A. Hazardous EnvironmentsA. Coastal Environments

B. Urban EnvironmentsB. Economic Activity & EnergyC. Globalisation & Migration

Minimum number of case studies if well learnt = 15Textbook case studies

Non

iGCSE case studies

A. Hazardous Environments

Two areas of case study requirements1. A comparative study of the impacts of

tropical storms, in an LIC and an HIC. Katrina & Nargis

2. Case studies of the management of one tropical storm and one tectonic event. One of these should have happened in an LIC and the other in an HIC. Katrina & Pinatubo

1. A comparative study of the impacts of TRS, in an LIC & an HIC.HIC – Katrina 2005 LIC – Nargis 2008

Location, Time, Scale

• 24/08/05 = tropical storm over the Bahamas• 28/08/05 = Category 5 over Gulf of Mexico• 29/08/05 = Cat. 3 hit; Florida, Louisiana, Georgia, Alabama & Mississippi •Wind speeds max.175mph (282kmh-1)•Storm surge = 7.3 to 8.5m along Mississippi coast • Up to 35 cm rainfall

• 02/05/08 = Tropical Cyclone hits Myanmar• Wind speeds max.160mph (260 kmh-1)• Tracked W to E along the south coast of Myanmar = 25%

of M. pop.tn

• Storm surge = 3.5m• Up to 60cm rainfall

Short-term impacts

Deaths / Injuries 1. @1,836 people died (mainly in Louisiana) + 705 reported missing2. @ 1.2 million people given evacuation order3. Most deaths caused by storm surge and aftermath of Katrina

1. 140,000 died or were missing,2. 1.5m to 3m people were displaced after the cyclone.3. Lack of food – 55 % of poptn = one day of food stocks or

less.4. Flooded @ 14,402 square kilometres2 (5,561 square

miles) of the Irrawaddy River Delta5. Health - 75% of health facilities in the affected areas

destroyed6. Diseases –

1. malaria & dengue fever spread by mosquitoes2. Plague & leptospirosis spread by rodents.

Buildings & Infrastructure

1. Accommodation1. @ $81 billion of damage to property 2. 200,000 homes damaged or destroyed (mostly in New

Orleans) 2. Infrastructure

1. @ $150 billion damage to infrastructure caused 2. 3 million people lost electricity supply 3. winds destroyed smaller buildings, heavily damaged larger

buildings; Infrastructure mostly damaged or submerged, transport links inoperable

4. 90% of coastal structures destroyed

1. Accommodation – 1. 60% of homes in the path of the storm were

destroyed.2. 800,000 homes destroyed and 350,000 homes

damaged. 2. Infrastructure

1. Many villages were cut off for several weeks as waterways clogged with debris and roads were destroyed. (The army organising the relief was unable to liaise with impacted people.)

2. Education - 4,500 schools were destroyed3. Agriculture impact –

1. 50% of draught animals died in the region, fishing boats and jetties were destroyed, and the storm water swept away food stocks and agricultural implements.

Longer-term

Social costs: Homelessness

1. 40, 000 displaced = 26, 000 homeless temporarily relocated to Louisiana Superdome ( = unsanitary = led to spread of disease) + 14, 000 housed in Astrodome, Texas

2. Thousands of people lost their jobs & forced to move for employment (environmental internally displaced)

1. 1.5-3 million displaced, mainly within Rangoon area

Economic & Environmental

costs

1. Total cost of damage = $89.6 bn2. 70% of damaged property was insured 3. 53 levees damaged/destroyed4. $105 million spent on repairs to infrastructure and housing5. 30 oil platforms destroyed6. Agricultural & Environmental

1. industrial waste & raw sewage = New Orleans drains + oil spills from offshore rigs,/coastal refineries & petrol stations

2. "Witch's Brew" = 7 million gallons of oil + = could devastate the region’s biodiversity for many years to come = devastating the fisheries = economic impact

3. “Superfund Sites” Flooded = five “Superfund” sites (heavily polluted industrial sites slated for federal cleanup) + infamous “Cancer Alley” industrial corridor between New Orleans and Baton Rouge = EPA problem

4. Contaminates Groundwater = Household hazardous wastes, pesticides, heavy metals and other toxic chemicals also created a witch’s brew of floodwater that quickly seeped down into and contaminated groundwater = long term

5. Forest industry =1.3million acres of forest lands destroyed6. Substantial beach erosion =560 km2 of land transformed to

water.7. lost breeding homes for animals such as marine mammals,

brown pelicans, turtles, and fish, as well as migratory species such as redhead ducks. Over 20% of marshes permanently turned to water. Damage forced the

8. closure of 16 National Wildlife Refuges.

1. Total cost of damage = $10 bn,2. Almost no insurance3. Difficult for country to recover, will become medium to

long term effect (ROSTOW!)1. $4bin (1.7 assets, 2.3 lost income)- ASEAN

figures4. Agricultural & Environmental

1. Shallow continental land shelf = Silt washed ashore ruins some farmland, but can make the land fertile

2. Forests destroyed- 38,000ha3. Green land flooded, @600,000ha, 4. Rice production drops ↓500,000 tons5. Farm animals killed = no tilling of land6. 50% Boats for fishing destroyed, income lost

1. A comparative study of the impacts of TRS, in an LIC & an HIC.

HIC/TRS – Katrina 2005 LIC/Tectonic – Pinatubo 1991

Pre-event Prediction & Responses• 25/08/05 = Katrina made landfall = Cat.

1 in southern Florida and weakened into a tropical storm as a result. The next morning, after passing over the state, Tropical Storm Katrina moved into the Gulf of Mexico, reintensified

• 26/08/05 = 56 hr before Katrina's landfall = National Hurricane Center had predicted that the Greater New Orleans area could face a direct hit = Louisiana Governor Kathleen Blanco declares a State of Emergency in Louisiana

• 27/08/05 = NHC issued a hurricane watch that included the New Orleans metro area,[which was upgraded to a hurricane warning by 10:00 p.m. = Blanco asks President Bush to declare a State of Emergency for Louisiana = Bush does so, authorizing the Department of Homeland Security and FEMA "to coordinate all disaster relief efforts…" and freeing up federal money for the state.

• 28/08/05 = NHC bulletin for the New Orleans region = warning of the devastation = people in SE Louisiana & S. Mississippi, followed evacuation orders more closely, = reduced casualty toll.= New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin = mandatory evacuation of the city. The evacuation call comes only 20 hours before Katrina would make landfall – less than half the time that researchers had determined was necessary to evacuate the city

Prediction & Responses1. Three successive evacuation zones were defined:

1. <10 km of the volcano's summit. 2. 10 to 20 km from the summit. (40,000)3. 20 to 40 km from the summit. (331,000)

2. Five stages of volcanic alert ;1. Level 1 = low level seismic disturbances 2. Level 5 which is a major eruption in progress.

3. Daily alerts were issued stating the alert level and associated danger area.

4. Information was announced in major national and local newspapers, radio and television stations

5. Many Aeta = left their villages of their own volition when the first explosions began in April. = Aeta gathered in a village 12 km from summit.

6. COSPEC, tiltometers & seismographs used to predict eruption

7. Evacuations1. 7/04/91 – zone 12. 7/06/91 – zone 2 – alert 43. 14//06/91 – zone 3 – alert 5BY 15th June eruption, 60,000 had evacuated from 30km radius

2. The management of one tropical storm and one tectonic event. One of these should have happened in an LIC and the other in an HIC.

2. The management of one tropical storm and one tectonic event. One of these should have happened in an LIC and the other in an HIC.

HIC/TRS – Katrina 2005 LIC/Tectonic – Pinatubo 1991

Short term response 1. Local government try and deal with problems then when its sources are exhausted

2. County level, if county can not cope then the3. State gets involved and finally the4. Federal government provide help if needed. PROBLEM = inadequate planning and back-up communications systems at various levels.ACTIONS5. FEMA had

1. refrigerated trucks with food to worst affected areas 2. volunteers began distributing this food in New Orleans continued

for six months.6. 60,000 stranded in New Orleans and the Coast guard rescued more than

33,500.7. 58,000 National Guard personnel 50 states to help8. early September congress authorised $62.3 billion in aid for victims. 9. FEMA provided help with housing to more 700,000 families and individuals,

e.g. trailers. 10. FEMA aid for 12,000 hotel rooms to help with those displaced until

February when evacuees had to claim federal assistance. 11. July 2006 37,745 people were still living in FEMA trailers.12. Man power from as far away as New York and California.13. Two weeks after the storm more than half the states were providing shelter

for evacuees, by four weeks there were evacuees in all states14. >70 countries gave money or other donations such as mobile hospitals,

water treatment plants, helicopters, doctors, water, food, medicine. E.g. Kuwait $500 million ,Qatar and United Arab Emirates (each $100 million), South Korea ($30 million), Australia ($10 million), India, China (both $5 million), New Zealand ($2 million) Pakistan ($1.5 million) and Bangladesh ($1 million) + India, Israel, Sri Lanka, Canada, Mexico, Singapore, Germany, Belgium also donated aid.

15. Britain, Russia and France’s offers were declined.16. NGO’s such as the American Red Cross, Oxfam, along with many other

religious charities offered help. In total NGO’s raised $4.25 bn in public donations (50% from the Red Cross.

17. The Red Cross also opened 1,470 shelters and in total they helped over 1.4 million families.

1. < 500 people were killed directly from the volcano, which is very small considering the size of the blast.

2. + 300 were killed indirectly from things such as respiratory problems.

3. The main cause of direct death was from buildings collapsing under the weight of ash and rain from the typhoon that hit the country at the same time as the eruption.

4. @ 650,000 people homeless, 5. @ 8,000 homes were totally destroyed with a further

75,000 more damaged. 6. Clark air force base was damaged to such an extent the

Americans decided not to rebuild it. 7. The people evacuated from their homes were put in

temporary homes such as tents or cheap basic metal constructions (spontaneous settlements) and given basic food such as rice.

8. National disaster co-ordinating council of Philippines sent provisions helped the homeless.

9. Local indigenous help - Aeta people10. Country originally refused aid as government do not want

people to think that the volcano was bigger than it was and the government could not cope.

11. Some of the drugs NGO’s and governments use are not allowed or licensed in some countries. It would also have been hard to co-ordinate all the different groups coming in. They also wanted to prove that they could cope with the situation. They also want to prove they can cope with the situation.

12. Multilateral aid from UN channelled through the World Health Organisation, UNICEF and UN world food program to send food. Medicine and look after children. UNICEF used churches to help co-ordinate their efforts at grassroots level.

2. The management of one tropical storm and one tectonic event. One of these should have happened in an LIC and the other in an HIC.

HIC/TRS – Katrina 2005 LIC/Tectonic – Pinatubo 1991

Long term responses 1. Local governments used cost benefit analysis. 1. To rebuild poorly built homes or leave them?2. .To move people into the new more improved

homes which they had built, or move them out of the area?

2. Before building could begin all the flood water had to be removed, from New Orleans = 43 days into Lake Pontchartrain. = millions of fish died (pollution)

3. Adjustment Temporary homes built in affected areas to get people to move back into the area before their new homes were built.

4. Populations in badly hit places dropped 1. 2006 Louisiana’s population had dropped 4.87%.

5. Trust - get used to the idea that more storms would happen = trust new levees as old ones had failed and a government which some people felt had failed them.

6. Prediction had to be improved. More money was spent on hurricane prediction + preparation + equipment

7. More spent on education 8. Improve was communication as it had gone so badly wrong

during the hurricane.

1. The volcano eruption reshaped the land around causing more risks and disasters.

1. River cut new channels in the ash = erosion of the land. Due to built up ash, torrential rain from the typhoon and the flooding from the rivers, lahars started happening.

2. Lahars then destroyed more homes and devastated more lives.

3. $500,000 property damage and 650,000 jobs lost.2. Four months on from the eruption 200,000 people were still

homeless.3. Problems for the government.

1. majority of clean drinking water = contaminated either by ash or the sewers overflowing. = disease spreading quickly in the areas where the homeless were grouped.

2. 50% of cattle in the surrounding area were killed & many crops were ruined meaning a shortage in food.

3. A lot of people could not afford to pay their taxes = government had even less money to rebuild homes meaning people were homeless for even longer.

4. Aeta tribe = hit the hardest as all their land was destroyed meaning they had to all be re-distributed.

5. Long term positive recovery aid. 1. The Entrepreneur volunteer assistance (EVA) taught the Aeta

to take the volcanic ash and make it into pottery to sell to fund education, healthcare and training programs.

2. Multiplier effect, microfinance used to start up tourist activities – bottom up

Three areas of case study requirements1. Case study of a located coral reef or a

mangrove stand and its management. SMMA

2. Case study of a stretch of a coastline under pressure. SMMA

3. Case study of one stretch of retreating coastline. Holderness

A. Coastal Environments

1 . Case study of a located coral reef or a mangrove stand and its management. & 2. Case study of a stretch of a coastline under pressure

Threat Management

• During the 1980s, resource use conflicts in the area increased dramatically

• local opposition to central Government’s management activities and zoning decisions.

Tourism• important part of the local economy,• And it generates a significant proportion

of GDP.• Due to damage from boats, anchors and

people, the corals can be destroyed = Threatening the income generated by fishing and tourism from coral reefs.

Department of Fisheries →Soufriere Regional Development Foundation (SRDF) a community-based organisation →Soufriere Marine Management Area (SMMA)• demarcation of areas,• the establishment of the fee

systems, • the provision of technical

assistance to fishers and other resource users,

• the facilitation of specific negotiations among stakeholders,

• Created in 1994• Covers 11km of coast

Creation of 5 different types of zone.1. Recreational Areas- areas along

the beach reserved for tourists. Good for diving and water sports.

2. Marine Areas- Access heavily restricted . All uses forbidden. Fishing priority Areas- No diving or Yachting

3. Yacht mooring Areas – Yachts moored here

4. Multiple Use areas – Open to all

Yachting• anchors can destroy the corals. • Fuel leaks (toxic) & organic pollution

(eutrophication) = damage ecosystems

Diving• allows tourists to come close to the

reefs in great numbers risking contact with coral polyps (fragile)

Fishing • important part of the local economy and

provides significant employment for locals.

• Over fishing + the threat from boats and nets have been a threat to the local ecosystem and reef

• Fishermen have been in conflict with many other stake holders, such as divers and Yachts. Issues:

1997= local fishing community, against the SMMA and to demand changes in management arrangements as they felt their livelihoods were in perilRESULT – new representation for all parties in the Soufriere Marine Management Association,

3. Retreating coastline: HoldernessBackground • Holderness Coast is on the NE coast of the UK, facing the North Sea.

• Coastline = soft, easily eroded boulder clay cliffs (20-30m high), • Including a spit across the Humber estuary - Spurn Head.• Retreating at greater than 1m / yr (fastest rate in Europe)• 4km of land have been lost since Roman Times, including many villages

and farm buildings.• Easington Gas Station is situated on the cliffs top and its position is

under threat• Destructive waves dominate + mass movement• Most of the Material eroded from the cliffs is washed out to sea (the

coastal cell)• the rest is moved by lsd = the beaches are therefore narrow = little to

protect the coastline. • Further threatened by sea-level rise.

Management • Groynes to trap material and provide a protective beach• Sea walls as wave-resistant structures at the base of the cliffs• artificial off-shore breakwaters like tyres and concrete blocks, to dissipate

wave energy offshore• sea wall used to protect Easington Gas Station (cost £4.5 million)• Cost/Benefit analysis - only the most valuable areas of land are

protected. Much of the area is farmland which is not protected.

Example Mappleton• 1998, the main road running through the village was only 500m from the

cliff top and in places it is now only 50m• The area suffers from erosion rates of up to 2m per year.Protecting Mappleton• 2 rock groynes were constructed in 1991 at Mappeleton. Problems for further down coast • South of Mappleton village have experienced repercussions of altering

the beach cell• The groynes disturbed the natural longshore drift movement, trapping

the coastal material. • Whilst material is still being moved south of Mappleton, there is no fresh

sediment to replace it.• Beaches have become even narrower and the cliffs are unprotected.• It has accelerated cliff erosion south of Mappleton to 10m / yr.

Three areas of case study requirements1. A case study of one city to show the land use

patterns and the distribution of social/ethnic groups. Reading

2. A case study of shanty town management in a LIC city. Sao Paulo

3. A case study of one named urban area in an HIC to explain how and why changes are taking place. Reading – rural/urban fringe

B. Urban Environments

1. Land Use: ReadingLand use Location(s) Explanation

Residential 1. CBD = gentrification + attempts to rejuvenate Reading, high quality, + high density housing found i.e. Privately owned/developed modern high rise flats next to Oracle

2. Inner city = Terraced housing occurs mainly nearest the CBD, mixed with other lower quality council housing (high rise flats) along main industry roads. (heralding back to when accessibility was more crucial, and less accessible itself)e.g. New Town to the East (Asian community), Oxford Rd = West = Afro/Caribbean

3. Some areas of gentrification inside city, with terraced and semi-detached housing seen together.

4. Edges of the urban area, away from areas of industry, located close to services and transport links (rail/road) are suburban clusters e.g. Earley.

5. New housing developments taking place on brownfield sites. E.g. Kennet Island n. of Madjeski, jct. 11

6. Low quality housing area around Reading uni for poor students.e.g. White Knights

• Changed over time with the city itself and the desires of its populace.

• During the industrial revolution, factory workers would have needed to have easy access to their workplace in the CBD, hence the terraced housing still left over from that era.

• Manufacturing moved away from CBDs = derelict → modern day regeneration =

• High rise flats in CBD, • housing developments on rurban fringe, Oracle

shopping centre etc)• Gentrification in twilight zone and towards the

edge of the city o = people who have previously moved out of the city or first time buyers seek cheap housing in the city that they can renovate,(reurbanisation) which itself multiplies the effect.

• Infilling on Victorian properties with spacious gardens, or equipped below modern standards.

• Suburbanisation those able to afford it moving away from the city centre into private housing, low in services, high in residential. e.g. Earley

Industry Located mainly along 3 main roads: Basingstoke Road e.g. Gillette factory, A323 and A4, leading into CBD. Services located in CBD (Oracle) and out of town around suburbs e.g. offices, hi-tech, Courage.

Accessibility → industry needed transport links to ship goods inc. Kennet & Avon canal, and now requires transport links for out of town, or suburban commuters, e.g. To the business parks. Businesses are relocating back to the CBD as manufacturing (more out of town) becomes less and less prevalent.

CBD, new services and modern high density flats. E.g. Oracle

Industrial area, mostly council flats and terraced housing e.g. Oxford Rd

‘Twilight Zone, terraced housing e.g. Oxford Rd

Industrial brownfield zone, majority terraced housing with some gentrification e.g. Kennet Island

New housing development (in partnership with local government to encourage rejuvenation of Reading) e. g. Tilehurst

Industrial area, mostly council flats and terraced housing e.g. New Town

Reading university located near affordable housing i.e. White Knights

Higher quality, semi-detached housing moving out from CBD, examples of gentrification and infilling.

Privately developed suburbs. E.g. Lower Earley

Reading follows Hoyt’s model of a city, but with an additional industrial sector, rather than one for higher quality housing, which is located around the city as suburbs.

1. Ethnic & Social groups: Reading Map Ethnic Group Distribution

White • White population > all other census ethnic categories in number in Reading.

• Highest out to N. (Caversham) & W. (Tilehurst) = most expensive housing in the suburbs.

• Much lower population occupying the cheap inner city housing around the CBD and in the less expensive southern and western suburbs (Southcote & Calcot). As they are generally richer than the others, they can buy the large, detached properties.

Afro-Caribbean

• Afro-Caribbean = 3rd largest in Reading• Highest in central W. (Battle) = near the Reading West train station. • Occupy the cheaper, inner city terrace housing W. nearer to the CBD,

declining from the centre. • Low transferable work skills forces them into the lowest quality

housing in these areas. • Very small presence north of the river (Caversham)

Map Ethnic Group Distribution

Asian • Asian = smallest ethnic population in Reading. • Highest = Inner city E. (New Town & Park)• Very low population in the suburbs, especially N.(Caversham) & W

(Tilehurst)• Cheaper housing near to the University (White Knights) is preferred,

coupled with student accommodation

Mixed • Mixed race = 2nd largest ethnic group in Reading • Equably spread except N. (Caversham) and W. (Tilehurst)• Mixed population = southern suburbs (Lower Earley) = visibly

cheaper housing then N. (Caversham)

1. Ethnic & Social groups: Reading

Type of management Location & Method

Bottom Up

Bottom up schemes = grey area as they are now government policy;• puts their money into favelas through NGOs and government owned companies• Schemes to improve the quality of life of people on a very small, very wide scale. • Gradually improves individual quality of life and standard of living of individuals, over a wide scale, therefore

improving favelas1. Paraisópolis2005- International Copper Association (ICA) and United States Agency for International Development (USAID) set up international programme to promote sustainable electricity services in slum areas, as people risk lives making illegal electricity connections to overhead lines. 2006- Pilot project initiated in Paraisópolis favela2. Heliópolis2nd largest favela in Brazil has undergone structuralisation = buildings & roads are permanent + recognised by the Sao Paulo government.

1986- UNAS (Union of Heliópolis’ Residents’ Associations and Centre) = a grassroots movement, created in and led by members of the Heliópolis community;

• Meetings to negotiate housing rights • Lobbying authorities• Using litigation to affirm and guarantee rights• Public demonstrations • Using buildings to demonstrate against unequal and unjust access and control of property• Confronting the police• Communication (Community Radio, Bulletins, videos, etc.)• “Housing Forum” = government & grassroots have meetings to negotiate and build public policies;• “Heliópolis Homeless Movement”, est. 2000, by 2003 occupied an area owned by the City Hall with > 700

people.3. Role of Unilever ( a TNC)1997- Unilever sets up Rexona-AdeS Volleyball Programme Centres = volleyball as an educational tool to teach low-income children “values, vitality and joy of sport” at 45 centres2004- Unilever:- Omo launches Omo Community Laundry-provides means of washing clothes to community2008- Omo launched Brincar – improves play areas and educates teachersFavela Upgrading – Bottom-up or Top Down?Upgrading favelas became the government policy around 1980. It is a bottom up government policy. This meant that only around 10% of the population had to be shifted rather than 50%.

2. Shanty Town management: Sao Paulo

Top Down

• Governments = large amounts of money → large scale developments, e.g. Cingapura new high-rise residential block in a cleared favela in Paraisopolis.

• Other top down schemes = new infrastructure and structuralisation = roads & installing electricity and permanent buildings.

• 1992- Paulo Maluf newly elected mayor = a solution to the favela based on the experience of Singapore.

• The project ran 1995 to early in 2001. • São Paulo’s planners felt that the Cingapure (Singapore) model

was especially applicable because of the limited availability and high cost of urban land in both cities.

• Most housing blocks were built next to slum housing whose residents were to receive priority.

• Early buildings were low rise, with higher buildings preferred as the project advanced.

• When built, ownership passed to the municipal COHAB which collected rents (R$57.00 per month).

• Each new project was assigned a social worker to oversee the transfer of families from the favela to temporary settlements to the new housing unit.

• Landscaping and leisure areas were included in the layout of developments.

• A criticism has been that no provision was made for small-scale businesses within the projects.

The Cingapure Project failed due to: •Inertia = People not wanting to move away to the newly developed high rise buildings•Not enough open land at affordable prices for the low-income residents who will occupy it. •New land being too far away from employment areas for favela dwellers (especially informal employment)•Destruction of social networks in favelas•Too expensive development costing 15 times more than slum upgrading•Only a modest increase in the available housing stock (14,000 not 100,000)•Quality of living issues with housing built- inadequate living space and rents too high• Legitimisation = adding permanent infrastructure to favelas is that this recognises the favelas’ legality, making the government seem as if it condones them. • ↑quality of life in favelas can cause more rapid urbanisation, causing even greater problems.

Type of management Location & Method Assessment

2. Shanty Town management: Sao Paulo

3. HIC urban area change: ReadingCBD & Inner City• Reading Development- Inner distribution road (IDR)was made to take traffic away from

CBD, never finished and traffic in Reading is still congested. Closed off Broad street to all and encouraged banks to relocate there.

• Friar street- pedestrianised and main entertainment area with new pubs and clubs.• The Oracle- large area of CBD demolished for shopping centre, car park and Warner

cinema. Near river with cafes making area attractive = mix of leisure and retail• Rose Kiln Flats- example of a Brownfield site that's being redeveloped.

Junction 11 – Edge of CIty• Reading Gate- out of town shopping centre built on a Greenfield site next to the

rural-urban fringe, located next to junction 11 of M4. B&Q, Comet, McDonalds. Next to Madejski stadium for continuous money flow.

• Madejski stadium- Reading FC relocated from Elm Park in the inner city to a Greenfield site on the edge of city. Plus London Irish & Concert venue = Leisure and tertiary services. Next to Junction 11.

• International Business Park- Business park next to Junction 11, close to M25, M4 plus public transport, has its own integrated transport = accessibility. Landscaped Car Park, Lake , Crèche, Health Club, amenities: BHS, Hilton, Madejski Millennium and Holiday Inn hence a hence quality of life. T-mobile, Harley Davidson, Wiley, Oxfam, Orange and Verizon.

• Green Park- business/science park based around a water feature (high qulity of working conditions). Close to Reading University (esp.IT & Robotics); Creche, Health club, centre for conferences. (under developed as too much business space in Reading)

• Courage Brewery- Built on a green field site, in 1978 and closed April 2010. there was consolidation in the brewing industry and now fewer but much larger enterprises are being built.

• South side Reading- Reading Gateway development, the urban planners and architects SCOTT BROWNRIGG = a plan for Reading Borough Council & local politicians. Extension of residential and business. Links in with fast track buses. 1000 dwellings with hotel, retail park & leisure space.

• Kennet island- housing development, first properties sold in 2007 and still being developed, part of the development is covered by a government backed initiative for Key Workers (public servants such as nurses and policemen)

Three areas of case study requirements1. A comparative study of sectoral shifts in one

HIC and one LIC. India & UK2. Case study of the factors affecting the

development and location of one hightech industry. Biotechnology

3. Case study of recent employment changes within an area of a HIC. M4 Corridor

B. Economic Activity & Energy

UKemployment structures

1. Comparative case study: India v. UK

1800• Primary 85% - agriculture, mining

(coal, iron ore, limestone etc)• Secondary starts to grow

1900• 2nd ↑ = age of manuf. Monopoly of markets

and technology• 3rd ↑ = services supporting trade e.g.

shipping, haulage, finance• 1st ↓ = mechanisation in manfu. & agri

2006• 2nd ↓ = deindustrialisation, replaced with

specialist and protected manuf e.g. Nissan• 3rd ↑ = highest added value, specialisation,

new forms of work• 1st ↓ = exhaustion & competition

1. The economy ↑ from 1973 (>300%);2. Sector contributions changed:

1. Primary ↓ from 50% to 25% 2. Secondary ↑from <20% to 25%

(25x larger)3. Tertiary ↑ grown the most from

25% to >50%

1. Comparative case study: India v. UK1. Tertiary = largest sector 2. Secondary = 2nd stayed constant3. Primary = ↓ by 50% sector

1. Primary ↓ has reduced but still remains the top employer due to the amount of subsistence farmers.

2. Secondary & Tertiary sectors have increased in size but are still much smaller than the primary sector.

3. Tertiary ↑ at the cost of Secondary – mechanisation & new forms of employment such as hi-tech (based around Bangalore)

Conclusion• Majority of people are still employed in agricultural activities

(primary). As agriculture provides seasonal employment during cropping season so chances of hidden employment are big.

• A developing nation’s dependency shifts from primary sector towards tertiary sector in all aspects of economic development, so it can be said that India is still way behind because majority still depend on agriculture.

• Secondary & Tertiary Sector have failed to generate enough employment opportunities putting a pressure on primary sector.

• Although educated and skilled workforces do get employed in secondary and tertiary sector but for unskilled and semi-skilled workers there is still a lack of opportunities, hence informal employment

2. Development & Location of one hightech industry: Biotechnology

Biotech = myriad group of hi tech companies inc. subsidiaries; • R & D – located near Universities on Science Parks e.g. Cambridge Science Park (Huntingdon Life Sciences = pharmaceuticals)• Testing – often needs to be done in the country of market e.g. for the FDA = USA to gain approval• Manufacture – least cost locations with high enough production standards• Marketing – can be global or localIncludes Quaternary – Teriary – Secondary – Primary in most casesDefinition – the application of molecular and cellular processes to solve problems, conduct research, and create goods and services; healthcare, food production (e.g. GM), industrial use of crops (e.g. bioethanol production), “defence weapons” (biological warfare), environmental improvement (e.g. oil digestive microbes for spills

2. Development & Location of one hightech industry: Biotechnology

Traditionally • HQ & R&D in HIC – associated with University researchers• 50% of global biotech companies based in USA• Post development and testing; manufacture takes place in Least Cost Location

But the global industry is changing, influenced by market, Government Policy and by National specialisms

Country Role in Global Biotech

ChinaNEW MARKET

• An increasingly important market • Large scope to displace Traditional Chinese Medicines

• Chinese Government is encouraging the development of a domestic innovative biotechnology sector = direct investment, intellectual property reforms (protecting the rights of the companies who develop products) and commercial incentives

SingaporeMANUFACTURING

• A global manufacturing centre• Leading in complex & technology-intensive manufacturing of biotechnology products, • Aided by the country’s strengths in intellectual property protection, regulatory compliance and infrastructure and its highly

skilled workforce.• Attracting ↑ investments from the Government and global biotech companies.

IndiaLOCAL NEW BIOTECH

• India’s biotech industry has ↑ as domestic companies have grown aggressively• opportunities from the country’s large, skilled workforce, lower manufacturing & research costs • ↑ demand for health care (market)

• Local entrepreneurs with returning, highly educated brain pool

BrazilAGRICULTURAL BITECH SPECIALISM

• Like many emerging economies, Brazil is progressing from an imitator to an innovator (cf. China)• A leader in agricultural biotech • the world’s second-largest user of genetically modified (GM) crops• Switzerland-based Syngenta received approval to cultivate two varieties of its insect-resistant GM corn, while Bayer received

approval for two varieties of GM soy• Government regulators cleared the experimental planting of 15 new GM seed varieties in 2009. Of these, 12 corn, cotton and

soy varieties are expected to be tested by Monsanto,

MalaysiaGOVERNMENT INVESTMENT

• biotechnology = a key strategic focus for the nation’s policy-makers and business community in recent years. • Government has allocated US$571.4 million = the Ninth Malaysian Plan (2006–10) to fund the development of the industry. • National Biotechnology Policy (NBP) launched in 2005• Malaysian Biotechnology Corporation - est. that the number of biotech companies has ↑ threefold since 2005

3. HIC recent employment changes: M4 Corridor• Area of development for Hi-Tech industry along the M4 Motorway - London to Bristol • Attracts many sunrise, footloose companies; Microsoft, Oracle, Computer Associates, Cisco, Honda, HP etc• Area adjacent to the M4 motorway & junctions;

• eastern end in = a large number of Hi-Tech businesses, particularly in Berkshire and the Thames Valley.• Europe's premier business location, with many TNCs based there inc. Vodafone @ Newbury as well as playing host the vast

majority of the UK's technology sector.

Locational characteristics• Links with universities and research organizations. E.g. Oxford, Reading, Bristol, Bath• Office and factory space is cheaper than in London• Easy access to the whole country via the motorway network e.g. M4 – M25 – M3 – M1

and ports• Good rail access along the M4 corridor • a high quality of life and attractive countryside that helps to recruit and retain staff • Heathrow Airport provides links to Europe and the rest of the world

Characteristics of the industries• R & D-intensive industry• Human resources are an relatively important locational factor • A high value-added industry• A footloose industry• Serve the global market• Transnational and multi-point production

History – tradition & decline• South Wales; chemicals, mining, metal working• Reading; biscuits, bricks, bulbs• Bristol; docks – related• Swindon; GWR railway works• Hence an old established industrial region prior to mid 20thCentury

deindustrialisation

History – to the hitech• Food manufacture inc. Courage @ Reading 1978, Mars @ Slough – first industries to

take advantage of the new M4 and the connectivity it afforded• Other light manufacturing followed e.g. Gillette in Reading• Commuters began to spread along the M4 (and railway line )• Hi tech – quaternary companies; CA, HP, Vodafone, Oracle, Microsoft• Transport Hubs such as Reading , Swindon (Honda) & Slough act as clear foci for the

corridor• Recent encouragement of EU and Labour Government to utilise Greenfield site to

link with Universities in Science/Business Parks – the knowledge economy

C. Globalisation & Migration

Three areas of case study requirements1. A case study of the global operations of a TNC or a

TNC’s operations in one LIC. Rio Tinto2. A case study of a package holiday destination.

Spain3. A case study of sustainable tourism (eg Galapagos,

Bhutan). Bhutan4. A case study of international migration (eg asylum

seekers and economic migrants to UK). UK

1. TNC operations in one LIC: Rio Tinto• Founded in 1873, Rio Tinto = one of the World’s

Largest TNCs – an Anglo-Australian Co.• 1st extracted copper now; aluminium, copper,

diamonds, energy products (coal and uranium), gold, industrial minerals (borax, titanium dioxide, salt, talc and zircon), and iron ore.

Criteria Positive Negative

Employment • 100s of local miners lead to a multiplier effect locally and ↑national taxes

• No value added processing is done in Namibia (France, USA etc)- limiting the multiplier effect

• Tourism can be affected by the impact of the mining on the landscape – lasting after the mines are closed

Direct Taxes (levy) • Namibian government is paid for extraction rights by RT

Quality of life • RT provides schooling and access to primary health care for all mine workers

• 2ndry disease such as lung cancer and TB can result from continued exposure to radon and dust

Environmental • Excessive water use – a semi arid country – water is a scarce resource

• Exhausted mines are left un-landscaped as a scar and hazard for local people after the benefits have gone.

1. TNC operations in one LIC: Rio Tinto

• The Rossing Mine is the 5th largest Uranium mine in the world

• It is situated partly within the Namib Nauklut Park

• With increased demand for Uranium there is a top down drive to expand the mining – from the Government and from Rio Tinto

Location-Costa Blanca, South of Spain. Near Alicante airport.Resources for tourism-Primary: Hot dry summers, sea, sand àSecondary: beach resort. High rise hotels.Benefits-500, 000 visitors per year. (av. £30 per day spent) (local population = 70,000)750, 00 jobs – MULTIPIER EFFECTNew infrastructure- Alicante airport,-New road network linking Benidorm with Valencia Madrid etc.Recycled water for irrigation = export of citrus fruits. – supporting diversified economyLower crime rates (town police station throughout the year)Problems-Visual pollution- High rise hotels out of character with local building styles and materials.Seasonal low paid jobs, e.g. emptying litter bins.Congestion- traffic. Impact on local ecosystemsWater- dry summers (1- cm rain per year) – tourist consumption = double that of localsLitter – 50 million tonnes of waste pa - Impact on local ecosystemsIncrease in second home ownership – hyper seasonality, unreliable threshold populations for local services e.g. cafes, shopsVisitor profile-Mainly young people of less than 30 years old.Stay 10 days- 2 weeks.From nearby European countries- UK, France, Germany, Ireland, Scandinavia.On package tours.

2. Package tourism: Costa Blanca

Management-o Height of hotels restricted and materials must blend with the environment.o National Park at the end of peninsula to protect the area.o People encouraged to walk to the beach – clearing of tunnels under coast roado Central area pedestrianised.o A dam near Castillion with a lake from which water is pumped to Benidorm.o Water treatment- recycled water used for irrigation.o Try to attract visitors all year, e.g. cheap winter package deals for older people – reduces issue of seasonality.o Litter bins emptied regularly and promenade swept.o Green flags indicate safe areas to swim.o Chemicals added to the sea to maintain the water quality.o Police patrol the beach which is cleaned by hand every day.o Theme park to reduce the honeypot effect on the beach – and to maintain interest in the mature resort (see Butler’s Model).

Butler’s Model

3. Sustainable tourism: Bhutan• Primary resources for

tourism: scenery, unique,• 78% Buddhist, mountains,

birds, ancient culture • Attracts sensitive tourists

willing to pay a premium for ecotourism credentials

Development of tourism• 1974 – King instigates a top-down investment after the influx of travellers for his coronation• Landlocked country, tourism on of the few options for generating income from “exports”• Bhutan's tourism policy = larger development philosophy within Bhutan = ↑living standards of its people, • BUT development in Bhutan is not judged merely by material prosperity and income growth - happiness, contentment, and the spiritual and emotional well

being of its people• tourism was managed by the Department of Tourism then • 1980 - tourism was managed by the Department of Tourism• 1983 - Royal Tourism Corporation fully autonomous – commercial • 1991– fully privatized • 33 licensed operators under the Tourism Authority of Bhutan (TAB)• principle of sustainability (i.e. it must be environmentally friendly, socially and culturally acceptable, and economically viable). • control on numbers by government regulated tourist tariffs, and a set of administrative requirements.= "High Value- Low Volume" • Pricing policy – must be package tourists - price set by the government is US$250 per day, per person.

• Of this tariff, a 10% commission goes to the external foreign travel agent,• 35% is paid as a government royalty, • 55% is the tour operator's to be spent in Bhutan. The tariff increases if the tourist wants to travel alone or in very small groups = small groups incur

higher per capita expenditure and have a greater impact on the environment than the large groups.• Infrastructure within the country will dictate overall tourist visitors

• TAB grants visas – thus controlling the number of them – not the market• Trekking in Bhutan requires another permit form TAB = ensure that no one route is over used or new ones opened

• Trekking tours are only conducted on approved trails and camping in designated campsites. This also helps to even out the density of the tourist on the different trekking routes, spreading the income from tourism evenly to the local communities in theses areas. (avoiding Honeypots)

4. A case study of international migration (eg asylum seekers and economic migrants to UK).

BACKGROUND•Poland joined EU in May 2004 = 300,000 workers have settled in the UK (+ thought to be many more who are not legally Registered)•A 3rd phase of Polish migrants since the WWII

• 1st = were 200,000 political migrants, ex-servicemen who fought for the allies, or their families who were deported from E. Poland to camps in Siberia by the Russians during the war, who came to Britain in 1948.

• 2nd = were here when martial law was declared in Poland in 1981. •Est. total No living in the UK today with a ‘Polish connection’ = 750,000 (= Pakistani & > Afro-Caribbean community. •59% of all applicants to the Work Registration Scheme have been Polish (mostly 18-35yrs old)•99% of Poles in the UK are in work

For Positives Negatives

UK • Cheap workforce – hardworking skilled or not esp. for labour intensive industry such as food processing

• ↑ population in some rural area (Lincolnshire) = keeping schools and shops viable

• Create demand for specialist services such as translators and delis = ↑ local jobs & tax raised

• ↑ cultural diversity

• Displaces local young workers• Risk of social unrest due to clustering & perceived

crime/favoured status• Dependency on migrants may be unsustainable if

they return• Leakage – remittances sent pack to Poland will not be

used in a local multiplier effect (£4bn)• May be guilty of crimes in Poland

Poland • Remittances from overseas earnings (multiplier effect) £4bn since 2004.

• Reduces unemployment• Returning migrants bring ideas and investment capital

• Loss of young hard working group• Loss of potential entrepreneurs• Loss of local consumers (negative multiplier)• Loss of skilled workers – 10% of Polish doctors have

left, leaving health service understaffed

Some facts • 600,000 arrived from E.Europe between 2004 & 2006• £2.54bn p.a = contributed to the economy by E.European migrants.• Migrants = 10% of builders, 31% of doctors, 12.5% of teachers UK = migrants.• 80% of migrants are between 18 and 35, offsetting the UK’s ageing population.