifth "Learning Organization" in The Fifth Discipline:Discipline:

The Art and Practice of the The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization . Learning Organization .

The five disciplines are: The five disciplines are: 1.System Thinking - It allows one to look at the 1.System Thinking - It allows one to look at the

events in an organization and see aevents in an organization and see a pattern of complex relationships. pattern of complex relationships. 2.Personal Mastery - Seeing what is and what could 2.Personal Mastery - Seeing what is and what could

be and then changing to meetbe and then changing to meet the vision. the vision. 3.Mental Models - Assumptions about how we see 3.Mental Models - Assumptions about how we see

the world. the world. 4.Shared Vision - A team competency in which 4.Shared Vision - A team competency in which

everyone has a common goal oreveryone has a common goal or shared picture. shared picture. 5.Team Learning - The team suspend their 5.Team Learning - The team suspend their

assumptions and take up dialogue thatassumptions and take up dialogue that embraces the collective good.embraces the collective good.