lÇN¡clus KNe\Àz

Ralph E. lvletts, S.J.

CI?7,oza

JSEA

Washington, D.C. 1995

{Ò- W .S%roarlorr"d

JSEA wishes to thank Jesuit High School, Portland, Oregon for the coverphoto of students and teacher. JSEA also wishes to thank Richard Blinn,S.J. for his photo of Ignatius teaching catechism from Azpeitia, Spain.

Design By:THE DEAN GROUP, II.¡CORPONATED

O 1995 Jesuit Secondary Education AssociationFirst Printing, October 1995

D-d;r *lcío¡'¡

Ignatius Knew is dedicated to all those in Jesuit education whom I have had the plea-

sure of working with during the last seven years as a member of the Jesuit Secondary

Education Association (JSEA) staff. Seven years ago when I started working forJSEA, I could not have written this book. Through my interactions with you individ-ually and in the presentations I have done, your questions and comments have helped

me sharpen and refine my understanding of what Ignatius knew about human

learning. The clearer my understanding of the lgnatian concept of learning became the

more I perceived that today's educational research is (re)discovering many ofIgnatius'basic insights about human learning. This process began with my work withthe Jesuit schools of the United States Assistancy, and in the last two years continued

through my contacts with Jesuit education around the world. I am particularlyindebted to my colleagues in Jesuit education from Latin America, whose questions

and probings during my work with them, both in the Course for the Directors of the

Schools in Rio de Janeiro in August 1993 and my inclusion as part of the resource

team for the first ever meeting of all the educational apostolates of the Peruvian

province in July 1994, ñ¡rther sharpened my thinking. So it is with heartfelt gratitude

to all of you and your dedicated work in Jesuit education throughout the world that Idedicate lgnatius Knew.

ÀcLrr o*,L.á9 e rrt e r)c s

Many people have helped shape this final version of Ignatius Knew.I am very gratefulfor the helpful comments from the consultant members of the Commission on

Research and Development (CORD): Nora Cronin, PBVM; Dick Gedrose; TimLannon, S.J.; Carolyn Lausch; Bob Perrotta; and Robert Walsh, S.J. I also owe a very

special debt of thanks to Charlie Costello, S.J., Howard Gray, S.J., Walter Farrell' S.J.,

and John Padberg, S.J. who took the time to provide me with insights and comments

about the Spiritual Exercises which were most helpful in expanding my knowledgeand understanding of the methodology of the Spiril ual Exercises. Finally, I must thank

the CORD office stafi Frank Turnbull, S.J. and Joe O'Connell, S.J., for all their help

with proofreading, corrections, and clarifying questions and discussions throughoutthe process of writing this book. Without all the assistance everyone has given me,

Ignatius Knew would not be in the shape it is in today.

Ralph E. Metts, S.J.

Jesuit Secondary Education AssociationSeptembeç 1995

C,oúl1* of ConTer'cs

FORORD. .

CHAPTER I ESTABLISHING THE CONTEXT . 'TERMINOLOGY: A PRELECTIONA PROCESS BOOK..AN IGNATIAN REFLECTION ON TEACHING''. '

IGNATIAN PEDAGOGICAL PARADIGM. . . .

PRELECTION OF IGNATIAN TERMINOLOGY '

PRELECTION OF EDUCATIONAL TERMINOLOGY'

CIIAPTER II IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY IN THE SP/R ITUAL EXERCISES ' '

PRELECTON. .

SPIRITUAL EXERCISES: WHOLE PERSON INVOLVEMEN1 " " '

SPIRITUAL EXERCISES: EXPERIENCE, REFLECTION, ACTION. .

THE STRUCTURE OF AN IGNATIAN PRAYER PERIOD

PREPARATION FOR PRAYER.POINTS THE NIGHT BEFORE

Ignatius' Methodology. . . .

An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching

PREPARATORY PRAYER . .

Ignatius'Methodology. . . 'An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching' ' ' ' ' --'.' ^-'

THE FIRST PRELUDE-COMPOSITION OF PLACE

Ignatius'Methodology. ' ' '

An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching-'^'-----THE SECOND PRELUDE_GRACE SOUGHT

Ignatian Methodology . . .'An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching-' '-'--:^:.

PREPARATION FOR PRAYER: CONCLUSION

POINTS FOR PRAYER. ' .

STRUCTURE OF THE SPIRITUAL EXERCISES

IGNATIAN METHODS OF PRAYER. . . ,

MeditationContemplation . . .

Application of the Senses'

An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching

EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE. . '

Ignatius'Methodology. . ' '

An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching -'^'-'-^- --:-^,,'

IGNATIÃN METHODS OF PRAYER: CONCLUSION

xl

10

11lll3l3t4l515

t5l616l6l7t7t7181818l819t9

,19.21.21

22

2525

CONCLUSION OF PRAYER26

CHAPTER II continuedcoLLoQtrY .......26

IgnatianMethodology.... .....26An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching . . . . .26

REVIE\ry AT THE END OF THE PRAYER PERIOD . , . . . .27Ignatian Methodology . . . . . . . . .27An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching . . . . .27

ANNOTAnONS . ......27CoNCLUSION.. ...30

REFLECTIONAND REPETITION.... .......30REFLECTON ON IGNATIAN METHODOLOGYAND THE CLASSROOM. . . . . . . . 31EVALUATTON... ......33

CHAPTER III IGNATIUS KNEW HOW THE BRAIN WORKS . . . . . . .35PRELECTON.. .......35IGNATIANINDIFFERENCE. ........36BRAIN-BASEDEDUCATION .....,..37

We Have Two Types of Memory: Spatial Memory System and Taxon Memory . . . . . 40SpatialMemory ........41TaxonMemory ........42

LEFTAND RIGHTHEMISPHERE RESEARCH ......42IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY: ITS CONNECTION WITH BRAIN-BASEDEDUCATIONANDLETTANDRIGHTHEMISPHERERESEARCH . .......45

IGNATIANANNOTATIONS. ...,..45The Unique Individual with a Unique Brain. . . . .45Active Involvement in the Learning Process . . . .46

IGNATIANPREPARATIONFORPRAYER ,......47Ignatian Preparation for Prayer: AWhole Brain Process. . . . . . . .47Summary .......47

IGNANAN MEDITATION, CONTEMPLAflON ANDAPPLICATIONOFTHESENSES... ......48

Meditation:TwoTypesofMemoryandLeft/RightHemisphere... .....48Taxon to Spatial Memory . . .49Left to Right Hemisphere . . .49Summary ....50

Contemplation: Two Types of Memory and Left/RightHemisphere .......50Primary Role of Spatial Memory . . . . 51Primary Role of the Right Hemisphere . . . . . 5lSummary ....52

Application of the Senses: Two Types of Memory andLeft/RightHemisphere .....52SpatialMemoryandRightHemisphereProcessing ........53Summary ....53

IGNATIANCONCLUSIONOFPRAYER. ........53

CHAPTER III continuedThe colloquy: spatial Memory and Left/Right Hemisphere skills

A Concluding Spatial Memory TechniqueV/hole Brain Involvement

Post Prayer ReflectionCONCLUSION ....AN IGNAIIAN REFLECTION ON TEACHING'' '

PREPARAflONS. .

THE REFLECTIONcoNcLUSION......

REFLECTION ON IGNAIIAN METHODOLOGY AND THE CLASSROOM. . . '

EVALUATION... ..;...CHAPTER IV IGNATIUS KNE\ry ABOUT MULTI.DIMENSIONAL LEARNING . . . 59

5454545555555555565657

PRELECTION. .

LEARNING STYLEMULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

5960&

IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY: ITS CONNECTION WITHLEARNING STYLE AND WITH GARDNER'S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES ' . ' ' ' ' 66

IGNAIIANANNOTATIONS.. .. " '67The Unique Individual with Unique Learning Preferences ' ' ' ' ' ' 67

Whole Person lnvolvement: Learning Style and Multiple lntelligences " " " " 67

PREPARATION FOR PRAYER. " " 68

Preparation and the Three Learning Channels' " " " 68

PreparationandMultiplelntelligences. " " '68Summary ' ' '69

IGNATIAN MEDITAflON, CONTEMPLATION AND APPLICATION OF THE SENSES' ' ' ' ' 69

Ignatian Meditation: Memory, Understanding, and Will " " " " 69

Summary '"""71Contemplation: Imagination, Understanding, and Will ' ' '71Summary """'73Application of the Senses: Imagination and Witl ' ' ' ' ' ' '73SummarY """'73Musical intelligence: The Missing Intelligence in the Spiritual Exercises ' ' ' ' ' '74

IGNAIIANCONCLUSIONTOPRAYER. " " " ' '75The Colloquy and Interpersonal Intelligence ' ' ' '75The Colloquy and the Three Learning Channels' ' ' ' ' ' ' '75

CONCLUSION.. " '76..AN IGNATIAN REFLECTION ON TEACHING'" ' ' ' '76

PREPARATTONS. """''76REFLECTION... " '77CONCLUSION.. " '77

REFLECTION ON IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY AND THE CLASSROOM. ' ' ' ' ' ' '77EVALUATION... '""'78

CHAPTER V IGNATIANAND CURRENT EDUCATIONALPARADIGMS . . . . .. . 81PRELECTION.. ,... ...8ICURRENTEDUCATIONALTHEORYAND RESEARCH .....83HIGHERLEVELTHINKINGSKILLS ........83

TEACHINGFORTHINKING.. ....84TeachingasEnculruration.. ....84

TEACHINGOFTHINKING.. .....85TEACHINCABOUTTHINKING ...86TEACHING OF THINKING SKILLS AND IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY . . . . . . 87

IgnatiusandTeachingþrThinking.. .. '87IgnatiusandTþachingo/Thinking.... ....... ' 87

Ignatius and Teachin g about Thinking . . . 88

TEACHING OF THINKING SKILLS AND..AN IGNATTAN REFLECTION ON TEACHING''. " " " . 88

TV/OINTEGRATEDAPPROACHESTOLEARNING., ......89ATLASCOMMUNITIES. '"..'"89ATLAS COMMUNITIES AND IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY . . . . 9IATLASCOMMUNITIESANDGOFORTHANDTEACH.... ....9IDIMENSIONS OF LEARNING " . .93IGNATIUS AND THE DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING . . . .95DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING AND IGNATIAN PEDAGOGY , . .96REFLECTION ON IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY AND THE CLASSROOM. . . . . . . . . . IOlEVALUATION " " lo2AN IGNATIAN REPETITION FOR CHAPTERS III-V. ' ' . IO3

CHAPTER VI IGNATIAN EDUCATION .

JESUIT EDUCATION AND IGNATIAN EDUCATION . . .

..AN IGNATIAN REFLECTION ABOUT AN IGNAflAN CLASSROOM''PREPARATION FOR THE REFLECTIONTHE MATN PART OF THE REFLECTION. .

coLLoQUY . . .

REVIEV/A LIST OF IGNATIAN PRINCIPLESA LIST OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDLEARNING THEORYCLASSROOM VIGNETTES . . . . . . . .

CLASSROOM VIGNETTE 1 . . . .

CLASSROOM VIGNETTE 2 . . . . . .

CLASSROOMVIGNETTE 3 . . . . . .

CLASSROOM VIGNETTE 4

CLASSROOM VIGNETTE 5CLASSROOM VIGNETTE 6CLASSROOM VIGNETTE 7

CLASSROOM VIGNETTE 8 . . . .

CLASSROOM VIGNETTE 9 . . . .

107108110lt1111

fi2lt2il3

114ll6tt7lt7ll8118il9119t20t2lt2l122CLASSROOM VIGNETTE 10 . . . . . . . .

CONCLUSION .

APPENDIX A IGNATIAN TERMINOLOGY

APPENDIX B EDUCATIONAL TERMINOLOGY. . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY .....INDEX

t22

t25

13s

t{l145

í7

Ço-ø,vor-á

Throughout the process of writing this book, I have received many helpful comments both about its con-tents and structure. Within those comments there have been some divergent opinions, particularly aboutboth the structure and the content of the book. In an attempt to deal with some of these divergent opinionsI would like to offer you some options for reading lgnatius Knew.

STRUCTURE

Several people have suggested that the first half of Chapter VI. "Ignatian Education," should be at the

beginning of the book. Other people believe that the frrst half of Chapter VI should remain where it isbecause it serves as a synthesis of all that has preceded it. I have wrestled with this question and have, infact, tried structuring this book both ways. If you a¡e familiar with the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator(MBTI) terminology, part of the reactions to the placement of the first half of Chapter VI may be the dif-ference between the Intuitive's style of processing information and the Sensate's style. My own sensate

preference ultimately retained Chapter VI as originally written. However, if you process information intu-itively you may well prefer to read the start of Chapter VI first and then return to the start of the book. Ifyou prefer to process information more with the right hemisphere than with the left hemisphere, you willprobably instinctively read the last chapter first since the right hemisphere processor usually needs to see

the whole picture to know where the pieces fit. One technique for seeing the whole picrure is to read the

end of a book first.

CONTENT

The other area where there has been a variety of reactions to lgnatius Knew is both the way and the depth

I have selected to discuss Ignatius' methodology in the Spiritual Exercises. For those who know the

Exercises well, there may be certain aspects of lgnatius' methodology which I have neglected or not dis-cussed in detail. From the start I knew that I was going to have to be selective in what I chose to discuss.

I knew that I could not possibly include all the aspects of the Spiritual Exercises in great detail and depth.

The principle which guided my choice for both what I included and for how I discussed it was that I am

writing this primarily for an audience who has some, little, or no familiarity with the Spiritual Exercises.

My purpose was to keep the explanations of Ignatius' methodology as simple as possible and to highlightthe major elements of his methodology. In doing this, I have knowingly eliminated some areas which

might have been developed more fully. I made that decision based upon the reactions of lay colleagues

who read and commented on the manuscript. What I heard from many of them is that lgnatius Knew is

readable and intelligible and it helped them clarify and unify key Ignatian ideas and concepts.

Finally, I made a conscious effort throughout the book to relate what I say about Ignatius' methodology in

the Spiritual Exercises to the two main documents about Jesuit education today: Go Forth andTeach: The

Characteristics of Jesuit Education an"d Ignatian Pedagogy: A Practical Approach. Since both documents

derive from the principles and methodology of the Spiritual Exercises,I wanted to make sure that Istressed the linkage.

jÉt

I hope that the decisions I have made in writing |gnatius Knew will be helpful to you' the reader I cer-

tainly welcome any comments you may wish to make about lgnatius Knew. Now, however, it is time tofind out what Ignatius did know and how we can apply that information in our classrooms.

*:tî

CHAPTER I

etc..blushir,l c1ne C once;xc

o what did St. Ignatius Loyola know? The title has no direct object and whether

you were aware of it or not you supplied some type of direct object to make

sense of the sentence. There are a multitude of possible direct objects you could have

supplied to finish this title. You might have simply added "what" and a question mark

in your mind. If you did that, you are ready to begin reading, because you have alerted

your mind to pay attention for answers to that "what" question. You might have

thought, "I have no idea what Ignatius knew." You might have also added a personal

comment such as, "I do not know, and do I really ca¡e?" but if you are reading this faryou have formulated some type of question in your mind for which you are seeking

further explanations or answers. The title, "Ignatius Knew," purposely raises some

questions, which hopefully will be answered during the remainder of this book'

I had some specifrc questions in my own mind when I created this title. A few of these

questions are: What did Ignatius with his sixteenth century knowledge of human

understanding and leaming know that exists in twentieth century educational psy-

chology and learning theory? What connections can be made between the Ignatian

methodology of the Spiritual Exercises and current educational psychology and

learning theory? What are the differences between an Ignatian educator in a Jesuit

school and any other educator? V/hat already is occurring in the classroom that is

Ignatian in its orientation? Are there other techniques that could be used in the class-

room which would make it more lgnatian? There are certainly other questions which

may come to mind as you begin to think about the relationship between the method-

ology of St. Ignatius Loyola in his Splrirual Exercises and current educational psy-

chology and learning theory. These questions begin to establish a general context for

the discussion that will occur here, but there are some additional considerations which

will help to define further the context of this book.

CONTEXT

The context in which this exploration will occur is the context in which we live and

work. We are reaching the end of a century and the beginning of a new century' Agreat preoccupation exists about life in the next century' How will it be the same or

different from the twentieth century? What will change? What new attitudes and skills

will be needed to adapt to life in the twenty-first century? This concern is particularly

evident in the educational world. Professional literature abounds with books and arti-

cles about the competencies needed to live in this rapidly approaching new century.

Evaluations of education, its successes and failures, appear regularly in both profes-

sional literature and popular presses. The call for reform in education appears regu-

larly in our newspapers and television programs. The "reform movements" in educa-

tion in the United States are many. Besides what is generally occurring in education,

Nor¿s

Jesuit education throughout the world has undertaken an examination of its philos-

ophy and methodologies. Two recent documents, Go Forth anà Teach: The

Characteristics of Jesuit Education' and Ignatian Pedagogy: A Practical Approach,'beckon educators in Jesuit schools throughout the world to examine reflectively theirexperience of what it is that makes Jesuit education, Jesuit education. Just as the Ratio

Studiorum of 1599 established the norms and guidelines for Jesuit education for the

next four centuries, these two documents are asking Jesuit educators worldwide toexamine Jesuit education from the point of view of its basic characteristics and

methodologies and to reemphasize a philosophy and methodology which are distinc-tively Ignatian. Ignatian Pedagogy presents these challenges:

(21) . . . Since the publication in 1986 of The Characteristics of Jesuit Education,a frequent question of teachers and administrators alike in Jesuit schools has

been: "How can we achieve what is proposed in this document, the educa-

tional formation of youth to be men and women for others, in the face ofpresent day realities?" The answer necessarily must be relevant to many cul-'rures; it must be usable in different situations; it must be applicable to various

disciplines; it must appeal to multiple styles and preferences. Most impor-tantly, it must speak to teachers of the realities as well as the ideals ofteaching. All of this must be done, moreover, with particular regard for the

preferential love of the poor which characterizes the mission of the Churchtoday. It is a hard challenge and one that we cannot disregard because it goes

to the heart of what is the apostolate of Jesuit education' ' ' '

(ZZ) The first decree of the 33rd General Congregation of the Society of Jesus,

"Companions of Jesus Sent into Today's World," encourages Jesuits in the

regular apostolic discernment of their ministries, both traditional and new'

Such a review, it recommends, should be attentive to the Word of God and

shoutd be inspired by the lgnatian tradition. In addition, it should allow for atransformation of peoples' habitual patterns of thought through a constantinterplay of experience, reflection and action. It is here that we find the

outline of a model for bringing The Characteristics of Jesuit Education to lifein our schools today, through a way of proceeding that is thoroughly consis-renr with the goal of Jesuit education and totally in line with the mission ofthe Society of Jesus. We turn our consideration, then, to an Ignatian paradigm

that gives preeminence to the constant interplay of EXPERIENCE' REFLEC-TION andACTION'

I Go Fonh ondTeach: The Characteristics of Jesuit Hucation is the United States version of Tå¿

Clwracteristics of Jesuit Education (Rome, 1986). This document is known aslhe Characteristics

of Jesuit Hucation tluoughout the world, but in the United States frequently is called Go Fonh

ald Teach. Republished in Foundations (JSEA: Washington, DC, 1ÇÇ4)' pp. 129'169.2 lgnatian Pedagogy: A Practical Approach is published in the United States in Foundations

(JSEA: Washington, DC, 1994), pp.237-271.

TERMINOLOGY: A PRELECTION

You may have noticed that we are already using specifically Jesuit and Ignatian ter-minology. That, too, is part of the context of our discussion. It may be helpful if youtake a few moments now and reflect about how many of the terms on the list of Jesuitand Ignatian terminology you know and understand (page 8-9). Additionally, youmight also want to think about what each of these terms means regarding your workas an Ignatian educator. A glossary of these terms can be found in Appendix A.

How did you do? Do not worry if there are several terms that you did not know. Part

of the purpose of this work is to familiarize you with this terminology and to help yougain a fuller undersønding of what these terms mean and how they apply to and are

used in Jesuit education.

Besides some basic Jesuit and Ignatian specialized vocabulary used throughout thisbook, there will be some specialized educational vocabulary. Take a few moments and

see what you know about each of these terms (page l0). A glossary of these terms can

be found in Appendix B.

A PROCESS BOOK

I need to address another component for establishing the context for our discussions

of what Ignatius knew. This is a process book. By that I mean spread throughout thisbook are various reflection exercises. Our discussions will assume that you have com-pleted these reflection exercises. So I urge you to take all the time you need to com-plete the reflections contained in this book so that you will have a reflective experi-ence to bolster your understanding of Ignatius' knowledge of current educational psy-

chology and learning theory.

..AN IGNATIAN REFLECTION ON TEACHING''

Our first reflection exercise in this book is one which I call "An Ignatian Reflectionon Teaching." This reflection is a critical one because it is the cornerstone upon

which we will base the bulk of our future discussion about what Ignatius knew about

current educational psychology and learning theory. You will find the steps for com-pleting this reflection listed in the table beginning on the next page. I recommend

ihut you set aside at least thirty minutes to complete this reflection. The column ofthe table containing Ignatian terminology is listed for future reference. If you do not

understand it, do not worry about it, since the Ignatian terminology will be discussed

in detail in subsequent chapters of this book.

tÇNa3;1art KNe\2

AN Icu.trIAN REFLEcTIoN oN TBACHING

ReflectionPurpose

Steps to Follow in theReflection Process

Points thenight before

I would like you now to spend time thinkingabout yourself as teacher. You can choose to

reflect about either three s[ages in your life as

a teacher or three particular days in your lifeas a teacher. If you choose to reflect about the

stages of your life as a teacher, you mightwish to think about your first year of teaching,

a time in the middle of your teaching career,

and finally a recent time in your teaching

career. If you choose to reflect about three par-

ticula¡ days in your teaching life, choose a day

on which things simply did not go well, an

average teaching day where some things went

well, some so-so, and some not that well, and

lastly a day on which you were at your

teaching best. If you decide to reflect about a

difficult, average, and an excellent day in your

teaching life, please do these is the order listed

here from difficult to good.

Preludes:PreparatoryPrayer

Preparatory | St"p l. Remember a tim€ when you- learned

activities for I something easily, quickly, and well' Spend

the reflection I some time finding such an occasion' Whenyou have found such an occasion, take some

time and enjoY it.

Compositionof Place

Preparatory | S,.p 2. Now see yourself present. at several

activities I classes you have taught and attended in your

continued I lif". Take a few seconds and recall both

those classes you have taught and attended'

4

ercobl¡sh¡-g á" Çarnlc-rt

NorrsAn IcurrIAN REFLEcTIoN oN TEACHING coNT'D

Steps to Follow in theReflection Process

ReflectionPurpose

IgnatianTenninology

Step 3. Ask yourself what it is you may wantto learn about yourself as a teacher while youare doing this reflection. Are there any spe-

cific areas where you would like more understanding or appreciation of yourself as

teacher? set up some purpose or form some

questions for yourself to guide you throughthe reflection in the next step.

Preparatoryactivitiescontinued

Grace soughtduring prayer

Step 4. There will be three parts to this step.

The directions will be the same for each part.

A. In your imagination make yourself presentin your classroom. See, hear, and feel what isoccurring around you while you are teaching.You can do this two different ways. one wayis to place yourself right in the event as an

actor taking part in a play. The second way isto watch yourself in the event as if you were

a camera following the action which is hap-pening. (You can learn something by usingboth methods of looking at a past event.)

B. V/hen something strikes you Íls significantor important for you, stop and reflect about it.What is its mean ing for your life as a teacher

in the past, present, and future? Does this idea

suggest any additional ideas you might want to

consider? What does what you have learned

from this experience suggest to you about your

future teaching work? If something strikes youas extremely important, spend all the time you

need to think about it without worrying about

covering all the points listed here.

C. Repeat this process for either the three

stages of your teaching career or the three

different teaching days.

The refectionitself

Points for andmethods ofprayer

5

ICNÀCIUs KNC\V

Nores AN ICNATIAN REFLECTION ON TEACHING CONT'D

ReflectionPurpose

Steps to Follow in theReflection Process

IgnatianTerminology

ColloquyConcludingactivities forthe reflection

Step 5. Once you have had sufficient time toreflect about each of these points, concludethis exercise by having an imagined conver-sation with a respected teacher from someoccasion in your life. Simply hold a conver-sation with that respected teacher sharingwith him or her all that you have learned

about yourself by doing this exercise. Noticeany effect this conversation has on the overallexperience of the exercise.

Post prayeranalysis

Reflecting on I St"p 6. After you have completed the exer-

the reflection I cise, spend a few moments thinking about the

processes you used during the exercise.Which ones were particularly helpful foryou? Which ones were less helpful? If you

did a similar exercise in the future, are there

things you learned from doing this exercisewhich would be important to use again? Arethere things which may not have worked thatwell here, but which you might want to try ina different time and context?

The exercise which you just completed is an important part of the context for our dis-

cussion about what Ignatius knew and its relationship to current educational psy-

chology and learning theory. It provides us with a common experience for grounding

our discussion. We will refer ro this exercise frequently throughout this book because

it contains many of the basic elements of Ignatian methodology used during a prayer

period in the Spiritual Exercises. If you have not made the Spiritual Exercises, you

now have a basic, but limited, experience of Ignatian prayer methodology.

6

€scoStirhi-g clte Conre-*c

NortsIGNATIAN PEDAGOGICAL PARADIGM

One final point is necessary for establishing the context of this book. It is the IgnatianPedagogicalParadigm of context, experience, reflectìon, action, and naluatioz presentedinlgnatian Pedagog. This paradigm is important to the context of this book becauseit closely models the Spiritaal Exercìses of St. Ignatius, which stress the continualinterplay of experience, reflection, and action as the means for evaluating one's lifeand how one lives and will live it in a personal relationship with God. While we willexplore this paradigm in more detail in later chapters, it is important to have a basicunderstanding of how these dynamic elements work. Ignatian Pedagog describes theinteraction of experience, reflection and action in the Spiritual Exercises in this way:

(25) A fundamental dynamic of the Spirinral Exercises of Ignatius is the continualcall to reflect upon the entirety ofone's experience in prayer in order to discernwhere the Spirit of God is leading. Ignatius urges reflection on human experi-ence as an essential means of validating its authenticity, because withoutprudent reflection delusion readily becomes possible and without carefulreflection the signih cance of one's experience may be neglected or trivialized.Only after adequate reflection on experience and interior appropriation of themeaning and implications of what one studies can one proceed freely and con-fidently toward choosing appropriate courses of action that foster the integralgrowth of oneself as a human being. Hence, reflection becomes a pivotal pointfor Ignatius in the movement from experience to action, so much so that he

consigns to the director or guide of persons engaged in the Spirintal Exercisesprimary responsibility for facilitating their progress in reflection.

Ignatian Pedagogt also briefly describes how these iyna-i" elements of experience,reflection, and action are at work in the classroom:

(28) Starting with EXPERIENCE, the teacher creates the conditions whereby studentsgather and recollect the material of their own experience in order to distill whatthey understand already in terms of facts, feelings, values, insights and intuitionsthey bring to the subject matter at hand. l,ater the teacher guides the students inassimilating new information and further experience so that their knowledge willgrow in completeness and truth. The teacher lays the foundations for learning howto learn by engaging students in skills and techniques of REFLECTON. Herememory understanding, imagination and feelings are used to grasp the essentialmeaning and value of what is being studied, to discover its relationship to otherfacets of human knowledge and activity, and to appreciate its implications in thecontinuing sea¡ch for truth. Reflection should be a formative and liberatingprocess that so shapes the consciousness of students-their habitual attitudes,values and beliefs as well as ways of thinking-that they are impelled to move be-

yond knowing to ACTION. It is then the role of the teacher to see that the oppor-tunities are provided that will challenge the imagination and exercise the will ofthe students to choose the best possible course of action to flow from and followup on what they have learned. What they do as a result under the teacher's direc-tion, while it may not immediately transform the world into a global communityofjustice, peace and love, should at least be an educational step in that directionand toward that goal even if it merely leads to new experiences, further reflectionsand consequent actions within the subject area under consideration.

IçNAC|US KNe\V

Nor¿s (2g)Thecontinualinterpla¡'.then,ofEXPERIENCE'REFLECTIONandACTIONin the teaching_t.urning dynamic of the classroom lies at the heart of an

Ignatian pedagãgy. It is our way of proceeding in Jesuit schools as we accom-

pany the l"u-1Ãn his or her journey of becoming a fully human person. It is

an Ignatian pedagogical paradigm which each of us can bring to the subjects

we reach und proi.J*, *L.un, lnowing that it needs to be adapted and applied

to our own sPecihc situations'

While lgnatian Pedagog, explores each of these dynamic elements in greater detail' as

well as ih" t*o additional "l.rn"nt, of context and evaluation. these citations give us

a brief, initial understanding of the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm, which will

become clearer as we proceed with this book'

With all of this as the context for our discussion about what "Ignatius Knew," we will

first explore lgnatius' methodology in the Spit'itua/ Exercise'c and then its connection

with current educational psychology and learning theory'

PRnrBcuoN oF lcx.lru.u TnnuINoLoGY

St. Ignatius LoYola

Society of Jesus

Jesuits

Spiritual Exercises

- Annotations

- Nineteenth Annotation Retreat

o Points

- Preludes

- Composition of Place

- Grace Sought

o Meditation

' Contemplation

- ApPlication of the Senses

o Examination of Conscience

- RePetition

- Colloquy

- Principle and Foundation

- The First Week

- The Second Week

NorrsPnnrrcrloN oF IcNATIAN TERMINoLoGY coNT'D

- The Kingdom- The Two Standards

- Three Classes of Persons

- Three Ways of Being Humble

- Election

' Discernmento The Third Week

' The Fourth Week

> Conremplatio ad Amorem (The Contemplation to Attain the Love of God)

- Finding God in AllThings

Ratio Studiorum (1599)

' Prelection

- Repetition

Go Forth and Teach: The Characteristics of Jesuit Education

- Cura Personalis (Personalized Care and Concern)

' Active Learningo Reflection

- Faith that Does Justice

- Men and Women for Others

- Preferential Option for the Poor

- Apostolic Instrument in the Service of the Church

- Excellence

- Magis (More)

- Collaboration

Ignatian Pedagogy: A Practical Approach

- Context

- Experience

- Reflection

- Action

- Evaluation

rqNÀcrus KNe\t

Nores PnelncrloN oF EDUCATIoNAL Tr:RiulnoLOGY

Brain-Based Education

- Spatial Memory

- Taxon Memory

Hemispheric Processing

- Left Hemisphere Processing

- Right Hemisphere Processing

Leaming Style

= Visual Learners

' Auditory Learners

- Kinesthetic Learners

Multiple Intelligences

- Linguistic Intelligence

' Musical Intelligence

' Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

- Spatial Intelligence

- Body-Kinesthetic Intelligenceo Interpersonal Intelligence

- Intrapersonal Intelligence

Higher Level Thinking Skills

- Teachingþr Thinking

- Teaching o/Thinking- Teaching about T\inking- Metacognition

' Teaching as Enculturation

Experiential-Based Learning

' ATLAS Communities

- Robert Marzano's Dimensions of Learning

Authentic, Performance-Based, Alternati ve Assessment

Cooperative Learning

ro

CHAPTER II

lqr,oñ.,''t (T)ecl-odoLo91 -

í¡'¡ e-. Spric*o,L e-*.-císes

ou have already taken the Jesuit and Ignatian terminology prelection in the pre-

vious chapter as paft of establishing the context for exploring the connection

between Ignatian methodology in the Spirituat Exercises and current educational psy-

chology and learning theory. This chapter, whose primary purpose is the exploration,

explanation, and increased understanding of basic Ignatian terminology, has the fol-

lowing objectives:

- To explain the Ignatian terminology found in the prelection

- To relate that terminology to "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching"

To discuss Ignatian methodologY

To begin a process of reflection about Ignatian methodology and the Ignatian

educator

. To begin raising some questions about Ignatian methodology and what takes

place in the classroom

PRELECTION

Take a few minutes and reflectAs you recall the various stePs

on the exercise, "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching'"in that exercise, think about the following questions:

How many different kinds of intellectual functioning did you use while doing this

exercise?

How does this exercise involve the whole person in the reflection process?

rçNÀclus KNew

NoresWhat steps and/or types of intellectual functioning in the process were the easiest

for you? Because they were easy for you, what does this suggest to you about

your own intellectual functioning and leaming preferences?

What steps and/or types of intellectual functioning in the process challenged you?

Do you ur" uny of these types of intellectual functioning in other areas of your

tifei Wnat do you think would happen if you started to use and develop some ofthese areas that are challenging for you?

If you are familiar the Spiritual Exercises, how does this reflection exercise

apiroximate Ignatian prayer methodology for you? Is there anything missing?

t2

lqnecion í'llerhodoL<'91- in c4re SP¡ricuol e-xercíses.

NortsSPIRITUALEXERCISES:wHoLEPERSONINVOLVEMENT

The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius Loyola are a series of exercises' designed to

help the retreatant{ look reflectively at the experiences of her life to help order her

life in greaterdedication and service to God. Ignatian Pedagogt' describes well the

purposes and methodologies of the Spiritual Exercises"

(24)Ignatius,spiritualExercisesisalittlebookthatwasnevermeanttoberead'atleast as most books are read. It was intended' rather' to be used as a way to

proceed in guiding others through experiences of prayer wherein they might

meetandconverse_*iththelivingGod,comehonestlytogripswiththetruthoftheirvaluesandbeliefs,andmakefreeanddeliberatechoicesaboutthefuturecourse of their lives. The Spiritual Exercises. carefully constructed and anno-

tated in Ignatius' little manual, are not meant to be merely cognitive activities or

devotional practices. They are, instead, rigorous exercises of the spirit wholly

engagingthebody,mind'heartandsoulofthehumanperson'Thustheyoffernot only matters to be pond"red, but also realities'to be contemplated, scenes to

beimagined,feelingstobeevaluated,possibilitiestobeexplored'optionstobeconsidered, alternatìves to be weighed' ¡udgments to be reached and choices of

action to be made-all with the .^p,.,,.d aim of helping individuals to seek and

findthewillofGodatworkintheradicalorderi.ngoftheirlives.

The emphasis placed on the idea of completing a series of exercises that engage not

just the mind, ùut also the body, heart, and soul of the person provide the first impor-

tant insight into Ignatius' concéption of learning' Ignatius believed that learning' espe-

cially in the spintual life, did not occur solely in the mind. Learning for Ignatius

requires that the entire person interact with the material and recognizes the fact that

God works through the entire person with all types of mental processes' Thus' for

something to be learned and understood completely, the body, heart, and soul must

u""ofnpunyanyintellectualknowledgeaboutaparticularsubjectmatter.

SPIRITUAL EnERCISES: EXPERIENCE, REFLECTION, ACTION

Equally important to the Ignatian belief that the whole person must be involved in

the learning process is lgnãtius' belief that learning occurs in an interplay of experi-

ence, reflection and uJ,ion. This belief derives directly from Ignati]us' Spiritual

Exercises where the retreatant begins with her experiences and reflects upon these

experiences from a variety of perspectives and with a variety of methods of prayer'

, The Latin sense of the word ..exercise" is that of "driving on" or "keeping busy" according

to webster,s Dictionary. It is this sense of the word that Ignatius had in mind when he talks

about his SPiritual Exercises'o The usual term used to identify one making the Spiritual Exercises is "retreatant"--{ne who is

in the process of looking at the spiritual dimensions of one's life' Many times this occurs away

from one's daily routine*at a special location called a retreat house in the sense that one withdraws

or retreats from one's usual surroundings in order to devote oneself to reflection and prayer'

t3

|çNACIUS KNe\¡t

Norøs The result of these reflections on one's experiences leads to action. The three classicIgnatian questions of:

o What have I done for Christ?

- What am I doing for Christ?

- What more can I do for Christ?

sum up this interplay well. Ignatian Pedagogy illustrates this process of experience,reflection and action in the Spiritual Exercises:

(25) A fundamental dynamic of the Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius is the continualcall to reflect upon the entirety of one's experience in prayer in order to discernwhere the Spirit of God is leading. Ignatius urges reflection on human experi-ence as an essential means of validating its authenticity, because withoutprudent reflection delusion readily becomes possible and without carefulreflection the significance of one's experience may be neglected or trivialized.Only after adequate reflection on the experience and interior appropriation ofthe meaning and implications of what one studies can one proceed freely andconfidently toward choosing appropriate courses of action that foster internalgrowth of oneself as a human being.

With these two basic Ignatian themes in mind, whole person involvement and theinterplay of experience, reflection, and action, it is time to examine closely the struc-ture of an Ignatian prayer period to see how Ignatius uses this structure to developthese two themes.

THE STRUCTURE OF AN IGNATIAN PRAYER PERIOD

Table I breaks down an Ignatian prayer period into its various components and relatesthese components to the exercise, "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching."

TABLE 1

SrnucruRg oF AN IcNATIAN PRAyER PIìRIoD

Spiritual Exercises "An lgnatian Reflectionon Teaching"

Choice of the topic for the reflectionl. Points the Night Before

2. Preparatory Prayer Step l. Learning Søte

3. First Prelude-Composition of Place Step 2. Classes Taught and Attended

t+

Spiritual Exercises "An lgnatian Reflectionon Teaching"

4. Second Prelude-Grace Sought I

5. Points for Prayer-Usually Three iPoints I

Step 3. What do I want to learn?

Step 4. Three stages or daYs ofteaching

6. Types ofPrayer:MeditationContemplationApplication of the Senses

The three divisions of SteP 4 touchall three of these tYPes of Prayer.They contain a mixture of the threetypes of prayer.

7. Colloquy

8. Closing Prayer

Step 5. Conversation with a

Master Teacher

Not used in this exercise.

9. Review of the Prayer Session Step 6. Reviewing the ReflectionProcess

Each of these components of an Ignatian prayer period deserves some explanation

and comment.

PREPARATION FOR PRAYER

POINTS THE NIGHT BEFORE

Ignatius' MethodologYÀn Ignatian prayer p"rioO begins with the preparation for the next morning's prayer

before one retires at night. Ignatius in his spiritual Exercises'describes this prepa-

ration in this waY:

sAll quotations, numeration, and terminology are from George E. Ganss, S'J',The Spiritual

Exercises of saint lgnatius: A Translation and commentary (st. Louis: Institute for Jesuit

Sources, 1992). ln addition, Ganss'distinction of Spirituat Exercises referring to the book

written by St. Ignatius and Spiritual Exercises referring to the process of making the Spiritual

Exercises will be used. See Editorial Note p. 221 fot a discussion of this convention'

t5

rçNÀcrus KNe\v

Norts 73 The First Directive. Upon going to bed at night, just before I fall asleep, I willthink for the length of a Hail Mary about the hour when I should arise, and forwhat purposes: and I will briefly sum up the exercise I am to make.

14 The Second. Upon awakening, while keeping out any other thoughts, I willimmediately turn my attention to what I will contemplate in the first exercise,at midnight.

The first step which Ignatius emphasizes in preparation for prayer is the recalling of thesubject matter for the next day's prayer as one retires at night. This preparation con-tinues upon awakening when one focuses one's attention on the subject matter ofprayer to the exclusion of all other matters. Ignatius thus stresses setting a properatmosphere for prayer through focusing the mind in a single direction. This focusingof the mind in a single direction is comparable to strategies that a coach employs tohelp athletes focus their attention on an impending game by excluding all distractingthoughts from their minds. It is also a strategy similar to one that many tutors andtutoring programs recommend for students having trouble with a particular subject.These programs regularly suggest that the student review the difficult material at thevery end of the study period, try to remember the material just before retiring, andrecall the material first thing in the morning after rising. This process also parallels pre-viewing or surveying before reading a section of material. Previewing or surveying,along with setting up some questions to answer while you read, increases comprehen-sion significantly for all types of reading. The Ignatian preparation process for prayeris a very sound psychological one because it focuses attention on the matter at handand helps to direct one's undivided attention to the material to be considered in prayer.

An lgnatian Reflection on TeøchingBesides the selection of a topic in "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching," the first twoparagraphs in Chapter I, which set up the context for the book, you began the processof focusing your mind on what it is Ignatius knew about current educational psy-chology and learning theory. These paragraphs also raised some questions for you tohave in mind during your reading. While these paragraphs are different from thepoints the night before which Ignatius discusses, they are rooted in the same princi-ples and theories that Ignatius stresses in his Spirirual Exercises. These basic princi-ples are that comprehension and understanding increase significantly when one alertsone's mind to pay close attention to what follows. Ignatius knew and understood thatcareful preparation is an essential component in any learning process and adds threefurther steps to insure that careful preparation precedes the beginning of prayer.

PREPARATORY PRAYER

Ignatius' MethodologyThe next step in the Ignatian preparation process for prayer is the preparatory prayer.Ignatius describes the Preparatory Prayer in this manner:

46 The Preparaton, Prayer is to ask God our Lord for the grace that all my inten-tions, actions, and operations may be ordered purely to the service and praiseof the Divine Majesty.

George Ganss, S.J., in his edition of lgnatius' Spiritual Exercises, describes the func-

tion and importance of the preparatory prayer and the preludes:

The preparatory prayer and the preludes, each lasting a minute or so at the beginning

of a prayer period, are means of recollecting oneself and performing the prayer in a

better, reverential manner. Throughout lhe Exercises lgnatius considers them tobe ofgreat importance.ó

Ignatius understood that taking the time to make the transition into prayer was partic-

ularly important to the whole process of prayer and helped to predispose one to pray

better. Ignatius continues this preparation process with a preparatory prayer and the

preludes, which immediately follow the preparatory prayer. The preparatory prayer

irelps establish the proper atmosphere for prayer by having the person praying recall

before God that everything that follows is directed by, to, and for God' The prepara-

tory prayer is analogous to setting up a proper state of mind to ca¡ry out a specific task

such as reading, participating in a sport, listening to music, establishing an atmosphere

for relaxation, etc. This type of transition process is also a sound psychological prin-

ciple because it continues to help the mind to both focus its attention and establish a

proper atmosphere for the upcoming prayer period'

An lgnatian Reflection on TeachingStep I in "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" partially replicates the establishment

of a proper atmosphere for prayer which Ignatius creates through the preparatory

prayer. In Step I you were asked to develop a state of learning excellence by recalling

á time when you learned quickly and effortlessly yet were able to recall important

information later when you needed to use it' Proper learning states are a very impor-

tant part of the learning process. Strong, positive learning states greatly facilitate

learnìng while negative learning states can greatly hinder leaming. The purpose of the

learning state in the reflection exercise was to help you predispose yourself to learn

quickly and effortlessly in the steps which followed.

THE FIRST PRELADE-COMPOSITION OF PIACE

Ignatius' MethodologYThis First prelude, called the Composition of Place, adds another dimension to the prepa-

ration process for prayer. Ignatius asks that the person praying take a few moments and

begin to use her imagination. Ignatius describes the Composition of Place in this way:

4'l The First Prelude is a composition made by imagining the place. Here we

should take notice of the following. when a contemplation or meditation is

about something that can be gazed on. for example, a contemplation of christour Lord, who is visible, the composition will be to see in the imagination the

physical place where that which I want to contemplate is taking place. By phys-

ical placô I mean, for instance, a temple or mountain where Jesus Christ or Our

Ladyhappenstobe,inaccordancewiththetopicldesiretocontemplate.

n Ganss, endnote #32,P' 155-

t7

rÇN¡crus KNew

Norps When a contemplation or meditation is about something abstract and invisible,as in the present case about the sins, the composition will be to see in the imag-ination and to consider my soul as imprisoned in this corruptible body, and mywhole compound self as an exile in this valley [of tears] among brute animals.I mean, my whole body as composed of soul and body.

The Composition of Place provides a concrete and imaginative context for prayerespecially if the material for prayer is abstract, like the general notion of sin. TheComposition of Place marks the frrst, but not the last time, Ignatius uses the imagina-tive powers of the mind during prayer. It is a starting point for involving the wholemind in prayer and alerts the mind that it will be expected to use many different fac-ulties during the prayer that follows. The use of the whole person and whole mind inprayer will be expanded during the actual points for prayer. The Composition of Placealso begins to move the mind into the actual subject matter of the prayer and, to some

degree, begins the actual prayer process. It is yet another piece in the process offocusing the mind to the matter at hand-prayer.

An lgnatian Reflection on TeachingStep 2 in "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" attempts to create an experiencesimilar to the Ignatian Composition of Place. Since the reflection centers upon you as

teacher, you are asked to see yourself present at those classes you have taught and

attended. Step 2 assists the mind in moving easily into the process of reflecting aboutteaching by placing you in that context. Step 2 helps involve your imagination in thereflection process for the first time and to begin to activate other intellectual facultiesrather than just verbal reasoning.

THE SECOND PRELUDE-GRACE SOUGHT

Ignatian MethodologyThe final part of preparation for prayer which Ignatius stresses is some statement ofthe grace one seeks from the prayer period. Ignatius states it this way:

48 The Second Prelude is to ask God our Lord for what I want and desire. What Iask for should be in accordance to the subject matter. For example, in a contem-plation on the Resurrection, I will ask for joy with Christ in joy; in a contempla-tion on the Passion, I will ask for pain, tears, and suffering with Christ suffering.

The Second Prelude is simply a statement of purpose for this period of prayer and

marks the conclusion of the Ignatian preparation processes for prayer. The stating ofa "grace sought" forces the mind to answer the question, "What is it that I would liketo have happen during this prayer period?" It serves to help focus the mind on whatits purpose is for praying about these particular points. Once one has completed thisSecond Prelude, the preparation stages for prayer are finished and one is ready tobegin the process of praying.

An lgnatian Retlection on TeøchingStep 3 in "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" parallels the Second Prelude-GraceSought. Step 3 alerts the mind to pay attention for specific information during the next

IE

ch€ Spirrcucl e-xe¡císes

sections of the reflection. It serves the same purpose as the questions you might for-mulate before you begin to read about a particular topic. When the mind has some

sense of direction and purpose, it is much easier for it to attend to the task at hand.

This is a very effective technique for focusing attention and facilitating retention ofmaterial learned.

PREPARATI ON F OR PRAYER : CONCLU SI ON

It is clear from the various techniques which Ignatius stressed as part of the prepara-

tion for prayer that he had an intuitive knowledge of how the human mind works effi-ciently. Ignatius suggests a series of preparatory steps which help to focus the mind

on the task. With his preparatory techniques Ignatius also begins the process ofinvolving the whole person and the whole mind in the prayer process. For Ignatius

prayer is not simply a matter of verbal reasoning, but of involving the whole mind'

ãspecially the imagination. Many of these preparatory techniques which Ignatius

stressed in the making of the Spiritual Exercises are the same as effective learning

techniques stressed in educational psychology and learning theory today. We willexplore this connection in greater detail in Chapters III, IV and V

POINTS FOR PRAYER

STRACTURE OF THE SPIRITUAL EXERCISES

Before we look at what Ignatius says about prayer in his points for praye¡ it will be

helpful to get a basic overview of the structure of the Spirirual Exercises. Besides the

baslc structure for prayer, Ignatius also has an overall structure in his Spiritual

Exercises.Ignatius begins his Spiritual Exercises with what he calls the Principle and

Foundation. Ignatius writes:

23 Human beings are created to praise, reverence' and serve God our Lord, and by

means of doing this to save their souls.

The other things on the face of the earth are created for the human beings, to

help them in the pursuit ofthe end for which they are created'

From this it follows that we ought to use these things to the extent that they

help us tóward our end, and free ourselves from them to the extent that they

hinder us from it.

To attain this it is necessary to make ourselves indifferent to all created things'

in regard to everything which is left to our free will and is not forbidden.

consequently, on our own part we ought not to seek health rather than sickness,

wealth rathei than poverty, honor rather than dishonor, a long life rather than a

short one, and so on in all matters'

Rather, we ought to desire and choose only that which is more conducive to the

end for which we are created.

t9

rÇNÂc:lus KNew

Nores The Principle and Foundation contains the presuppositions which underlie the entire

process of the Spiritual Exercises. Ganss describes the Principle and Foundation in

this way:

By its clear statement of purpose of human existence on earth this Principle and

Foundation orients the retreatant for his or her work during the Exercises and forliving after they are finished. It is both the starting point of the E¡ercises and apr"*ir" from which flow conclusions of the greatest importance for the spiritual life.It briefly presents God's plan of creating human beings who can use their freedom

wisely to work out their spiritual $owth and eternal self-fulfillment: their happiness

by glorifying God both on earth and in the beatific vision''

The principle and Foundation contains important Ignatian concepts. The first concept

is that a person's ultimate end is to praise, reverence, and serve God. A second concept

centers on how a person uses creation. A person should use created things insofar as

they are helpful for her in achieving the ultimate goal of praising, reverencing, and

serving God. If created things are not helpful in achieving this ultimate end' then a

person should not use them. Another key Ignatian concept in the Principle and

Foundation is indifferenc¿. Indifference stresses a basic attitude within a person forapproaching creation. When a person is indifferent she approaches life without any

pieOispositions in one direction or another, allowing herself to be open to doing the

will of God in her life regardless of what direction it may take. We will discuss indif-ference in more detail in the next chapter'

Following upon this Principte and Foundation, Ignatius leads the retreatant through a

series of exercises which he divides into "weeks." Each week has an organizing

theme. The First Week focuses on sin, repentance for personal sin, and reconciliation

between the retreatant and God. The Second Vy'eek asks the retreatant to reflect on the

life of Christ from His birth until the beginning of the passion. The Second Week also

contains some key exercises, like the contemplation on the Kingdom, which serves as

a transition from the First Week to Second Week. The contemplation on the Kingdom

asks the retreatant to see Christ as a King who is eminently worthy of following and

imitation. It helps to establish a basic disposition toward the imitation of Christ that is

crucial to carry into the meditations about Christ's life in the Second rWeek. Another

of the key meditations of the Second Week, the Two Standards, reinforces this theme

of the imitation of Christ. In the Two Standards, Ignatius has the retreatant consider

the standard of Satan and the standard of Christ and reflect on which of these stan-

dards she wishes to follow. Ignatius includes two other exercises, Three Classes ofpersons and Three Ways of Being Humble, as part of the Second Week. Both of these

exercises are designed to continue to help the retreatant become open to greater imi-ration and service of Christ. The Third Week leads the retreatant through Christ's

passion and death, while the Fourth Week focuses on the Resurrection and events

associated with it.

'Canss, endnote #17, P.148'

20

ciø (llecfioáobg'l- in ¿he icuJ €-xercises

The Spiritual Exercises conclude with the famous Contemplation to Attain Love

(Contemplatio ad Amorem). This exercise synthesizes for the retreatant the knowledge

that God loves her. Given this knowledge of God's love for the retreatant, the

retreatant reflects this love of God in the way she chooses to live in and interact with

the world. The Contemplation to Attain Love contains the foundations for the unique

Ignatian principle of "Finding God in All Things." For Ignatius, God is present in all

of creation and all the works of the creatures of creation, not just in times of prayer

and reflection. This notion of God's presence in all things is a fundamental principle

of Ignatian spirituality.

IGNATIAN METHODS OF PRAYER

Once the preparations for prayer have been completed, it is time to begin the main part

of procesi. It is here that the notion of "exercise," meaning the involvement of the

wtrote person in the process, occurs. One cannot simply read the Spiritual Exercises

or suggestions for prayer. One must become actively involved in making the Spiritual

Exercises if it is to have lasting and transforming effects. To involve the whole person

in prayer, Ignatius introduces three methods of prayer used throughout the Spiritual

Exercises-meditation, contemplation, and the application of the senses' Each ofthese types of prayer incorporates different mental functions in distinct ways.

MedindonDuring the First Week of the Spiritual Exercises, Ignatius teaches the retreatant a

method of prayer called "meditation." Ignatius describes how a person meditates in

his points for the meditation about sin:

50 The First Point wlll be to use my memory, by going over the first sin, that ofthe angels; next, to use my understanding, by reasoning about it; and then my

will. My aim in remembering and reasoning about all these matters is to bnng

myself to greater shame and confusion, by comparing the one sin of the angels

with all my otwn many sins. For one sin they went to hell; then how often have

I deserved hell for mY manY sins.

In other words, I will call to memory the sin of the angels: How they were

created in grace and then, not wanting to better themselves by using their

freedom to ieverence and obey their Creator and Lord, they fell into pride, were

changed from grace to malice, and were hurled from heaven into hell. Next Iwill use my intellect to ruminate about this in greater detail, and then move

myself to deeper emotions by means of my will!

Ignatius suggests in these directions that the retreatant begin by recalling the facts for

ui., "u"nt,

the sin of the angels. The retreatant then moves to a relatively theoretical

consideration of what the Àngels' sin means. Subsequently, the retreatant recalls her

own sins, initially focusing on a listing of personal sins and then on the meaning ofthese sins. When the retreatant begins to gain some insight and understanding of sin,

she gradually moves away from rational considerations to an appreciation of personal

sinfulness and its impact on her relationship with God. Once the retreatant starts these

deeper considerations and the emotional reactions associated with them, she moves

Norns

2l

rçNÀcrus KNew

from merely considering sin in general or her specific sins to examining the conse-quences of sin and its effect upon her relationship with God.

It is important to note the movement occurring in the meditation. One begins withmemory, followed by rational considerations about sin. After these two steps, itbecomes important to personalize these reflections and begin to relate them to oneselfand one's personal reactions. The movement is also from sin in general to sin as itrelates to the person and her relationship with God. When the retreatant begins to con-sider the implications of sin in her relationship to God, she begins to move to the area

that Ignatius calls the will. The will is a key area for Ignatius because he believes thatit is through the will that the retreatant begins to make changes in her life. The will isthe area where action occurs in the lgnatian dynamic of experience, reflection, andaction. By moving through these various cognitive processes during meditation, theretreatant employs a variety of mental faculties. The whole mind becomes involvedduring prayer, as well as the three dynamics of experience, reflection, and action ofthe Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm.

ContemplationAfter introducing the retreatant to meditation during the first week, Ignatius uses

another form of prayer, contemplation, for the remainder of the Spiritual Exercises. Inhis contemplations on the Incarnation and the Nativity, Ignatius presents the basictechniques of contemplation. In the contemplation on the Nativity, Ignatius describescontemplation in this way:

ll4 The First Point.This is to see the persons; that is, to see Our Lady, Joseph, themaidservant, and the infant Jesus after his birth. I will make myself a poor,little, and unworthy slave, gazing at them, contemplating them, and servingthem in their needs, just as if I were there, with all possible respect and rever-ence. Then I will reflect on myself and draw some profit.

ll5 The Second Point. Í will observe, consider, and contemplate what they are

saying. Then, reflecting upon myself,I will draw some profit'

lló The Third Pa¡nt. This is to behold and consider what they are doing; forexample, journeying and toiling, in order that the Lord may be born in thegreatest poverty; and that after so many hardships of hunger, thirst, heat, cold,injuries, and insults, he may die on the cross! And all this for me! Then I willreflect and draw some spiritual profit.

Contemplation invites the retreatant to use another type of reflective Prayer leadingto personal responses and actions. Contemplation has a different structure frommeditation. After recalling the history of an event in the Composition of Place, theretreatant begins the main part of the contemplation by placing herself at a partic-ular event through the use of the imagination. In the imagination the retreatant sees,

hears, and shares in the actions occurring at the particular event. The retreatant thenmoves to a more rationalistic thought process of considering the implications for herlife from the events experienced in the imagination. Finally, the retreatant turns tothe will to make sure that what has been understood and learned in the contempla-tiõn becomes a part of herself and her relationship with God. The mental faculties

.,.

used in contemplation are imagination, understanding, and will rather than memory,

understanding, and will which Ignatius teaches in meditation. Ganss describes con-

templation as "an easier and more affective kind of prayer"'than the memory-basedand more rationalistic thinking of meditation'

Applicøtíon of the Senses

Ignatius introduces one additional form of prayer during the second week of the

Spiritual Exercises. Ignatius calls this form of prayer, Application of the senses.

Ignatius describes this form of prayer in this way:

l2l . . . After the preparatory prayer and the three preludes, it is profitable to use

the imagination and to apply the five senses to the first and second contempla-tions, in the following manner.

122 The First Point.By the sight of my imagination I will see the persons' by med-

itating and contemplating in detail all the circumstances around them, and by

drawing some profit from the sight.

123 The Second Point By my hearing I will listen to what they are saying or mightbe saying; and then, reflecting on myself, I will draw some profit from this.

lZ4 The Third Point.I will smell the fragrance and taste the infinite sweetness and

charm of the Divinity, of the soul, of its virtues, and of everything there' appro-priately for each of the persons who is being contemplated. Then I will reflectupon myself and draw profit from this-

125 The Founh Point. Using the sense of touch, I will, so to speak, embrace and

kiss the places where the persons walk or sit. I shall always endeavor to drawsome profit from this.

Ignatius suggests that the application of the senses be used in the evening when the

retreatant may be tired from the prayer sessions of the day. Its main purpose is toserve as a synthesis of what the retreatant has learned through prayer during the day.

In an application of the senses the retreatant uses the five senses and applies them

one at u ii." to the points over which she is praying. The process is a simple one ofmaking oneself present at a particular scene. While present at the scene, the

retreatant uses each sense on the scene and moves directly from applying the senses

to the scene to some particular response to the scene without spending time in more

rationalistic thought processes. Ganss comments about the application of the senses

in this way:

The application of the senses is another method of mental prayer. It has a long pre-

vioustistory but is described here for the frrst time inlhe Exercis¿s. In it there is less

reasoning and drawing conclusions, and a more restful manner of absorbing in an

affective and more passive way the fruit of the previous contemplations of the day' Itis .'not discursive, but merely rests in the sensible quality of things, such as the sights,

sounds, and the like, and finds in them enjoyment, delight, and spiritual profit.''

t Ganss, endnote #61,p.162.e Ganss, endnote #66, PP.l63-1óa.

23

rÇN¡c:rus KNew

Nor¿s This synthesizing of what has been experienced during a day of prayer is an tmpor-

rant concept for Ignatius. Ignatius is a firm believer in gaining a deeper understanding

and fuller integration of the material learned as an integral part of the person' He

accomplishes this by using the techniques in the application of the senses, but he also

,tr"rr"i repetition as an important methodology of the Spiritual Exercises' Ignatius

regularly suggests that the retreatant repeat either entire exercises or parts of exer-

cises, especially those parts that have been particularly fruitful. Repetition for Ignatius

is never simply reviewing or rehashing old material. Repetition always involves an

attempt to gain more understanding, deeper insights, and deeper feelings about the

material of prayer. Repetition, modeled on the Spiritual Exercises, is an important

characteristic of Jesuit pedagogy.

An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching;Step 4 in "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" contains a mixture of techniques

from the three types of Ignatian prayer. You first placed yourself at a particular event

to see, hear, and feel what was happening as you viewed that event. This part of the

exercise parallels the experience of Ignatian contemplation. You were then asked to

stop and consider some things which struck you as important. This part of the reflec-

tion involves you in a more rationalistic thinking process found in meditation'

Finally, you were asked to think about applying what you learned in this reflection,

which moved you in the direction of some emotional response to the things being

considered. It was also intended to begin to move you in the direction of some type

of action as a result of this reflection exercise and, as such, parallels Ignatius' use ofthe will in the Spiritual Exercises.

While this reflection exercise contains some elements of the different types ofIgnatian prayer, it does not fully approximate the experience of using these

methods ãf pruy"r during the Spiritual Exercises. This is partly because it is a dis-

crete exercise, not part of a series of exercises. There are also differences in the

content of this reflection and the content of the meditations and contemplations in

the Spiritual Exercises.

EXAMI NATI O N O F CO N SCI EN CE

Ignatius' MethodologYOuring the course of the first week of the Spiritual Exercises, Ignatius introduces the

retreatant to another type of prayer-the examination of conscience, commonly called

the .,examen" among Jesuits."'While the examen is not a form of prayer used directly

in making the meditations, contemplations, and application of the senses in the

Spiritual E*ercises, it is a form of prayer used by the retreatant in conjunction with

,0 For a thorough and excellent discussion of the examen in Jesuit religious life see Joseph A.

Tetlow, S.J., ..The Most Postmodern Prayer: American Jesuit Identity and the Examen of

Conscience, 1920-1990," Studies in the Spirituatity of Jesuits 26, no' 1 (St' Louis: The

Seminar on Jesuit Spirituality, 1994).

24

iI

Nor¿sthe other forms of prayer. The examen's purpose is to help the person to contlnue to

develop a full and rich spiritual life."

Ignatius describes the examen in a series of steps in his Spiritual Exercises' Ignatius

advises the retreatant upon rising in the morning to think about a particular virtue to

be cultivated or a fault that she wants to correct' At noon, the retreatant spends time

in prayer, recalling particularly how she practiced the virtue or guarded against or fellinto the fault. Ignatius urges the retreatant to recall the morning hour by hour

regarding how she practiced the virtue or committed the fault. Once the retreatant has

finished ixamining how she has succeeded or failed during the morning, she resolves

before God to do better during the remainder of the day. The retreatant repeats this

exercise later in the day at the end of the evening meal.

The entire process of the Ignatian examen is an excellent model of the experience,

reflection, and action paradigm. The retreatant sets up a specific context, a virtue to be

cultivated or a personal fault to be rid of, and then takes time during the day to reflect

about her experiences regarding this virn¡e or fault. After these reflections, the retreatant

decides on ways to try to do better in cultivating the virtue or avoiding the fault. The

whole process is an evaluative one which helps the person grow in the spiritual life'

An lgnøtian Reflection on Teaching"An lgnatian Reflection on Teaching" parallels the prayer process of the Spiritual

Exercises; however, it does not model exactly the process of the examen' Pieces of the

exercise are very similar to pieces in the examen, but the general context of the

examen is not replicated in the reflection exercise'

IGNATIAN METHODS OF PRAYER: CONCLASION

Ignatius introduces three types of prayers in his Spiritual Exercises: meditation' con-

tJmplation, and the applicaiion of the senses. Each type of prayer has a slightly dif-

ferent methodology. Ail three types of prayer involve the whole person in the prayer

process. Each meihod of prayer stresses somewhat different ways of beginning prayer

ãnd the mental faculties used during prayer, but all three methods of prayer help to

lead the retreatant to make some personal response to the material considered in

prayer. All three methods of prayer are different methods of reflection on one's expe-

ii"n"". The results of these reflections lead the retreatant to take action in her life that

will lead to greater dedication and commitment to God. The examination of con-

science, which Ignatius introduces during the first week of the Spiritual Exercises' is

a concrete example of how to use the experience, reflection, and action model'

,¡ see also George Aschenbrenner, s.J., "consciousness Examen," Review for Religious' 31 '

1912,pp.13-21 which presents another way of looking at the examen by having the person

ask the question, "Where did I experience God in my life today?" This view of the examen

moves beyond simply looking at faults and cultivating virtues to seeing the work of God in

one's daily life.

25

|çNACTUS KNe\2

CONCLUSION OF PRAYER

coLL0QUY

Ignatian MethodologyAfter the retreatant has completed the points for a particular exercise in the SpiritualExercises, Ignatius has the person conclude the prayer session with what he calls a"colloquy." Ignatius describes the colloquy in this manner:

53 Colloquy. Imagine Christ our Lord suspended on the cross before you, and con-verse with him in a colloquy: How is it that he, although he is the Creator, has

come to make himself a human being? How is it that he has passed from eternallife to death here in time, and to die in this way for my sins?

In a simila¡ way, reflect on yourself and ask: What have I done for Ch¡ist? Whatam I doing for Christ? What ought I to do for Chnst?

In this way, too, gazing on him in so pitiful a state as he hangs on the cross,speak out whatever comes to your mind.

54 A colloquy is made, properly speaking, in the way one friend speaks to another,or a servant to one in authority-now begging a favor, now accusing oneself ofsome misdeed, now telling one's concerns and asking counsel about them.Close with an Our Father.

The colloquy helps move the prayer in yet another direction. Given all that has pre-

ceded the colloquy, the retreatant is now invited to share what has occurred by

holding a conversation with a friend. Before that conversation begins, Ignatius has

the retreatant return to the imagination and set up a specific setting in which the col-loquy takes place. The idea of a conversation helps bring the entire person into theprayer process because any conversation between friends involves a whole spec-

trum of thought and emotions. In any conversation all types of both verbal and non-verbal interactions occur. If the colloquy becomes a true conversation, then the

entire person becomes involved in the process and emotional responses to what isbeing shared flow naturally and spontaneously. The prayer session ends in a verynatural, yet very powerful way. Clearly, the whole person becomes fully involved ina colloquy. An Ignatian prayer period concludes with a closing vocal prayer such as

an Our Father.

An lgnøtian Retlection on TÞachingStep 5, a conversation with a master teacher in "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching,"parallels the process Ignatius suggests in his colloquy. You placed yourself in the pres-

ence of someone who, for you, is a master teacher. Once you were in that person's

presence, you were invited to hold a conversation with that person about whatoccurred during your reflection. You were also invited to note any effect this had on

the overall process used in the reflection. The very process used in Step 5 may have

helped you clarify and understand more fully and deeply what happened during the

other parts of the reflection.

26

in che Sptricrnl- €;xereis<'s

NorrsREVIEW AT THE END OF THE PRAYER PERIOD

Ignatian MethodologyAfter the formal period of prayer, Ignatius strongly suggests that the retreatant spend time

reflecting about what happened dunng the prayer. Ignatius describes the process this way:

77 . . . After frnishing the exercise, for a quarter of an hour, either seated orwalking about, I will examine how well I did in the contemplation or medita-tion. If poorly, I will seek the reasons; and if I find them, I will express sorrowin order to do better in the future. If I did well, I will thank God our Lord and

use the same Procedure next time.

For Ignatius, this is the time to analyze what happened during prayer. By øking the time

to examine what happened during a prayer period, the retreatant can leam what parts ofthe prayer process worked well for them and what parts did not. The purpose behind this

is to gain a better understanding of the better ways to pray. Ignatius cautions one about

simply abandoning things that did not work well without some further exploration ofthem. Ignatius believed that often these areas, where we are most resistant or least

inclined to explore, are areas where there may be something for us to learn and under-

stand about ourselves and our relationship with God. If we use current educational jargon,

this review is called "metacognition," the process of "thinking about the thinking'"

An lgnøtian Reflection on TeachingStep 6 in "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" serves the same exact purposes as the

review at the end of prayer period in the Spiritual Exercises. Step 6 offers a chance to

review what happened during the reflection on teaching. Step 6 helps you to recog-

nize which of the techniques used in the reflection worked well for you. It also helps

you focus on techniques that may not have been successful for you. The concluding

suggestion of trying these techniques in a different context attempts to raise the

Ignatian issue of making sure that one does not abandon what does not work without

further exploration. There may yet be additional things to be learned by examining

those things that were difficult or challenging for you.

ANNOTATIONS

Besides providing exercises for the retreatant inhis Spiritual Exercises,Ignatius also sup-

plied suggestions for the retreat director and the retreatant, known as Annotations. The

Annotations are simply some notes for either the director or the retreatant. We can dis-

cover several other key Ignatian conceptions about leaming in these notes orAnnotations.

The f¡rst lgnatian concept presented in the Annotations is Ignatius' basic idea about

learning and the involvement of the whole person in leaming, which we have seen

emphasized in the structure of an Ignatian prayer period. Ignatian Pedagogy, which

relates the Annotations to Ignatian pedagogy, states it this way:

(100) l. By "learning" is meant every method of experiencing, reflecting and acting

upon the truth; every way ofpreparing and disposing oneselfto be rid ofallobstacles to freedom and growth (Annotation l)'

IçNACIUS KNC\V

Norts Ignatius again discusses the importance of active involvement in the learning Processin the second Annotation where he stresses that the retreat director present the matterfor prayer briefly so that the retreatant can move into prayer and become activelyinvolved in the process.lgncttian Pedagogt' comments on this lgnatian concept whilerelating it to the role of the teacher:

(l0l) 2. Theteacher explains to the student the method and order of the subject and

accurately narrates the facts. He/she stays to the point and adds only a shortexplanation. The reason for this is that when students take the foundationpresented, go over it and reflect on it, they discover what makes the matterclearer and better understood. This comes from their own reasoning, and

produces greater sense of accomplishment and satisfaction than if the

teacher explained and developed the meaning at great length. It is not muchknowledge that fills and satisfies students, but the intimate understandingand relish of the truth (Annotation 2).

Another important Ignatian concept, personal care and concern (cura personalis),occurs in several different Annotations . Go Forth and Teach comments upon this per-

sonal care and concern in this manner:

(43) Growth in the responsible use of freedom is facilitated by the personal rela'tionship bet+veen student and teacher. Teachers and administrators, both Jesuitand lay, are more than acatlemic guides. They are involved in the lives of the

students, taking a personal interest in the intellectual, affective, moral and spir-itual development ofevery student, helping each one to develop a sense of self-worth and to become a responsible individual within the community. Whilethey respect the privacy of students, they are ready to listen to their cares and

concerns about the meaning of life, to share their joys and sorrows, to helpthem with personal growth and interpersonal relationships. In these and otherways, the adult members of the educational community guide students in theirdevelopment of a set of values leading to life decisions that go beyond "selfl':that includes a concern for the needs of others. They try to live in a way thatoffers an example to the students, and they are willing to share their own lifeexperiences. "Cura personalls" (concern for the individual person) remains a

basic characteristic of Jesuit education.

Ignatian Pedagogy describes some characteristics of this personal cÍre and concemwhen it describes the Annotations and their relationship to the student in the classroom:

(105) 6. V/hen the teacher sees the student is not affected by any experiences, he orshe should ply the student with questions, inquire about when and howstudy takes place, question the understanding of directions, ask what the

student's reflection yielded, and ask for an accounting (Annotation 6).

(106) 7. If the teacher observes that the student is having troubles, he or she shoulddeal with the student gently and kindly. The teacher should encourage and

srrengthen rhe student for the future by reviewing mistakes kindly and sug-gesting ways for improvement (Annotation 7).

(l13)14. The srudent should faithfully inform the teacher of any troubles or dif-ficulties he or she is having, so that a learning process might be suited andadapted to personal needs (Annotation l7).

28

lonetien íìlechoáot<'q1- ín dlæ Spiricuo]- €'=crcises

Norcs(114) l5.Learningshouldal,,\,aysbeadaptedtotheconditionofthestudentengaged

in it (Annotation l8).

Thus, Ignatius stresses in the Annotations personal care and concern for the indi-

vidual as she makes the Spiritual Exercises. The retreat director is sensitive to indi-

vidual needs, successes, and difficulties in order to guide the retreatant in making

a retreat that will have an impact on her life. This same personal care and concern

is a key Ignatian characteristic of Jesuit education deriving directly from the

Spiritual Exercises.

one final, significant Ignatian concept occurs in the Annotations' Ignatius

stressed repeatedly in his spirl tual Exercis¿s that when one prays one should not

be concerned about covering all the material. If one finds a point where one is

deeply moved one should stay with that point and experience it fully' This concept

has become known by the Latin phras e, non mttlîa, sed muhutn The sense of the

phrase is that it is betier to do one thing or a few things very well than to do many

iting, quickly and inconsequentially. This phrase, however, does not translate

easily tó English, since the singular form, multuLø, which means "much," does not

have real meaning in English, because "much" in English already implies some

degree of pluralitY.

Ignatian Pedagogy sums up this concept and its relationship to learning by stating:

(108)9'Thestudentshouldsetaboutlearningthematterofthe-presentasifheorsheweretolearnnothingmore.Thestudentshouldnotbeinhastetocovereverything. "Non multi, sed multum" ("Treat matter selected in depth;

don,t try ä "ou",

every ropic in a given field of inquiry.") (Annotation 1 I ).

You may remember in "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" that you were encour-

aged not to move on to otherloints if you found something important in your reflec-

tions, but to savor those reflåctions as long as appropriate without worrying about

covering all the points in the reflection. This direction was based precisely upon this

annotation from the Spiritual Exercises'

Annotations eighteen, nineteen and twenty all deal with adapting the spiritual

Exercises to the needs of the individual ,"tréutunt-always the key starting point for

Ignatius.Annotationnineteendeservesspeciatcomment.Onefrequentlyhearstheterm, .'Nineteenth Annotation Retreat." Ilnatius' nineteenth annotation suggests that

adaptations be made in the Spirìtual Exeicises for people who cannot afford to take

off ior a continuous thirty-day experience' Ignatius states:

lgApersonwhoisinvolvedinpublicaffairsorpressingoccupationsbuteducatedor intelligent may take an hour and a half each day to perform the Exercises'

Annotation nineteen allows people to make the Spiritual Exercises in daily life' In this

type of retreat, the retreatant spends a set peri.od of time in prayer each day and

spreads the entire Spiritual Exercises over a longer period than the traditional thirty-

day retreat. This is it "

typ" of retreat made by many people involved in Jesuit educa-

tion who cannot leave fâmily and work for an extended period'

2q

rçN.Àcrus KNew

CONCLUSION

The ideas emphasized in the Annotations include active participation in the leamingprocess, personalized ca¡e and concem for the person making the Spiritual Exercises,thorough and in-depth covering of material, and the stress on the adaptation of theSpiritual Exercises to meet the needs of people who cannot afford to make a full thirty-day retreat. The Annoøtions provide important additional insights into Ignatian method-ology in the Spiritual Exercises which we will see carries over into Ignatian pedagogy.

REFLECTION AND REPETITION

1. Take a few minutes and reflect about the important points for you from thischapter (You might want to play some music which helps you relax and becomereflective.) What words, images, or phrases come to mind?

2. Did you leam anything new? If so, what?

3. Did you understand anything more fully or deeply? If so, what?

4. Did anything leave you unsettled or disturbed? If so, what? (This is a key Ignatianquestion and one that can frequently lead to deeper learning and understandingwhen it is explored.)

5. If you were to represent this chapter in some visual manner, e.g., chart, drawing,sketch, mind-map, painting, what would it be?

7.

If this chapter were a piece of music or a song what would it be?

If you had to think of some type of physical gesture or activity which describesthis chapter what would it be?

What happens to you when you try to represent this chapter in the ways discussedabove? Does this in any way replicate the application of the senses, an Ignatianform of prayer described in this chapter?

6.

8.

30

¡+n (Jlecho&bgl- in che i¿uol- €-xercises

Nor¿sREFLBCTION ON IGNATIAN METHODOLOGYAND THE CLASSROOM

If the expenence of reading this chapter is to lead you to some type of action, it seems

appropri;te to take a few minutes and begin thinking about how the content of this

.itãptãr relates to the classroom. Take some time to answer the questions listed below

as best as you can, realizing that the next chapter will help to make more explicit the

connection between Ignatian methodology and current educational psychology and

learning theory.

L What have I done and what do I do in my teaching that reflects the Ignatian

methodology discussed in this chapter? You may find it helpful to use Table 2'

2. After completing the reflection in number one, what are the next steps you want

to explore or do regarding Ignatian methodology and your teaching?

Three things I want to explore or do are:

l.

2.

3.

TABLE 2

SrnucruRE oF AN IcnnunN Pn,tvliR PERIoDAND YOUN TNACHNC

My TeachingSpiritual Exercises

l. Points the Night Before l. How do I prePare mY studentsfor a lesson? Do I use Prelec-tion at the beginning of classand of the night's homeworkassignment?

2. Preparatory PraYer 2. How do I establish a Positivelearning state?

3l

rçN.Äctus KNew

Norts TABLE 2 (continued)

SrnucruRE oF AN IcNATIAN PRAYER PERIoDAND YOUN TNNCHNC

Spiritual Exercises M¡,Teaching

3. First Prelude-Composition of Place , 3. Do I set a context for learningother than merely a verbal context?Do I set up a context bY recallingwhat has led up to this point?

4. Second Prelude-Grace Sought 'Where do I state objectives for thelesson for and with the students?

5. Points for Prayer (Usually Three Points) 5. How do I provide some tYPe ofoutline of what will happenduring the class period?

6. Types of Prayer:MeditationContemplationApplication of the Senses

How do I use different types ofstructure in the class? What haP-

pens that helps the whole studentto become involved in the learningprocess? Where are the creativeand imaginative mental facultiesused during a class period?

7. Colloquy How do students interact Personally with the material presented?How do they have conversationswith themselves or others aboutwhat they have learned?

8. Closing Prayer How does a class end? rWhat isused to mark the conclusion to aclass for the students?

9. Review of the Prayer Session Where does thinking about whathas been learned and how it has

been learned occur (metacogni-tion) in my teaching?

32

lgoaciø

EVALUATION

In order to help you evaluate what you have learned in this chapter, you may wish to

do the following:

l. Listed below are the rerms from the Prelection of Ignatian Terminology in

Chapter L See how many more terms you can identify now' Do you understand

any of these terms better now than you did when you began this book?

- Contemplatio ad Amorem (TheContemplation to Attain theLove of God)

- Finding God in All Things

Ratio Studiorum (1599)

- Prelection

- Repetition

Go Forth and Teach: TheCharacteristics of J esuit Education

- Cura Personalis (PersonalizedCare and Concern)

- Active Learning

' Reflection

- Faith that Does Justice

o Men and Women for Others

- Preferential Option for the Poor

- Apostolic Instrument in theService of the Church

' Excellenceo Magis (More)

- Collaboration

Ignatian Pedagogv:A Practical Approach

- Context

' Experience

' Reflection

- Action

- Evaluation

Spi-ic*J €-xsrc¡*s

Nores

St. Ignatius Loyola

Society of Jesus

Jesuits

Spiritual Exercises

- Annotationso Nineteenth Annotation Retreat

- Points

' Preludes

- Composition of Place

- Grace Sought

- Meditation

- Contemplation

- Application of the Senses

- Examination of Conscience

- Repetition, Colloquy

' Principle and Foundation

- The First Week

- The Second Week

- The Kingdomo The Two Standards

- Three Classes of Persons

- Three Ways of Being Humble

' Election

- Discernment

- The Third Week

- The Fourth Week

33

ICNÀCIUS KNC\V

Norrs 2. Listed below are the objectives from the start of this chapter. Take a few minutesand think about how this chapter has met these objectives for you.

' To explain the Ignatian terminology found in the prelection

- To relate that terminology to the "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching"

- To broaden your experience of Ignatian methodology

- To begin a process of reflection about Ignatian methodology and theIgnatian educator

' To begin raising some questions about lgnatian methodology and whattakes place in the classroom

34

CHAPTER III

llna;3îts Ktt-ll, t)or, ð"e Br-oitt Wo-Lt

ow we can begin our exploration of the connection between Ignatius'methodology in the Spiritual Exercises and current educational psychology

and learning theory. We will begin this exploration by examining some of the research

about the human brain and leaming. After briefly exploring that research, we will lookat how many ideas discussed in educational research today were already incorporatedby Ignatius into the methodology of the Spiritual Exercises. The objectives of thischapter are:

- To explain certain two pieces of cunent educational theory and research

- Brain-Based Education

- Left and Right Hemisphere Processing

- To explore the connection ofeach ofthese pieces ofcurrent educationalresearch with Ignatian purpose and methodology in the Spiritual Exercises

- To explore the connection between "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" and

these two pieces of current educational theory and Ignatian methodology

- To continue exploring implications for the classroom

PRELECTION

Take a few minutes to reflect on the following questions.

From your reading of Chapter II, what already occurs in your classroom that isthe same as or very similar to the various steps Ignatius uses in a period of prayer?

35

rçNÀcrus KNew

NoresWhat in your classroom involves the whole person in the learning process? Arethere areas where you would like further information and help about involving the

whole person in the learning process?

What current educational theories and research do you know that parallel the

steps of Ignatian prayer?

What do you think will be the relationship between Brain-based Education and

Left and Right Hemisphere Processing and lgnatian methodology in the

Spiritual Exercises?

IGNATIAN INDIFFERENCE

Let us begin our discussion of Ignatian methodology and current educationalresearch with the question: "If St. Ignatius were alive today, how would he react

to current educational psychology and learning theory?" To answer this question

requires that we understand Ignatius' concept of indifference. ln his Principleand Foundation of the Spiritual Exercises, Ignatius states that all of creationshould be explored and used in as far as it is helpful to our ultimate end, the

service of God. Thus, the basic attitude a person should have toward all of creation

%

lgneriø K-.* Þæ

is one of indifferenc¿. Ganss, in his translation and commentary on the Spiritual

Exercises,defines what it means to be "indifferent" from an Ignatian point of

view:..Indifferent": undetermined to one thing or option rather than another; impartial;

unbiased; with decision suspended until the reasons for a wise choicc are learned;

still undecided. In no way does it mean unconcerned or unimportant. It implies the

interior freedom from ãisordered inclinations. It is a key technical term of

Ignatius' sPiritualitY.r?

When a person operates from this basic perspective of indiffe¡e¡ce, he makes choices

in rerms of how they will or will not lead to greater service of God in his life' If some

aspect of creation trelps to attain the goal of greater service of God, then it should be

used; to the extent that it does not help one attain this goal, it should not be utilized'

I am certain that this indifference would mark the way Ignatius would approach

current educational research. Ignatius would look at each piece of research and

explore how it might be useful and helpful in understanding human learning' IfIgnatius saw that a particular piece of research helped him understand better how the

human mind functioned and hãw he could use this understanding to help lead a person

to greater service of God, he would adopt and adapt it. If it was not useful to that end'

Igriatius would not incorporate it into his own theory and understanding' With this

tlnatian attitude of indifierence in mind, we will explore what current educational

p"sychology and learning theory is saying today and its connection with Ignatian

methodologies in the Spiritual Exercises'

BRAIN.BASED EDUCATION

In recent years educational research has increasingly focused on how the human

brain functions while learning. while there is still much unknown about how the

human brain functions, the finAings from the research completed thus far provide

some basic understanding aboùt the working of the human brain during

learning.'l

Geoffrey and Renate caine, building upon the work of Leslie Hart,ro propose a theory

of brain-based education. By way of introduction to the discussion that follows about

brain-based education, take a few moments and decide if the following statements

about education are TRUE or FALSE based upon current educational research'

Norrs

" Ganss, endnote#20, P.l5l'13 An excellent surnmary of current research on the brain and learrung can be found in Eric Jensen's 7h¿

Izaming Brain QelMar, cA: Turning Point for Teachers, 1994)' Jensen briefly summarizes in non-

technical terms a wide range of brain resea¡ch related to leaming' At the end of each se¡tion he lists

suggested classroom techniques and suggestions for further reading'

'.l¡slieA.HarLHumanBrainandHunanlzarningQ'{ewRochelle'NY:BrainAgePublishen'1987)'

37

tÇN¡clus KNew

Norrs TnuB oR FALSE

l. We can control and largely manipulate outcomes.''

2. Testing is generally a good motivator for meaningful leaming.

3. Subjects a¡e best leamed when separated and taught within discrete time periods.

4. Memorization for the test is the most effective way for students to learn.

5. The arts are for artists and having nothing to do with cognition.

6. Physical movement is unrelated to learning.

7. We can force students to engage in meaningful learning by threatening to

punish them for misbehavior and poor performance.

8. Learning has to be done individually and alone.

9. There is only one correct answer and there is only one way to arrive at that answer.

10. There is a straight cause-effect relationship between teacher contact and

student learning.

11. The sequence in which knowledge is to be acquired has a fixed and best order.

12. By acquiring a set of incremental skills, students will suddenly know how toread or to perform in comPlex waYs.

I 3. If a student does not learn what we want him to learn, then something iswrong with the student.

14. Acquiring concepts is a strictly cognitive process unrelated to attitude and

unshaped by emotion.

15. Learning is primarily reflected in behavioral changes observable by us inour classroom.

16. Students leam only when "paying attention."

17. Schools are the only or the primary place of learning.

18. Memory requires memorization.

19. We can control and separate learning from social interaction.

'5 These statements are fiom Geoffrey Caine, Renate Calne and Sam Crowell, Mindshifts: AWorkbook

on Brain-based lzaming (Redlands, CA:4C Connection, l99l), pp. 27-28.-Ihereis arevised edition

of thrs book publishd as Mindshifts: A Brain-Based P¡ocess for Restructuring atld Renewing

Education (Iuscon, AZ:Znphyr Press, 1994). All quotations cited here are from the l99l edition.

38

tSnelø

Although many of these statements ¿u.e at work in the curriculum and teaching

methodologies in schools today, none of them is completely supported by the current

brain research. They are all, to some degree, falsel

The Caines, after examining much of the cunent educational research about the

human brain and its learning capacities, propose a theory of brain-based education'

The Caines base their theory on the fact that:

Brain research establishes and confirms that multiple complex and concrete experi-

ences are essential for meaningful learning and teaching. Optimizing the use of the

human brain means using the brain's infinite capacity to make connections-and

understanding what conditions maximize the process. In essence, students learn from

their entire ongoing experience. In many ways, content is inseparable from context'rÓ

Using educational research about the human brain and learning, the Caines enunciate

twelve principles of brain-based learning:

1. The brain is a parallel processor.

2. Learning engages the entire physiology.

3. The search for meaning is innate.

4. The search for meaning occurs through "patterning'"

5. Emotions are critical to patterning'

6. Every brain simultaneously perceives and creates parts and wholes'

7. Leaming involves both focused attention and peripheral perception.

8. Learning always involves conscious and unconscious processes'

9. We have two types of memory: a spatial memory system and a set of systems for

rote learning.

10. The brain understands and remembers best when facts and skills are embedded in

natural spatial memory.

11. Leaming is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat.

12. Each brain is unique.''

16 Renate Nummela Caine and Geoffrey Caine, Making Connections: Teaching and Human

Learning (Alexandria, vA: Association for Supervision and cuniculum Development

lAScDl, l9el), P.5.

'1 Mindshifts,p.32.

Brein \/o-Ls

Nores

39

rçNÀclus KNe\/

Nor¿s While it is beyond the scope of this book to analyze each of these twelve principles

of brain-based learning,'8 several deserve comment'

The human brain can process information from many different sources and control

many different functions simultaneously. Just stop for a moment and think about what

is happening in your brain now. You may be conscious of your thinking processes as

you read this, but if there is any music or other sounds in the background your brainalso processes that information while simultaneously taking care of your eyesight,

breathing, heart beat, etc. Many of these operations occur without any conscious

thought about their functioning on your part. Yet the human brain can and does carry

out both different and complex operations simultaneously.

'Whenever we learn something, we usually engage the whole person in the process, not just

the mind alone. You may think only your mind is involved while you read this, but there

are many other parts of your physiology simultaneously involved. If you are taking any

notes while you are reading this, doing any kind of highlighting, or if you are swinging or

tapping your foot or moving your head while you read, you are involving other parts ofyour physiology. You are also exercising the eye muscles while moving across this page

in a series of distinct pattems, called saccades. The tme auditory reader will be subvocal-

izing the words while reading this section. How you feel right now will also have a defi-nite effect upon what is happening with the reading process. Reading while recovering

from an illness will be very different from reading during a day off when your primarypurpose is to catch up on some reading you have wanted to do for a long time.

You are, moreover, trying to relate the information contained in this section to what

you already know and understand both theoretically and experientially (innate search

for meaning). Is this making any sense with my experience in the classroom? What

can I do with this new knowledge? You are also looking for how this fits or does notfit with what I already know (patterning). While reading this, you are not onlythinking about individual pieces of new information, but you are also trying to fit this

information into some schema you already use (parts and wholes). Each person

reading this material will do it in a unique way with his unique brain with its uniquelearning preferences or style.

WE HAVE TWO TYPES OF MEMORY: SPATIAL MEMORYSYSTEM AND TAXON MEMORY

We need to discuss in detail the spatial memory and the system of rote memory(Caines' principles nine and ten). These two memory systems function in differentways and are important in the teaching-learning process. They are also importantbecause Ignatius understood these two systems and incorporated them into his

methodology of the Spiritual Exercises.

's Specific exercises to explore each ofthese brain-based principles and their relationship to the

teaching-learning process can be found in Mindshifts: A Workbook on Brain-Based ltarning.

40

lgnorio Kæu' clrc Br.ún

NorrsSpatial Memoryspatial memory, also called autobiographical memory by the caines, is the memorY

system created by our interaction with our environment. Take a few moments and

think about the following questions. Be sure to note how long it takes you to access

the specific memory *J*ttut form that memory takes when accessed'

- What were you doing yesterday evening at 8 P'M'?

- Where did you go for vacation last year?

- what was your first week of your first year of teaching like?

-Rememberthehouseorroomyoulivedinwhenyouwereanadolescent.

- Remember one of the best students you ever taught'

you no doubt found that you could answer most of these questions very quickly and

easily. Each of these events was likely linked to some type of internal mental image'

some of these images may be clearer and stronger than others, but you accessed them

all easily. You may also be aware that you never consciously tried to memorize any of

these events, but somehow your a*p".i"n"" of them has made them resident in your

memory which you can readily access'

spatial memory always has a context because it is our record of life events' The

Caines refer to these records of our life events as "maps," because they contain the

information we learned through interaction with our environment' we store this infor-

mation about our lived experience without any conscious effort on our part to

remember the events and things associated with them. We constantly use this memory

System.ItisaSystemwhichcanleamquickly,yetalsohasanalmostunlimitedcapacity. For example, recall a city or u párt of your city you recently visited where

you had never been. what are you able to recall? How clear is the information? You

probably did not require any conscious practice or rehearsal to place this inform-ation

in your memory, but when you went to access it, it was present quickly and easily.

The five senses enhance spatial memory because they each add distinct elements to the

material stored. Think back again to the new city or part of a city you recently visited

for the first time. Much of what you recalled was stored in your spatial memory

through your use of your five senses as you interacted with this new experience'

spatial memory updates frequently based upon new experiences The new the curious' a¡rd

theunexpectedassistinthe'developmentofspatialmemory'Forexample,thinkbacktoattendingaworkshoporconventioninanew"ity.co*p-"whatyouknewaboutthecitybefore you anived wìth what you know now. What changed and what led to those changes?

If what we are experiencing ão", no, match our spatial memories, we begin to try to make

sense of it and to integraæî inþ our existing memories so- that they change with the addi-

tional information. while some of thes" rn"r*ri", are simple one-time events' spatial mern-

oriescanalsobecomplexarrdformedoveralongperiod.TheCainesnotethat:

It is critical to understand that maps recorded in this system are not just physical

evenrs. w" ,tor"ãgnirive or themaiic maps as well. They include thoughts and ideas

IçNÀCIUs KNC\V

Nores that connect other events, experiences or other knowledge that have at their core a

link to personal experiences and meaning. In other words, our basic belief systemsalso operate as maps. We use them to navigate through life.'n

As we will see shortly, Ignatius knew about spatial memory and incorporated it intothe methodology of the Spiritual Exercises.

Taxon MemoryThe second type of memory that the brain uses is what the Caines call the system forrote learning or taxon memory. They describe taxon memory in this way:

We begin by focusing on the type of memory that involves storage in what O'Keefeand Nadef'call taxon nrcmon, systenls. Taxon derives from "taxonomies" or lists.These memories consist of items that do not depend on a specific context. Theyinclude prototypes of categories that represent a generic item, such as a bird or house

or dog; the contents of categories, such as types of trees and cars; and routines andprocedures, such as driving.:'

Taxon memory retains information through practice and rehearsal. Once present, the

material becomes fixed and can be resistant to change, e.g., trying to rid oneself of an

undesirable habit. The information in taxon memory is usually stored in isolation fromother information. While the information in taxon memory may be readily retrievablein one context, it may not easily transfer to another context. A classic example of thisis a particular study skill taught to students in one context, such as English or historyclass, but never transfened by the students to another context such as math class.

Taxon memory can be motivated by rewards and punishment (e.g., grades).

Both types of memory are important in any learning situation. Often the taxonmemory is rewarded and spatial memory neglected. Yet spatial memory is a very pow-erful memory and one that accounts for many things we know and can access withoutever having tried to store them through practice and rehearsal. Storage of learned

material in spatial memory connects the material with basic functions that we use foreveryday living and survival. It becomes readily accessible and transferable to othersituations. Ignatius, as we shall shortly discover, knew and used both spatial and taxonmemory in his methodology in the Spiritual Exercises.

LEFT AND RIGHT HEMISPHERE RESEARCH

Besides the Caines' work on brain compatible education, educational research has

been conducted on how the left and right hemispheres function during leaming. Toprepare for a discussion about left and right hemispheres in leaming, take a fewminutes and think about the following questions.

tn Mindshifts, p. 87.æ J. O'Keefe and L. Nadel, The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Mind (Oxford: Clarendon

Press, 1978).2t Making Connections: Teaching qnl the Human Brain, p.38.

42

lgnccian K-e*' llo*' cLe Bro¡n WotLc

From what you curently know, if the teft hemisphere of the brain were an animal,

what animal would it be? What are your reasons for your choice?

From what you cunently know, if the right hemisphere of the brain were an

animal, what animal would it be? What are your reasons for your choice?

Initial hemispheric research focused on both the qualities and types of tasks that each

hemisphere specializes in during learning. Today some of that research is being ques-

tioned because we are finding that both hemispheres function in completing many

learning tasks. Early research also concentrated on the difference between the two

hemispheres in order to explain learning differences among students' The emphasis oftodayi research is that the whole brain needs to be involved in learning.The research

.on"lud", that by using both hemispheres in learning the student will learn the mate-

rial more thoroughly and have it more accessible' The research on creativity illustrates

this. Studies have shown that those persons called "creative," usually find their ideas

in the holistic right hemisphere and then bring them over to the more part-oriented left

hemisphere so that they can share them with other people'

The earlier hemispheric research also offers some important insights into how each

hemisphere of the brain works when it is engaged in learning' The research explains

which functions each hemisphere seems naturally inclined to use.

The left hemisphere seems to be specialized for logical, sequential processing ofinformation and deals primarily with verbal, analytical' temporal and digital mate-

rials. A person with a åominant left hemisphere will employ a.convergent thinking

style, oútaining new information from using already available information and

forming new ideas or information in terms of responses that are conventionally

accept;ble. The traditional school curriculum stresses left brain processing skills'

Reaáing, writing, and math conceptual skills are all left brain oriented.¿

While the left hemisphere specializes in language and logical, analytical thinking, the

right hemisphere uses different types of processing skills'

Brain research shows that the right hemisphere mediates nonverbal areas such as the inter-

pretation of visual pattems, visuavspatial reasoning and perception, and the retention of

complex nonuerbi auditory patterns (music). The right hemisphere processes informa-

ûon non-linearly and ho[súcally, simultaneously dealing with a variety of variables and

different kinds of information. It seems to be specializrÀ for primarily nonverbal' con-

crete, spatial, analogic, emotional and aesthetic materials. Aperson with a dominant right

hemisphere will eniploy a divergent thinking style, obtaining new ideas and information

by creating a uariety una quuntity of new ideas and information from a situation regard-

lãss of whether it meets conventional standards or not. The school curriculum focuses on

the right brain processing skills in courses such as art, music and physical education.a

2, Ralph E. Metts, SJ., Learning or Not (Buffalo: United Educational Services, 1992),p' ll'23 Learning or Not, P. 17.

Norts

43

rÇNaglart KNew

Norts Characteristics of both hemispheres are:'o

LBpr HpvuspHBnr Rrcur HnulspHERE

Processes one thing at a time.

Sequential A then B then C.

Looks at details.

Analyzes the world as parts.

- Logical.

- Likes verifiable data in theworld.

- Thinks in terms of information.

- Thinks linearly.

- Thinking is rule-oriented andbased on previous knowledge.

Thinks convergently, using all ofthe above listings to create newinformation.

Language oriented with grammarand syntax.

Divides and sees differences indaø.

Knows how to do something.

Willing to wait for plannedevents to unfold.

Processes all at once.

Simultaneous, A and B and C.

Looks at the whole.

Joins all the parts together into awhole.

Analogical-sees the world interms of analogies.

Open to qualitative aspects of theworld without any limits orbounds.

Thinks in terms of emotional as-

pects of thought.

Thinks in terms of images andwholes.

Thinking is open-ended based onpossibilities of many imagesforming some type of feelingwhole.

Thinks divergently, using all theabove listings to generate newideas and information.

Limited language ability, respondsto language as a whole unit, suchas a line from a song or a poem.

Joins data into wholes.

Discovers what might be done.

Demands immediate closure ontasks.

u l*arning or Not. P. 12.

44

tgnefrø

IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY: ITS CONNECTION WITHBRAIN.BASED EDUCATION AND LEFT AND RIGHTHEMISPHERE RESEARCH

In this chapter and the next we will f,rrst look at the connection between lgnatius'

Annoøtioni in the Spirirual Exercises and curent educational theory. After that, we

will follow the structure of the Ignatian prayer period to organize our discussion about

Ignatian methodology and current educational theory: preparation for prayer, points

fãr prayer in the three prinicipal methods of prayer Ignatius teaches in the Spiritunl

Exercises, and the concluding activities of prayer.

Ignatius in his methodology of the Spiri r ual Exercises demonstrates that he possesses

an intuitive knowledge of many of the principles of brain-based education' Ignatius

also incorporated boti left and right hemisphere learning techniques and stressed the

importance of the often neglected right hemisphere for whole person learning'

IGNATIAN ANNOTATIONS

Ignatius'Annotations in the Splritual Exercises demonstrate an innate understanding

oÌ r*o of the principles of brain-based education. The Annotations stress the impor-

tance of the uniqueness of the individual person as the starting point for making the

Spiritual Exercises. The Annotations also emphasize the importance of the active

involvement of the person while making the Spiritual Exercises. As we have seen,

both these concepts are important principles in the Caines' theory of brain-based edu-

cation.

The Unique Individuøl with a Unique BrøinIgnatius would recognize and understand the Caines' principle that "Each brain is

uniqu",,' because he always insisted that in directing the Spiritual Exercises the retreat

director adapt them to the person's age, education and ability' Only after the retreat

director knows this basic information can he begin to lead the retreatant through the

Spirituat Exercises in a way that is appropriate for the individual with his unique char-

acteristics. While there is nothing startling in the concept that each person is unique

with a unique brain, it becomes a very important principle in thinking about students

who make up a particular class. We have many individuals sitting in front of us at a

given moment auring a school day, each of whom have a unique brain and, therefore,

some unique ways of learning which may or may not be being met'

This notion of working with the individual where he is, and not where one might wish

the individual to be, is fey to personali zed care and concern (cura personalis)-a dis-

tinguishing characteristic of Jesuit education' Ignatian Pedagogy describes this per-

sonalized care and concern:

(35) similarly, personal care and concern for the individual, which is a hallmark ofJesuit education, requires that the teacher become as conversant as possible

with the life experience of the learner. since human experience, always the

starting point in an Ignatian pedagogy' never occurs in a vacuum' we must

know as much as *"iun about the actual context within which teaching and

Brctn \,7o.Lc

Norrs

45

rÇN¡crus KNe\v

learning take place. As teachers, therefore, we need to understand the world ofthe student, including the ways in which family, füends, peers, youth cultureand mores as well as social pressures, school life, politics, economics, religion,media, art, music, and other realities impact that world and affect that studentfor better or worse. Indeed, from time to time we should work seriously withstudents to reflect on the contextual realities of both our worlds. What are theforces at work in them? How do they experience those forces influencing theirattitudes, values and beliefs, and shaping our perceptions, judgments andchoices? How do world experiences affect the very way in which studentslearn, helping to mold their habitual patterns of thinking and acting? Whatpractical steps can they and are they willing to take to gain greater freedom andcontrol over their destinies?

Both Ignatius and brain-based education recognize that each individual is unique witha unique brain. This principle should serve as the starting point both for education andthe making of the Spiritual Exercises.

Active Involvement in the l*arning ProcessBrain-based education emphasizes that one cannot separate the brain from the rest ofthe organism during learning. The entire physiology of the person is involved inlearning. This active, whole person involvement is what Ignatius stresses when hestates that the whole person-the mind, heart, soul, and will-must become involvedwhen making the Spiritual Exercises. Ignatius continually reiterates this ideathroughout the Spiritual Exercises. Ignatius stresses it both in the Annotations and inthe methods for prayer he teaches the retreatant. Additionally, the stress in Ignatianmeditation, contemplation, and application of the senses is always on getting thewhole person-heart, mind, soul, and will-involved in prayer by incorporating as

many mental faculties as possible. So, Ignatius would overwhelmingly support thenotion that unless the whole person becomes actively involved during learning any-thing learned will not be remembered as well as it could be. During the making of theSpiritual Exercises Ignatius recognized that involving as much of the person as pos-sible would lead to a deepening of what is learned so that it would be available inother contexts of a person's life.r

?5There is an emphasis today in educational research which stresses the need for students'activeinvolvement in learning rather than passive reception. An excellent book discussing this issue

is Chet Meyers and Thomas B. Jones, Promoting Active Learning: Strategies for the College

Classroom (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993). The book includes a thorough discussion on

active learning strategies in the classroom as well as many concrete suggestions for use in the

ctassroom. Another resource book for active learning is Menill Harmin, Inspiring ActiveLearning: A Handbook for Teachers (Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and

Curriculum Development [ASCD]. 1994). This book contains many practical suggestions forimplementing active learning in the classroom. Since it is written for both grade and high school

classrooms, some of the suggestions will need to be adapted for the high school classroom.

46

lgnet-,ø K-eo' flo*' t J:îDlÈ

NorrsIGNATIAN PREPARATION FOR PRAYER

Preparation for prayer was very important for Ignatius. He insists in the Spiritual

Exercises that the retreatant take both time and care in his preparation for prayer'

Ignatian preparations for prayer contain an interesting mixture of left and right

hemispheie iechniques whlch-help involve the whole brain in the preparation for

prayer process.

Ignatian Preparation for Prayer: A Whole Brain Process

ñ," p."p*utions for piayer that Ignatius details in the Spiritual Exercises move back

and forth between leit and right hemisphere techniques' When the retreatant recalls

the matter for the next day's prayer by taking a few moments to place the main points

in mind before retiring, fre máinty employs the logical, linguistic techniques of the left

hemisphere. This overview of the next day's prayer, however, is also an important

right hemisphere learning technique. The right hemisphere learns whole to part' That

*"un, that ihe right hemisphere wants to see the entire picture to know how the parts

fit together to make the whole. A predominately right hemisphere person will fre-

quentìy read the last chapter of a book first and then the whole book' Doing this

insures that he will know how the various pieces fit together to create the whole

picture. A left hemisphere processing person finds this somewhat preposterous' For a

left hemisphere processing p"rron, reading the last chapter of a book first means he

knows how it ends; therefore, there is no reason to read the book. By preparing the

points the night before and having an outline in mind of what will occur during the

p.uy". the next day, the retreatant creates a holistic picture for himself and uses a right

hemisphere learning technique in conjunction with the verbal, linguistic functions of

the left hemisphere.

The retreatant repeats this mixture of left and right hemisphere processing skills when

he recalls the sudect matter of prayer immediately after awakening in the morning'

The actual prayer begins with the preparatory prayer. Ignatius suggests that this

preparatory ptuy"t is ã time to place oneself in God's presence and ask that all that

irupp"n, Ou.ing the prayer period be directed to, by, and for God. The preparatory

pråy", usually conrir6 tf sãme type of brief oral prayer and is predominately a left

hemisphere process. Ignatius then moves to the right hemisphere of the brain in the

Compãsition of Place. In the Composition of Place one visually imagines a scene to

set the stage for the prayer that foll,ows. This visual imagining of a scene employs the

visual, spatial functions of the right hemisphere. The preparation concludes with a

short statement of the grace being sought during the particular period of prayer'

returning again to left hemisphere processing'

SummøryIgnatius sets forth very definite ways of preparing for prayer that require the retreatant

to use both hemispheies of the brain. In doing this, Ignatius makes sure that the whole

brainisengagedintheprayerprocessfromtheverystaft.Hemakessurethewholebrain continues to functi,on during the remainder of the prayer process through the use

of the various techniques he teaches in his three principal methods of prayer as well

as in the activities he suggests for concluding one's prayer'

47

tçNÀctus KNe\t

I GN ATI A N M EDI TATI O N, C O NTE M P I.AT I O NAND APPUCATION OF THE S¿'NSES

Once the main part of the prayer period begins, the retreatant engages in one of the

three prinicipal methods of prayer that Ignatius teaches in the Spiritual Exercises:

meditation, contemplation and application of the senses. Each of these methods ofprayer has a unique structure which stresses a particular type of mental processing.

Meditation stresses discursive thinking and mental reasoning. Contemplation empha-

sizes the use of the imagination. The application of the senses teaches a holistic wayof processing information. In each of these methods of praye¡ Ignatius' methodologyshows that he had an implicit understanding of the Caines' two types of memory and

the functioning of the two hemispheres. Furthermore, Ignatius' insistence on usingboth types of memory and both hemispheres during prayer insures the active, wholebrain involvement of the retreatant.

Medintion: Two Types of Memory and l*ftlRight HemßphereDuring the First Week of his Spiritual Exercises Ignatius teaches the retreatant a formof prayer which he calls meditation. Ignatius provides the following guidelines for ameditation in his exercise on sin during the First Week of the Spiritual Exercises:

50 The First Point will be to use my memory, by going over the first sin, that ofthe angels; next, to use my understanding, by reasoning about it; and then mywill. My aim in remembering and reasoning about all these matters is to bringmyself to greater shame and confusion, by comparing the one sin of the angelswith all my own many sins. For one sin they went to hell; then how often have

I deserved hell for my manY sins!

In other words, I will call to memory the sin of the angels: How they werecreated in grace and then, not wanting to better themselves by using theirfreedom to reverence and obey their Creator and Lord, they fell into pride, werechanged from grace to malice, and were hurled from heaven into hell.. Next Iwill use my intellect to ruminate about this in greater detail, and then movemyself to deeper emotions by means of my will!

In his guidelines, Ignatius has the retreatant begin by using his memory to recall the

facts about the sin of the angels. The retreatant is then directed to a fairly theoreticalconsideration of what the angels' sin means by using his reasoning and understanding.After this, the retreatant is asked to recall his own sins and compare his many sins

with the one sin of the angels. After making this comparison, the retreatant is invitedto "move himself to deeper emotions by means of the will." Once the retreatant starts

these deeper considerations and the emotional reactions associated with them, he has

moved from merely considering sin in a general or in a detached \¡/ay to seeing sin'sconsequences and effects upon his relationship with God. The movement in medita-tion is from memory and reasoning to affective responses emerging from the theoret-ical considerations. This is a movement from taxon to spatial memory, and from leftto right hemisphere processing.

48

tgnet-ro Ktreu f.)æ clr Brain \Vo-Ls

NortsTAXON TO SPATIAL MEMORY

Ignatius understood that if spiritual insights gained during the making of the Spiritual

Exercises were going to effect significant changes for a person that they needed to

reside in the Caines' easily accessible spatial memory. While the primary learning

during meditation occurs from the theoretical considerations the retreatant makes con-

cerning sin and his own sinfulness, Ignatius insists that the retreatant move beyond

these rationalistic thinking pfocesses, when it comes time to draw spiritual profit'

Ignatius emphasizes that the retreatant needs to respond to these theoretical consider-

ations at an emotional level in order to involve not just his mind in prayer, but also his

will, heart, and soul.

Ignatius accomplishes this whole person involvement during meditation by having the

retreatant first use his taxon memory to consider the concept of sin in general and the

lists of sins in particular. Once the retreatant finishes his theoretical considerations

about sin, he begins to reflect about the consequences of his own sins and responds

emotionally to his own sinfulness by exercising his will. In exercising his will, the

retreatant helps make the notion of sin not simply an abstract and theoretical one

residing in taxon memory, but a personalized one residing in spatial memory, because

what has been learned theoretically is now linked emotionally to where the retreatant

is and what he is doing in space and time. It is this linkage of theoretical considera-

tions to a specific context of space and time that moves what has been learned from

taxon memory to the readily accessible spatial memory. This movement of the

insights gained through prayer into spatial memory is, in part, Ignatius' Spanish verb,

,rniir, "to feel deeply," the experiencing of something at the core of one's being, a

crucial part of experience for a person making the Spiritual Exercises.

LEFT TO RIGHT HEMISPHERE

Itrhile I do not believe that there is a perfect parallel between the Caines' taxon

memory and left hemisphere processing skills and spatial memory and right hemi-

sphere processing skills, there are certainly many similarities. Taxon memory seems

tã rely primarily on the verbal linguistic skills of the left hemisphere' Spatial memory

urr, -uny of the visual spatial skills of the right hemisphere. One can conclude' there-

fore, that when one engages taxon memory in meditation one is usually using left

hemisphere processing. when one involves spatial memory, one is more likely using

right hemisphere processing skills.

In a meditation Ignatius has the retreatant begin in the left hemisphere by recalling a

specific event such as the sin of the angels. The retreatant reasons about this event to

understand it more completely. Thus far, Ignatius' methodology has been logical and

analytical-basically left hemisphere processing. At this point in the meditation

Ignatius has the retreatant begin exercising his will. This exercising of the will marks

tñe transition to the more emotional processing right hemisphere of the brain' Ignatius

encourages the retreatant to feel shame and confusion about his own sinfulness and to

respondlmotionally to the effect this sinfulness has on his relationship with God.

4'

IGNÀCIUS KNCW

Based upon this recognition of personal sinfulness and the emotional responses asso-

ciated with it, the retreatant decides upon ways that he can better serve God in his life.

In meditation Ignatius involves the whole brain by interweaving both left and righthemisphere techniques. It is important to note that Ignatius begins meditation with the

left hemisphere and then moves to the right hemisphere. As we will see in our dis-cussion of contemplation and the application of the senses, Ignatius gradually movesthe retreatant toward using more right hemisphere techniques during prayer and less

left hemisphere techniques. Since there is some correspondence between the righthemisphere and spatial memory, Ignatius' use of right hemisphere techniques helps toinsure that what has been learned during prayer becomes a permanent part of spatialmemory, which contains our basic belief system used to live our daily lives.

SummaryAn Ignatian meditation relies primarily on taxon memory and left hemisphere pro-cessing skills to help the retreatant achieve new learning and understanding. Ignatius,however, makes sure that what has been leamed does not simply reside in taxonmemory or the analytical thinking process of the left hemisphere. Ignatius in his

methodology for meditation insists that the retreatant store what has been learned inspatial memory so that it may be available in all our life contexts. His methodologyfor meditation also promotes whole brain learning by using both left and right hemi-sphere techniques. His movement from the left to the right hemisphere during medi-tation shows that Ignatius knew something of the importance of the right hemisphere

in effecting changes so that they would become a perrnanent part of a person's life. Itis clear from his methodology in meditation that Ignatius had an innate understandingof how the human brain works and how to involve the whole brain in the learningprocess.

Contemplation: Two Types of Memory and l*filRight HemßphereDuring the Second Week of the Spiritual Exercises, Ignatius introduces the retreatant

to his second chief method of prayer---contemplation. lgnatius describes contempla-tion in this way:

ll4 The First Poinr. This is to see the persons; that is, to see Our Lady, Joseph, themaidservant, and the infant Jesus after his birth. I will make myself a poor,little, and unworthy slave, gazing at them, contemplating them, and servingthem in their needs, just as if I were there, with all possible respect and rever-ence. Then I will reflect upon myself to draw some profit.

Contemplation emphasizes the use of the imagination as the chief mental activity forprayer. In contemplation Ignatius has the retreatant enter into an event by placinghimself at the event in the imagination and observing all that is happening. Theretreatant first observes by using the sense of sight, then the sense of hearing, and

finally directly experiencing the actions occurring in the event. With the use of each

sense, the retreatant reflects upon the meaning of the scene, particularly in terms ofhis relationship with God. Finally the retreatant tries to draw some personal profitfrom this experience. This drawing of spiritual profit during contemplation is the exer-cising of the will which helps the retreatant deepen and intensify, at a very personal

æ

lgnec-ron Kæ*'þæ cl'* Brein Wo-Ls

Nortslevel, what has been learned during prayer. The movement in contemplation is one

from spatial memory to the limited use of taxon memory and then back to spatialmemory. Contemplation also involves a movement from the right hemisphere to the

left hemisphere and back again to the right hemisphere.

PRIMARY ROLE OF SPATIAL MEMORY

In contemplation lgnatius stresses spatial memory as the principal way of learning.Ignatius has the retreatant employ spatial memory both at the beginning and at the end

of a contemplation. The retreatant places himself physically present at the event in theimagination. Once the retreatant is present at the event he uses his senses to experi-ence what is happening. After thinking about the implications the retreatant has

learned from his participation at the event, he begins to respond emotionally and todraw spiritual profit. What has been learned in contemplation has been linked con-cretely to an event in space and time and experienced through the senses, both ofwhich are the primary characteristics of the Caines' spatial memory. In designing a

contemplation as a spatial memory exercise, Ignatius insures that what the retreatantlearns will be part of his belief system and easily accessible and applicable to allaspecrs of his life. Ignatius' methodology in contemplation shows that he implicitlyknew the Caines' tenth principle of brain-based learning: "The brain understands and

remembers best when facts and skills are embedded ín natural spatial memory."

There is some recent brain research about mental images that is important for our dis-

cussion of contemplation and its reliance on the imagination as the chief means ofprayer.2o Using the sophisticated brain imaging techniques available toda¡ researchers

have discovered that an image held in the mind has the same properties as an image

received directly through the senses. Objects held in the mind are created using almost

the same exact brain systems as objects seen, but that the brain systems are used inreverse order for imagining objects. Researchers conclude that "an image held in the

mind's eye has physical rather than ethereal properties," which begins to account forhow the mental imagining of a specific øsks may help an individual be more produc-

tive at the task. Ignatius' stress on the imagination in prayer capitalizes on this capacity

of the human mind to create internal images which have the same power and effect as

visually received images. Since these images are real, they become a Part of the spatial

memory, whose contents can be transferred and used in many different contexts.

PRIMARY ROLE OF THE RIGHT HEMISPHERE

The use of the imagination in contemplation is also a right hemisphere processing

skill. when the retreatant begins to reflect about what has been learned through the

imagination, he moves to more left hemisphere processes. Finally, the retreatant,

when he begins to draw some profit from his reflections and sees deeper under-

x See Sandra Blakeslee, "seeing and Imagining: Clues to the tWorking of the Mind's Eye,"

New York lirnes, August 31, 1993, p. Cl'

IqNÀCIUS KNE\/

Norrs standing and emotional responses to the matter considered through the use of the will,returns to emotional processing right hemisphere. When the retreatant works through

all three points suggested for a particular contemplation, he experiences a masterful

mix of right and left hemisphere processing skills repeated three separate times'

Through this continual interplay of right and left hemisphere processing techniques,

Ignatius shows that he knew the importance of involving the whole brain in learning

and the vital role that the often neglected right hemisphere plays in ensuring that what

has been learned becomes an integral part of the individual'

SummøryIgnatius, through his contemplation and its use of the imagination, stresses the role ofboth spatial memory and right hemisphere processes as the chief means for making

sure that what has been learned and understood during prayer becomes an integral part

of the person. In fact, Ignatius' methodology in contemplation suggests that he knew

that at times spatial memory and right hemisphere processes are as important, and

possibly more important, than taxon memory and left hemisphere processing skills for

effective, Iasting learning.

Application of the Senses.' Two Types of Memoryønd l*ft/Right H emßPhereThe third method of prayer which Ignatius introduces in his Spiritual Exercises is the

application of the senses. The application of the senses means applying the five senses

tå a particular event in order to gain spiritual profit from it. Ignatius describes the

application of the senses this waY:

l2l . . . After the preparatory prayer and the three preludes' it is profitable to use

the imagination and to apply the five senses to the frrst and second contempla-

tions, in the following manner.

122 The First Point.By the sight of my imagination I will see the persons, by med-

itating and contemplating in detail all the circumstances around them,'and by

drawing some Profit from the sight.

The application of the senses is a concluding or synthesizing prayer exercise of the

,"¡,"uãnt', day. The subject matter of prayer in the application of the senses is the

material prayed over during the course of the day. In an application of the senses' the

,"r."utuni applies each ofthe five senses as one ofthe points for prayer. The retreatant

moves directly from the use of the senses to gaining some understanding or spiritual

profit from the scene being considered. There is little reflection or rational thinking

pro""r.". involved in this method of prayer. The main purpose of the application ofih" ,"nr", is one of deeper integration and synthesis by the retreatant, so that the mate-

rial becomes an integral part of himself. In terms of types of prayer the application ofthe senses helps the retreatant experience a simpler form of prayer where he moves

directly from the subject matrer to spiritual insight or illumination. The application ofthe senses is another way in the Spiritual Exercises that Ignatius stresses the impor-

tance of "feeling the matter deeply," the Spanish verb "sentir." The application of the

52

lgnertø

senses is a form of prayer which occurs primarily in spatial memory and the holisticprocessing right hemisPhere.

SPATIAL MEMORY AND RIGHT HEMISPHERE PROCESSING

This whole prayer period, using the application of the senses as it does, involves

almost exclusive use of spatial memory. The Caines note, "' ' ' spatial memory is

enhanced through sensory acuity, or enhanced awareness of smell, taste, touch, sound,

and so on."2? This is precisely what Ignatius has the retreatant do when he prays using

each of the five senses. Ignatius' stress on the use of the senses in this method ofprayer insures that what the retreatant synthesizes and deepens will be stored in spatial

memory for quick and easy future use.

In the application of the senses the retreatant employs the holistic processing of the

right hemisphere as the primary means of learning. The purpose of the application ofthe senses is to apply each sense to a scene and then to move directly to some under-

standing or reaction without much or any rational thinking. Thus the processing which

occurs is one that integrates the event and the insights into a unified vision or realityconceived of as a whole. This ability to think holistically is a right hemisphere pro-

cessing skill and insures that the retreatant stores what has been learned as a unifiedwhole without dividing it into individual parts. This type of spiritual insight resembles

that which mystics frequently experience in prayer where the subject matter and the

spiritual profit are one and the same thing.

SummaryIgnatius' three principal methods of prayer each stress a different type of cognitive pro-

cãssing and show that Ignatius unquestionably had an innate understanding of taxon

and spatial memory and of the left and right hemisphere functioning. In each of these

methåds of prayer lgnatius' methodology shows that he knew that spiritual changes

made during the Spiritual Exercises must somehow be connected with spatial memory

to be truly ãffective. Ignatius also knew the importance of the right hemisphere in the

learning pto""tt. For Ignatius the right hemisphere becomes the primary hemisphere

used in piayer for the contemplations and applications of the senses which make up the

bulk of the exercises for the second, third, and fourth weeks of the Spiritual Exercises.

IGNATIAN CONCLUSION OF PRAYER

Thus far we have seen that Ignatius uses both left and right hemisphere techniques in

the preparation for prayer. In the three principal methods of prayer he teaches in the

Spirituaf Exercises he employs both spatial and taxon memory as well as whole brain

involvement. Ignatius always concludes a prayer session with a colloquy which relies

heavily on spatial memory and both left and right hemisphere processing skills.

21 Making Connections, P.42.

53

rÇN¡crus KNe\¡,

The Colloquy: Spatial Memory ønd I*ft/Right Hemisphere SkillsNo matterwhat types of cognitive processes one employs during a prayer period,Ignatius always has the retreatant conclude with a colloquy. The colloquy always takes

place in a specific context, which is usually to imagine oneself in the presence of Christor Mary. Once the retreatånt places himself present before the Christ, he proceeds tohave a conversation. The conversation centers upon what the retreatant has learned and

understood during his prayer. The retreatant speaks to Christ and shares what has been

learned, but also listens and attempts to hea¡ what Christ might be saying in response.

A CONCLUDING SPATIAL MEMORY TECHNIQUE

The colloquy is the concluding piece in the Ignatian methodology for prayer whichinsures that what has been experienced during prayerbecomes a pennanent part of spatialmemory. The Ignatian colloquy accomplishes this by making the conclusion of prayer a

conversation between friends. Conversations always have a specific context of where one

is in space and time, which is an essential element of the Caines' spatial memory:

Locale memories are never limited to static, context-free facts. They are memoriesthat exist in relationship to where we are in space, as well as what we are doing. Thusthey are records of ongoing life events, whether a trip through the Alps or two hourswe spent last night reading a good mystery. There is always a complex set of rela-tionships among all these items.a

Because this concluding activity is a conversation, it has a real life context andbecomes a permanent part of spatial memory, readily accessible by the retreatant inother life contexts after the Spiritual Exercises have been completed.

WHOLE BRAIN INVOLVEMENT

Since the colloquy is a conversation between friends, it involves both the left and righthemispheres. The left hemisphere becomes involved in thinking about what is beingsaid and how to respond to it. The right hemisphere becomes involved in paying atten-tion to all the non-verbal cues which occur during a conversation. It is important toremember that as much as fifty-five percent of the communication between peopleoccurs through these non-verbals, which are processed primarily by the right hemi-sphere.2e lgnatius' placing of the colloquy in the imagination also employs many righthemisphere processing skills. Even at the conclusion of the prayer, Ignatius continuesto involve the whole brain in the prayer to insure that what has been gained from theprayer will be learned by the whole person.

2t Making Connections, p. 41 .

Ð Donald C. Orlich, Donald P. Kauchak, Robert Harder, R.A. Pendergrass, Richa¡d C. Callahan,Andrew J. Keogh, and Harry Gibson, Teaching Strategies: A Guide to Better Instruction,3rd.ed. (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, 1990), p. 30, reports research that found that seven percent ofthe communication act is contained in the words, thirty-eight percent of communication in the

tone, tempo, and pitch and hfty-five percent of communication in the non-verbals.

54

tgnertan Kæ* þoo'

Post Prayer ReflectionFinally, the fifteen minute review the retreatant does at the end of a prayer periodreturns the retreatant to the more analytical left hemisphere. The retreatant seeks to

find out what worked well during prayer and what did not. Based upon these reflec-tions, the retreatant decides on a course of action to pursue during his next period ofprayer. This reflecting about a learning experience can also be called "metacognition,"the thinking about thinking, frequently discussed in today's educational circles.

CONCLUSION

The methodology Ignatius uses in his Spiritual Exercíses promotes whole person

involvement in the learning process. Ignatius makes certain that the retreatant uses

both hemispheres throughout the entire prayer period. Ignatius also understood that

whatever is learned from prayer needs to be stored in spatial memory so that it iseasily and readily accessible to a person in all his life contexts. From his Annotationsto the methodology he teaches for prayer, Ignatius shows that he had an intuitiveknowledge of how the human brain works while learning. Ignatius, with his sixteenth

century mind, incorporated techniques in his Spirllual Exercises which educational

research today is finding to be basic principles of good brain compatible learning.

..AN IGNATIAN REFLECTION ON TEACHING''

Since "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" attempts to employ the same principlesand techniques as Ignatius uses in his Spiritual Exercises, the parallels between brain-

based education and left and right hemisphere techniques and this reflection are the

same as those discussed earlier in reference to the Spiritual Exercises.

PREPARATIONS

You will remember that the reflection began by having you set up a resourceful

learning state. You were asked to remember a time when you learned something very

quickly and well. If you think back to that part of the exercise, you will immediatelyrecall that it employs the Caines' spatial memory system and, if done visually, righthemisphere processing techniques. When you were asked to recall all the classes you

have taught and attended-paralleling the Ignatian Composition of Place-youemployed the spatial memory system and right hemisphere processing techniques.

When you were asked to set up some expectations or questions to be answered during

the reflection, you used more left hemisphere processing skills.

THE REFLECTION

When you began the main part of the reflection, you were asked to see, hear, and feel

yourself present at a particular moment of your teaching life. You were using the same

principles that Ignatius employs in his contemplations, which are basically spatial

Norøs

55

IqNÀCIU5 KNC\,

memory and right hemisphere techniques. Your considerations about specific pointswhich were imporiant for you and their application to your future teaching moved youtoward more left hemisphere processing techniques. Finally, throughout the reflec-tion, there was a continual emphasis on involving the whole person, not just thememory, but the understanding, the heart and the will.

CONCLUSION

The imagined conversation with the respected teacher-paralleling the Ignatian col-loquy----clearly involves the spatial memory system as well as left and right hemi-sphere processing techniques. The final piece of the reflection asked you to review the

mental processes you used during the reflection and to decide which ones helped youand which ones did not. This "reflection on the reflection" or "metacognition"employs primarily left hemisphere processing techniques.

REFLECTION ON IGNATIAN METHODOLOGYAND THE CLASSROOM

If the experience of reading this chapter is to lead you to action, it seems appropriateto take a few minutes and begin thinking about how the content of this chapter relatesto the classroom. Take some time to answer the questions listed below as best as youcan realizing that Chapter VI will help to make more explicit the connection betweenIgnatian methodology and current educational psychology and learning theory.

L What have I done and what do I do in my teaching that parallels current educa-

tional theories and has some of the Ignatian components presented in this chapter?(Listed below for easy reference are some major theories discussed in this chapter.)

Brain-Based Education

' Each Brain is Unique

- Learning Engages the Entire

- Spatial Memory

- Taxon Memory

Left/Right Hemisphere

- Left Hemisphere

- Right Hemisphere

Physiology

56

2. After completing the above reflection, what next steps

take regarding curent educational theory and Ignatian

my teaching?

Three things I want to explore or do are:

do I want to exPloremethodologY related

EVALUATION

To evaluate this chapter and see what effect it has had upon you, you may wish to do

the following:

l. Listed below are the terms from the Prelection of Educational Terminology'

which of these terms do you now understand better than you did when you began

this book?

- Brain-Based Education

- Spatial Memoryo Taxon Memory

o Hemispheric Processing

o Left HemisPhere Processing

- Right HemisPhere Processing

2. Listed below are the objectives from the beginning of this chapter' Take a few

minutes and think about how this chapter has met these objectives for you'

' To explain certain two pieces of current educational theory and research

- Brain-based Education

- Left and Right Hemisphere Processing

- To explore the connection of each of these pieces of current educational

researchwithlgnatianpurposeandmethodologyintheSpiritualExercises

= To explore the connection between "An Ignatian Reflection on

Teaching,,andthesetwopiecesofcurrenteducationaltheoryandIgnatian methodology

- To continue exploring implications for the classroom

orto

1.

,)

3.

57

58

CHAPTER IV

l1,'r,ocl,,s K-.'- Àbortc(T)..Lsi- Dirn en slon aL L.o-'r-ínj

n this chapter we will continue our exploration of Ignatian methodology in the

spiritunl Exercises and current educational psychology and learning theory. The

two areas of cunent educational research which we will explore are parts of the

learning style research and Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. After

briefly exploring each of these theories, we will relate them to lgnatian methodology

in the Spirltual Exercises. The objectives of this chapter are:

- To explain two pieces of current educational theory and research

- Learning Style Research

- Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

- To explore the connection of each of these pieces of current educational

research with lgnatian purpose and methodology in the Spiritual Exercises

- To explore the connection between "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" and

these two pieces of current educational theory and Ignatian methodology

- To continue exploring implications for the classroom

PRELECTION

Take a few minutes to reflect on the following questions'

What do you already know about learning style and Gardner's multiple intelli-gences?

59

rçNÀcrus KNew

If you do not know much about either learning style or Gardner's multiple intel-ligences, what initial premises do you have about what they might mean?

From what you already know about Ignatian methodology in the SpiritualExercises, how do you think Ignatius uses learning style techniques?

If you know something about Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, how doyou think lgnatius uses multiple intelligences in the Spiritual Exercises?

LEARNING STYLE

Student learning style has been an area of frequent research during the last decade.

While there are different approaches for considering what comprises a student's

learning style and many different elements analyzed as part of learning style,s many

researchers explore the implications of the preferred learning channel-the visual, the

auditory and the kinesthetic, i.e., physical. To prepare for our discussion about

learning styles, take a few moments and answer the following questions.

30 For different types of learning style inventories see Kenneth and Rita Dunn's Teaching

Students Through Their Learning Sryles: A Practical Approach (Reston, VA: Reston

Publishing Company, 1978), A. F. Gregorc's Gregorc Sryle Delineator: Development,

Technical and Administrative Manual (Maynard, MA: Gabriel Systems, 1982), and David A.

Kolb, Experiential Leqrning (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1984). For a brief inven-

tory designed to be used with high school students to assess learning channel preferences see

my book, Learning or Not (Buffalo: United Educational Services, 1992).

60

From what I cunently know about learning style, what is my primary leaming

channel-visual, auditory, kinesthetic (i'e', physical)?

How do I primarily teach-visually, auditorially, or kinesthetically?

How would I fare in my own classroom as a student?

what percentage of my class period appeals to a student with a primary visual

learning style?

what percentage of my class period appeals to a student with a primary auditory

learning style?

what percentage of my class period appeals to a student with a primary kines-

thetic (i.e., physical) learning style?

Eachofthesethreelearningchannelshassomeuniquecharacteristics.

A visual learner learns primarily by seeing whatever is being learned' some charac-

teristics of a visual learner are:

- learns by seeing the material'

- videos, filmstrips, computer programs enhance learning'

6l

tçNÀcrus KNew

> visual representations of the material, such as graphs, tables, charts, diagramsenhance learning.

- mây best remember what is read rather than what is heard.

> most effìcient way to store learned information is visual.

- 40 to 50 per cent ofthe general population.

An auditory learner learns by listening. Since much teaching occurs in this channel,auditory learners are well suited to the lecture style class format. Some characteristicsof an auditory learner are:

- learns by listening to the material.

- audio tapes, records, etc., will enhance leaming.

- mây best remember what is listened to rather than what is read.

> pure auditory storage of material is a much less efficient way to store informa-tion than visually. Usually auditory learners do some type of transfer of infor-mation to a visual storage system.

- l0 to 20 per cent ofthe general population.

Kinesthetic learners learn by physically interacting with the material to be learned. Inorder for them to learn, they must move in some way. Some characteristics of a kines-thetic learner are:

- learns by physically interacting with the material.

o is in continual motion with hands, feet, etc., moving. Willdoodle much of the time.

- time on task is limited with the need for frequent breaks.

- mây best remember what is done rather than what is seen or listened to.

. least efficient way to store academic information, best way to store athletic andartistic information.

- 30 to 50 per cent of the general population. Percentage increases in the malepopulation, especially among African-American and Hispanic males.

The profrcient learner uses all three leaming channels equally well and will adapt herlearning style to the material and the way it is presented. Each of us has a preferredlearning style. In addition to our preferred learning channel, we usually have a fairlywell-developed secondary one. We may prefer to learn visually, but will also use thekinesthetic learning channel relatively well. Usually, someone with either a well-developed visual or an auditory learning channel will achieve well in school. Thestudent with a preference for kinesthetic learning without a well-developed secondaryvisual or auditory preference will often experience diffrculty in school, since thekinesthetic learning channel is the least in many classrooms.

62

Kne* Àbo-r CÌ-).¡Lgt-Dtmensronql Leøtn9

Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP),3' which is concerned with human patterns ofcommunication, has demonstrated that people's visual, auditory and kinesthetic chan-

nels operate internally as well as externally. The external operations of the channels

are obvious in that they involve the senses of sight and sound and physical movement

in the environment. How the three channels function internally, however, is not so

easily observable. The visual and auditory systems can be used as representation

systems to remember or to construct information' For example, recall the home where

you spent most of your childhood. Some type of visual representation will likely come

to mind. This is visually remembered information, demonstrating the internal use of

the visual channel. Now think about where you currently live and imagine the front

door painted bright purplel To do so you will have to rely on your internal visual

channel to construct rather than remember the image. This is an illustration of con-

structed information using the visual channel.

The internal auditory channel functions in a similar fashion as a representational

system to remember or construct information. In addition, NLP includes what it calls

the auditory-digital process. The auditory-digital process is an internal dialogue that a

person naturally, and often quite unconsciously, conducts preparatory to speaking'

You are being interviewed, for example, by a student reporter for the school news-

paper. The stùdent questions you about a very controversial issue in the school. You

are cautious about what to say and want to be guarded in your response. Accordingly,

before answering the student-s question, you mentally rehearse what you will say and

even how you will say it. The internal dialogue of that rehearsal process is what NLP

has identified as auditory-digital. It is a natural, spontaneous internal way of thinking

or processing information. Finally, there is the kinesthetic channel. It includes not

onþ physical movement but also external and internal emotions and the senses oftaste and smell.tt

Everyone has a favorite channel or representational system which she uses to store

internal information. For some it is visual, for others auditory, and for still others it is

kinesthetic. The findings of NLP indicate that the most efficient learning channel for

storing and retrieving inforrnution is the visual representational system, with auditory

being a distant second and kinesthetic last'll

3' NLP was developed by Richard Bandler and John Grinder. A good introduction to NLP is

Byron Lewis and Frank Pucelik, Magic of NLP Demystified (Portland, oR: Metamorphous

Press,1992).32 You can discover another person's internal processing by learning the NLP eye movement

patterns and by listening for the predicates a person uses. You will frnd explanations for

learning these techniques in either Magic of NLP Demystified or in l¿arning or Not' I believe

that eye movement patterns and predicates are the best indicators of a person's learning style'

which may vary from context to context and from subject to subject'

33 For a discussion of the efficiency of the various learning channels, see Michael Grinder'

Righting the Educational Conveyor Belt,2nded. (Portland, OR: Metamorphous Press' 1992)'

63

|çNAC|US KNe\/

Nor¿s MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

"What is intelligence?" and "What makes up intelligence?" are two questions fre-quently discussed among educators and research psychologists. One theory of intelli-gence which educators are exploring and applying to the classroom is HowardGardner's theory of multiple intelligences. By way of intiroduction to Gardner's seven

intelligences take a few minutes and answer the items below:

You have just worked in six of Gardner'sresponses with someone else, you will have

seven intelligences. If you share yourworked in all seven intelligences.

F These items are adapted from David Lazear, Seven Pathways of Learning (Tuscon: Zephyrpress, 1994), p. 35. David Lazear has written three other books which explore multiple intel-

ligences generally and in the classroom. They are: Seven Ways of Knowing and Seven Ways ofTeaching (Palatine, IL: Skylight Publishing, l99l) and Mubiple Intelligence Approaches to

Assessment: Solving the Assessment Conundrunr, (Tuscon: Tnphyr Press, 1994). All of these

books contain excellent exercises for exploring each of the seven intelligences and applying

them in the classroom.

Another excellent resource book on multiple intelligences in the classroom is by Thomas

Armstrong, Muttipte Intelligences in the Classroom. (Alexandria, VA: Association forSupervision and Curriculum Development [ASCD]' 1994).

What is an important book or article you read recently?

Draw a picture of the kind of day it is, or has been for you.

What is your favorite piece of music?

On a scale of one to ten, with ten being the top, how good are you at math?

Is there some type of physical activity which you are good at, and which you

would demonstrate to others?

What do you do to renew yourself when you need to recoup energy?y

64

lgneúus Ktte-' Àbo*r íll-lz¡-Dittte-slonql- Leming

In his book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Muhiple Intelligences,3s Gardner positsseven intelligences. He does so, based upon thorough examination of current brainresearch, ofphenomena such as prodigies and idiot savants, ofpsychological and psy-chometric findings, and of cognitive theory. Gardner's seven intelligences are:

- Linguistic

- Logical-Mathematical

- Musical

' Body-Kinesthetic

- SPatial

- Interpersonal

- Intrapersonal

Linguistic intelligence involves the ability to use language proficiently and well. It isthe intelligence of the poet, the novelist, the playwright, etc. The first question at thebeginning of this section taps Linguistic intelligence. Logical-Mathematical intelli-gence entails the ability to reason logically and work with symbols. The mathemati-cian, scientist, philosopher, etc., rely heavily on this intelligence in their work. V/henyou were asked to rate yourself in math, you were using, in a limited way, Logical-Mathematical intelligence.

Musical intelligence is, as the name implies, the ability to work easily and well in theworld of music----composition, directing, playing, singing, etc. The question aboutyour favorite piece of music involves Musical intelligence. Body-kinesthetic intelli-gence is the intelligence used by someone who has to manipulate her body well inspace. Professional athletes, ballet dancers, surgeons, and actors rely on this intelli-gence in their work. The question which asked you for a physical feat you were goodat, and would demonstrate to someone else, taps Body-Kinesthetic intelligence.Spatial intelligence involves the ability to take in the world around you and to trans-form that world into another form for others'enjoyment. Artists and architects use thisintelligence in their work. Spatial intelligence, however, has also been the means for

35 Howard Gardner, Frames of Mind: Theory of The Multiple Intelligences (New York: Basic

Books, 1985). Gardner has published other works on multiple intelligences. Creating Minds(New York: Basic Books, 1993), an exploration of a genius of each one of the seven intelli-gences, and Muhiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice (New York: Basic Books, 1993), a

series of essays on multiple intelligences addressing some of the questions raised about the

theory of multiple intelligences.

65

rÇNag¡* KNe\,

Nor¿s making major contributions in traditional academic areas.'n The representation you

made about the type of day it is, or has been, in the items at the start of this section

draws upon Spatial intelligence.

Interpersonal intelligence is characterized by the ability to meet and interact well with

othei individuals. It is one of the primary intelligences of the business world. If you

shared your responses at the beginning of this section with someone else, you used

Interpeisonal intelligence. The last intelligence, Intrapersonal, is the intelligence

within the individual which she uses to organize and maintain self-identity. People

with well-developed Intrapersonal intelligence are the people whom many rely on

during conflict and crisis for advice and counsel because they "have their heads on

straight." The question at the start which asked you about what you do to renew your-

self when you are worn out involves Intrapersonal intelligence.

Each of us is a composite of these seven intelligences. Some of our intelligences are

better developed and employed more frequently than others. Each of us probably has

one intelligence that is our best intelligence. We may also have an intelligence which

we do not use very often and which may not be all that well developed.

Gardner's multiple intelligences also provide an excellent framework for thinking

about differences found among individuals, especially students. How can someone be

an excellent athlete, but not perform nearly as well in the classroom in mathematics'

social studies, or English? How can someone be an excellent artist, but not a good

athlete? How can a itudent hold adult conversations with teachers, but struggle in

several academic subjects? When one begins to think about students in terms of mul-

tiple intelligences, oni "* begiri to understand how individuals can have more devel-

oped ability in one area than in another'

IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY: ITS CONNECTION WITII LEARNINGSTYLE AND IryTfH GARDNER'S MTII,TIPLE INTELLIGENCES

In his Spirituat Exercises,Ignatius makes certain that the retreatant uses all three

learning channels, the visual, the auditory, and the kinesthetic, during prayer' At the

same time Ignatius also has the retrcatant utilize six of the seven intelligences posited

by Gardner. By making sure that the retreatant uses all three learning channels and

most of Gardner's intelligences, Ignatius insures that any learning which occurs

during prayer will be accomplished not by a single learning modality or intelligence

but through the interaction of a variety of modalities and intelligences'

ro See Thomas G. Iùy'est, In the Mind's Eye: Vsual Thinkers, Gifted People With l*arning

Dfficutties, Computer Images, and the lronies of Creativity (Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books,

l99l) for a discussion of the contributions of two of the fathers of modern physics, Michael

Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell. Both men made major conuibutions to modern physics'

but did so primarily through Spatial rather than Logical-Mathematical intelligence.

66

l9mtc1rc Krtsw Abo.tz (TX.t¡¡-Dtmetrsto'ral- Lcmtng

IGNATIAN ANNOTATIONS

Ignatius' Annotations contain many important Ignatian concepts about learning.While lgnatius does not directly discuss a person's learning preferences in hisAnnotations, he would certainly be interested in both a person's learning style and

pattern of intelligences. Ignatius would be interested in these because they containimportant personal information which would help him direct a person making theSpiritual Exercises.

The Unþue Individual with Unþue l*arning PreferencesIn the last chapter we saw that Ignatius recognized the importance of dealing with theuniqueness of each individual as the essential starting point for making the SpiritualExercises. Pa¡t of the uniqueness of any individual is her learning style preferencesand pattem of Gardner's intelligences. I am certain that if Ignatius were alive todayand knew both the learning style and multiple intelligence theory he would want toknow an individual's preferences in these areas before he began directing her in the

Spiritual Exercises. Ignatius would want these details because they contain importantinformation about how a person prefers to process information. Ignatius would be ableto use the individual's preferred learning style and stronger intelligences as an initialway to help the retreatant to learn to pray effectively. In addition to knowing aperson's preferred ways of processing information, Ignatius would recognize unde-veloped preferences and unused intelligences. Exploring these undeveloped and

unused ¿ueas can be very important in assisting a person's growth. NLP has demon-strated that when a person becomes fixated in a particular state of mind many timesonly one or two representational systems are being used by the person, e.g., visual and

kinesthetic but not the auditory. Sometimes the addition of the unused system willhelp the person gain a better or a new and deeper insight into things. If a person is todevelop a deep, effective prayer life, Ignatius would want her to explore some of these

undeveloped and unused areas in order to insure that the whole person with as manydifferent learning channels and intelligences as possible is involved in prayer.

WhoI¿ Person Involvement: I*amíng Style and Multíple IntelligencesThe Annotations also stress the whole person's active involvement in the making of theSpiritual Exercises. We have already seen that whole person involvement is one of theprinciples of brain-based education, but the way Ignatius uses both learning channelsand multiple intelligences in the Spiritual Exercises likewise fosters whole person

involvement. In each part of a prayer period Ignatius makes certain that the retreatantuses the visual, auditory and kinesthetic learning channels. Ignatius also stresses the

importance of whole person involvement in the Spiritual Exercises by the way in whichhe utilizes six of Gardner's seven intelligences throughout the prayer period.37

t lVhile we have discussed brain-based eduiafion, left and right hemisphere preferences,

visual, auditory and kinesthetic learning style, and Gardner's multiple intelligences as sepa-

rate theories, clearly they overlap one another. They overlap because they all are different ways

of discussing the human brain and learning.

67

tÇN¡crus KNew

PREPARATION FOR PNAYER

During the preparation for prayer lgnatius has the retreatant employ all three learningchannels as well as a number of different intelligences.

Prepøration and the Three Lcørning ChannelsThe preparation which Ignatius stresses for prayer involves all th¡ee learning chan-nels-visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. The points the night before use both the visualand auditory channels to call to mind the material for prayer. If the calling to mind ofthe material for prayer is internal statements in the form of internal dialog then theauditory channel is used. If this calling to mind includes some internal images of thematerial for the next day's prayer, then the visual channel is included. It is worthnoting that the addition of some visual images will make the material more readilyavailable in the memory, since the visual learning channel is the most efficient andmost quickly accessed.

When one awakes in the morning, one recalls the material for prayeç which again canbe either auditory or visual, or a combination of both. At the start of the prayer, theretreatant begins with a short vocal prayer, followed by the Composition of Place-the visual imagining of a scene, followed by the grace sought. In these three prepara-tory steps Ignatius has the retreatant move from the auditory learning channel to thevisual learning channel and finally back to the auditory learning channel.

Ignatius recognized and understood that the kinesthetic learning channel is a veryimportant one in the learning process and one that cannot be neglected. In one of hisdirections for making the Spiritual Exercises, Ignatius states:

76. I will enter upon the contemplation, now kneeling, now prostrate on the floor,or lying face upward, or seated, or standing-but always intent on seekingwhar I desire. Two things should be noted. First, if I find what I desire whilekneeling, I will not change to another posture; so too, if I find it while prostrate, '

and so on. Second, if in any point I find what I am seeking, there I will reposeuntil I am fully satisfred, without any anxiety to go on.

In these directions, Ignatius suggests that when the retreatant is successfully achievingwhat she wants in prayer that she remain in that position. If the retreatant is notachieving what she is seeking during prayer, then she should change postures to see

if that will facilitate the prayer process. Ignatius understood the effect that changingposition can have in helping a person learn more easily. If you doubt the importancethat changes in physiology can have upon learning, simply try changing your ownposture right now while you are reading this and note what happens. You may havebeen in a very good learning physiology and find that the changes interfered with yourreading. You may have been tired when you changed your posture and now find thatyou have a renewed level of concentration.

Preparation and Muhþle IntelligencesClearly, many similarities exist between the three learning channels and Gardner'smultiple intelligences. Rather than relating each part of the preparation process for

æ

lgnacius K're* .Àbouz qÁ"-Dtt-"'"*

Noresprayer to Gardner's multiple intelligence' I will simply comment on some of the con-

nections. when one is using the auditory learning channel and thinking about the

subject matter for prayeç one is using both Linguistic and Logical-Mathematical

inælligences. When one enters into the imagination, one is using Spatial intelligence'

The pãsture chosen for prayer ties into Body-Kinesthetic intelligence' As we will see

in the next section, Ignatius masterfully intermingles the intelligences in the three

principal methods of frayer that he teaches inhis Spiritual Exercises to further multi-

dimensional, whole person learning.

SummaryIgnatian preparations for prayer contain techniques which insure that multi-dimen-

sional learning occurs from the very start. All three learning channels-visual' audi-

tory, and kineithetic-are involved in the points, the recalling of the material' and the

p."lud", for prayer. Additionally, Ignatius employs a variety of Gardner's intelli-

!"n"", during the preparatory activities for prayer. Through this intermingling of the

ihree learning channeis and t-he variety of intelligences used Ignatius promotes multidimensional leaming in his prep¿ìratory activities and will continue to do so

throughout the Spiritual Exercises

I GN ATI AN MEDITATI O N, C O NT E MP IATI O NAND APPUCATION OF THE SENSES

Gardner's multiple intelligences provide us with another framework for looking at the

types of cognitive p.o""rring *ñi"n lgnatius uses in his three prinicipal methods of

pruy", in tnã Spiritual Exerciies. If teachers were to identify the most important intel-

iig"n"", for learning in the classroom, most would likely list Linguistic and Logical-

Mathematical intelligences as the principal ones. Ignatius recognized the importance

of these two intelligences in the learning process, but he also understood that learning

can occur when other intelligences are the primary ones used' Meditation uses what-

we might recognize as the 1wo. traditional academic intelligences, Linguistic and

Logical-Mathematical, as the primary means of learning. Contemplation and the

apflication of the senses rely õn Spatial and Body-Kinesthetic intelligences as the

pr*".y means of learning. Although each method of prayer stresses particular intel-

iig"n"", as the principal rãeans of lóarning, Ignatius uses six of Gardner's seven intel-

liiences in his methàaotogy for prayer in the Spiritual Exercises. The only intelli-

gJn"" which is not immediately apparent as being used directly during prayer is

Musical intelligence.

Ignatiøn Medinfion : M e mory, U nde rstønding and WillIi meditation Ignatius teaches the retreatant to pray, first by using the memory then

the understanding, and finally the will. Each of these mental faculties serves a specific

function in prayer and bears a distinct relationship to one or more of Gardner's intel-

ligences. The two traditional academic intelligences, Linguistic and Logical-

Mathematical, are the principal means of learning during meditation, but Ignatius has

the retreatant apply wúat is iearned from these intelligences by using the will, which

is quite similar to Gardner's Intrapersonal intelligence'

tÇNag¡* KNe\/

The retreatant first uses memory in a meditation to recall information about sin ingeneral and her personal sins. Usually, this recall entails some type of search throughmemory to find a particular event or life events. In terms of Gardner's intelligences,Ignatius' use of memory for most individuals involves both Linguistic and Spatialintelligences. Linguistic intelligence becomes involved if the recall takes the form ofabstract ideas or concepts. Spatial intelligence becomes involved if the memory is inthe form of mental images of past sins. Clearly, similarities exist between memoryusing Linguistic and Spatial intelligences and the Caines' two types of memory intheir theory of brain-based education. The recall of events connected with Spatialintelligence is quite similar to what the Caines describe as spatial memory, with itsinterconnected maps of life events. The recall of ideas or concepts appears to usemuch more of what the Caines call taxon memory.

After using memory the retreatånt employs understanding and the intellect to analyzethe implications in the matter for her own spiritual life. Ignatius' use of the under-standing and the intellect requires that the retreatant "reason" about the subject matterof prayer. This reasoning process entails the application of language and various typesof logical, analytical skills which are primarily functions of Linguistic and Logical-Mathematical intelligences. Thus far, the retreatant in meditation has relied heavilyupon the traditional academic Linguistic and Logical-Mathematical intelligences toachieve new insights and understandings. Ignatius insists, however, that the retreatantcontinue her learning process through the use of the will, which moves the retreatantto use intelligences that are less traditionally academic.

Once the retreatant has gained new understandings, Ignatius suggests that she exer-cise her will. The will for Ignatius is the ability of the individual to make choices anddeterminations that direct the course of her life. Ignatius' concept of the will andGardner's Intrapersonal intelligence are indeed quite similar. Gardner describesIntrapersonal intelligence as:

o"rrl,c to one's ownfeeling /rp-one's range of affects or emotions: the capacity toinstantly effect discriminations among these feelings and eventually, to label them, toenmesh them in symbolic codes, to draw upon them as means of understanding andguiding one's behavior.'o

This use of the will helps the retreatant take what has been remembered and under-stood and, through heartfelt emotional responses, make it an integral part of herself sothat it can be transferred to other life contexts. The understandings gained through theuse of the two traditional academic intelligences are now linked to Intrapersonal intel-ligence to insure that what has been learned and understood during meditationbecomes an integral part of the retreatant's life.

Through the use of three points in each meditation, Ignatius has the retreatant movethrough this cycle of intelligences three separate times. Each point concludes byhaving the retreatant work with the will, Intrapersonal intelligence, to cement what

tt Frsmes of Mind, p.239.

70

lgnocius Kæ-' Àbo-r íl)*L¿¡-l)irens'ronJ Leming

Norcshas been experienced during prayer into the individual's core set of attitudes and

beliefs insuring its availability in life's other contexts.

This transferring of insight and understanding through the use of the will, so that they

become an integral part of the person, is a key element of the Ignatian concept oflearning. For lgnatius true learning occurs when the whole person is active in the

learning process. Learning is never simply limited to the memory and the under-

standing, but must also involve the heart, will, and soul.

So far, in our discussion of meditation and Gardner's intelligences, we have explored

four intelligences: Linguistic, Logical-Mathematical, Spatial and Intrapersonal. Two

intelligences which we have yet to discuss are Interpersonal and Body-Kinestheticintelligences. Body-Kinesthetic intelligence comes into play in the various postures

selected for prayer. As we discussed in connection with the kinesthetic learning

channel, the retreatant pays attention to posture and its effect upon prayer throughout

the entire time of the meditation. The relationship of Body-Kinesthetic intelligencewith Spatial intelligence and their use during contemplation will be treated in more

detail during our discussion of contemplation. Interpersonal intelligence comes intoplay in the colloquy and will be discussed in connection with lgnatius'concludingactivities for prayer. When we include these two intelligences with the four others we

have talked about, we see how Ignatius utilizes six of Gardner's seven multiple intel-ligences during meditation. We can also appreciate in lgnatius' use of these six intel-ligences that learning for him is always multi-dimensional.

SummaryIgnatian meditation is a form of prayer which relies primarily on the traditional acad-

ernic intelligences, Linguistic and Logicat-Mathematical, as the principal means oflearning. Both these intelligences are closely related to the Caines'taxon memory and

require predominately left hemisphere processing. Yet learning for lgnatius always

involves the whole person, so that he insists that what has been theoretically learned

and understood in prayer must be deeply experienced and felt by the retreatant

through the use of the will. The will closely corresponds to Gardner's Intrapersonal

intelligence which contains some of the characteristics of the Caines' spatial memory

and employs right hemisphere processing techniques, particularly in the emotional

,"rponrèr generated in terrns of what has been learned. Meditation is predominately a

discursive and analytical method of prayer, linking analytical learning, through the

use of the will, to the basic belief systems of the learner.

Contemplation: Imøgination, Ilnderstanding, ønd WillIgnatius sets the stage for contemplation by having the retreatant recall the history oftñe event in the Composition of Place. This recollection of an event's history places

the subject matter for prayer in the memory. Once the actual contemplation begins,

Ignatiui has the retreatant first employ the imagination, then the understanding, and

finally the will. When a retreatant begins to contemplate, she first immerses herself in

a scene from the life of Christ by using the imagination, learning what she can through

the imagined scene. Ignatius' use of imagination in prayer relies heavily on Gardner's

Spatial intelligence as the primary intelligence for leaming'

7t

tÇN¡grus KNew

Norrs Depending upon how intensely involved the retreatant becomes in being present at aparticular scene during contemplation, she may employ something of the Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence as she imagines the scene. Gardner notes that Body-Kinestheticintelligence which is one of the primary, but certainly not the only, intelligenceemployed by actors requires the actor have "the ability to qbserve carefully and then tore-create scenes in detail . . ."" This ability to observe carefully not only involves the

senses, but also the ability to encode the information in our physiology. Gardnerobserves that ". . . we are all equipped with a sixth sense of kinesthesis--the capacity toact gracefully and to apprehend directly the actions or the dynamic abilities of otherpeople or objects."o If a retreatant enters fully into the action in a particular scene, she

will not only store information through the imagination, Gardner's Spatial intelligence,but also through the kinesthetic encoding of the Body-Kinesthetic intelligence.

Having fully experienced the scene in contemplation, the retreatant begins, as Ignatiusdirects, to reflect upon herself and draw some profit. This type of reflection primarilyinvolves analysis and reasoning, Gardner's Linguistic and Logical-Mathematicalintelligences. Ignatius' reason for introducing the retreatant to contemplation is to helpher move from the more rational processes of meditation to a simpler and more directform of prayer where she moves quickly from the scene being considered to drawingspiritual profit. While some analytical reasoning is needed to make the transition,Ignatius wants the retreatant to spend much less time reasoning in contemplation thanshe did in meditation. What Ignatius teaches the retreatant to do is to move directlyfrom the imagination to drawing spirirual profit, a movement from Spatial and Body-Kinesthetic intelligences to Intrapersonal intelligence.

The will serves the same functions in contemplation that it did in meditation-to inte-grate at a deep personal level the insights gained during prayer. Once again the will incontemplation closely resembles Gardner's Intrapersonal intelligence, the intelligenceone uses to organize and guide one's life.

With the inclusion of Interpersonal intelligence in the colloquy, Ignatius once againuses six intelligences in the learning process, thereby enhancing multi-climensionalleaming. Multi-dimensional learning in contemplation has a different mix, however,of methodologies from that in meditation. The methodology of meditation relies onLinguistic and Logical-Mathematical intelligences for learning. Contemplation, onthe other hand, employs Spatial and Body-Kinesthetic intelligences as the primarymeans of learning. Although meditation and contemplation stress different method-ologies for learning, they both emphasize the importance of using the will(Intrapersonal intelligence) to insure that the whole person-mind, heart, and soul-becomes involved in prayer.

to Frames of Mind, p.227.q Frames of Mind, p.228

72

Nor¿sSummaryIgnatian contemplation once again stresses the use of six of Gardner's intelligences;

hãwever, the primary intelligences for learning are now Spatial and Body-Kinesthetic

intelligences iather than Linguistic and Logical-Mathematical intelligences as in med-

itation. Clearly, Spatial and Body-Kinesthetic intelligences share similarities with the

Caines' spatial memory and employ right hemisphere processing techniqúes' The

diminished role of Linguistic and Logical-Mathematical intelligences in contempla-

tion shows that Ignatius knew that genuine learning can take place without a predom-

inance of logical, analytical thought. Ignatius believed in this view of learning so

strongly that he employs contemplation as the chief method of prayer throughout the

last three weeks of the Spiritual Exercises. Thus, a retreatant uses contemplation as

the primary learning methodology for the bulk of the prayer during the retreat' One

cannot help but observe that much of the change that occurs in a person making the

spiritual Exercises happens through the use of non-traditional academic intelligences

specializing in right hemisphere processing.

Apptícation of the S¿ns¿s.' Imagination and Willtn itre appticaiion of the senses Ignatius teaches the retreatant to enter into a particular

scene by-using each of the five senses one by one and drawing some profit each time'

It is important to remember that Ignatius uses the application of the senses as a means

of synthesizing what has already been learned from the prayer periods of the day' The

retreatant is already familiar with the material from previous contemplations and rep-

etitions during the day. Given this familiarity with the material, Ignatius promotes

deeper understanding and synthesis by calling upon Spatial, Body-Kinesthetic, and

Intrapersonal intelliiences in preference to the more traditional academic intelli-g"n""r, Linguistic and Logical-Mathematical. The retreatant enters the scene and,

áfter using one of the senses, immediately draws some spiritual profit' There is little

time for logical, analytical thinking. It is through the application of the senses that

Ignatius has the retreãtant experience a deepening of what has been learned before'

tñe Spanish verb, sentir (to savor), which is an essential part of the experience of the

Spiriiual Exercises. Ignatian Pedagogy comments upon the importance Ignatius saw

in ttr¡s deepening of experience in terms of lgnatian pedagogy:

6l In his pedagogy, Ignatius highlights the affective/evaluative stage of the

learning proð"rr b".uuse he is conscious that in addition to letting one "sense

and taste,'' i.e., deepen one's experience, affective feelings are motivational

forces that rou" on"', understanding to action and commitment. And it must

beclearthatlgnatiusdoesnotseekjustanyactionorcommitment.Rather,while respectirig human freedom, he strives to encourage decision and com-

mitment for the rnagis, the better service of God and our sisters and brothers'

Summarythe appiication of the senses stresses learning through Spatial and Body-Kinesthetic

intellÇnces, which contain many characteristics of the Caines' spatial memory and

which use right hemisphere processing techniques. Of the three principal methods of

prayer that þnatius teaches in his spirilual Exercis¿s, the application of the senses

ieliLs least on Linguistic and Logical-Mathematical intelligences and their concomitant

73

rqNÀcrus KNe\Àt

Norø,s left hemisphere processing techniques. The application of the senses is indeed a dif-ferent learning technique, and one which is very important for achieving the aim of the

Spiritual Exercises-the ordering of one's life to the greater love and service of God.

The application of the senses is a means of deepening spiritual insights and under-

standings and appropriating them into the basic belief system of the retreatant. The fact

that Ignatius chooses to use this type of learning technique for this purpose shows again

his intuitive understanding that what we know as non-traditional academic intelli-gences and right hemisphere processing are very important modes of learning'

Musical intelligence: The Missing Intelligence in the Spiritual Exercises

The one intelligence that does not directly appear in the Spiritual Exercises is Musicalintelligence. Musical intelligence deserves a brief comment because it can be a very

effective intelligence in the learning process.

In some additional methods of prayer that he proposes in connection with the Second

Week of his Spiritual Exercises, Ignatius presents a method of prayer which relates to

some of the characteristics of Musical intelligence:

258 The Third Method of Praying is to Pray According to Rhythmic Measures.

. . . In this Third Method of Praying, with each breath taken in or expelled, one should

pray mentally, by saying a word of the Our Father, or of any other prayer which isrecited. This is done in such a manner that one word of the prayer is said between one

breath and another. In between these two breaths one reflects especially on the

meaning of that word, or on the person to whom the prayer is being recited' or on

one's lowliness, or on the distance between that person's dignity and our lack of it.The same procedure and rule will be used on the words of the Our Father; and the

other prayèrs-rhe Hail Mary, Soul of Christ, Creed, and Hail Holy Queen-will be

recited in the usual manner.

While this method of prayer was not created by Ignatius (it had been in existence

for many centuries as the Jesus prayef'), it clearly employs a whole rhythmic com-

ponent which is an essential part of musical intelligence. Although musical intelli-g"n"" as such plays no direct role in the Spiritual Exercises, musical intelligencewas a pedagogical tool in the early years of the Society of Jesus. John O'Malley, S' J'

in Thi First Jesuitl2 tells how Jesuits made teachers out of their pupils by setting

catechetical texts to music:

It was with the help of tunes that the children [as catechists] came into their own.polanco reported what happened in Gandía in 1554. One of the Jesuit scholastics,

accompanied by two boys, walked through the streets ringing a little bell. The boys

meanwhile sang parts of the catechism "in a sweet melody." As the children gathered

behind their three leaders, they were led to a church, where classes were taught and

the tunes learned. The tunes and lyrics became so popular that "day and night in the

" See Ganss, endnote #135' P.187..2 John W. O'Malley, S.J.,The First Jesuits (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993).

74

Nor¿swhole rown nothing was sung by both adults and children but 'Ch¡istian Doctrine"'-by craftsmen and dãy laboreis in the town, by farmers in the fields' by mothers, who

had learned it from their children, in the homes' (pp' l2l-122)

Musical intelligence is frequently overlooked in education, yet it is one that can facil-

itate learning. Georgi Loianov has developed a foreign language learning theory

based upon the brain's ability to use music to facilitate memory' In Lozanov's

Suggestàpedia (called "superleaming" in the United States),or one learns a foreign

language, in a relaxed atmosphere, to baroque classical music. Memorization is not

emphasized, because the brain assimilates the material in conjunction with listening

to the music. Research on Superleaming has shown that foreign languages taught

using this method are learned more easily and quickly than they are leamed using tra-

ditional foreign language teaching methodologies. Musical intelligence's relationship

to learning remains an ¿yea worthy of more exploration and research.

IGNATIAN CONCLUSION TO PRAYER

Ignatius' concluding activities to prayer continue the multi-dimensional learning

*t,i"t,, as we have already seen, are integral to the preparation for prayer and the three

principal methods of prayer of the Spiritual Exercises'

The Colloquy and Interpersonal IntelligenceInterpersonai intelligence first appears in the Spiritual Exercises during the colloquy'

when the person praying imaginatively in the presence of Christ or Mary has a con-

versation "as with u î.iÿ." The emphasis in the colloquy is on conversation, which

means that it is not a monologue, but a real conversation between two people-the

person praying and God. In the colloquy Interpersonal intelligence helps the retreatant

ialk dirãctly and honestly with God, ãnd at the same time helps her listen and attend

to what the Lord says in turn to whatever requests, ideas, or suggestions she makes'

Since the colloquy is a dialogue, it draws upon Gardner's Interpersonal Intelligence'

The Coltoquy ønd the Three l*arning Chønnels

The colloquy lit<ewise employs all thràe learning channels-visual, auditory, and the

kinesthetió. After placing onåsetf in Christ's presence, the retreatant converses with

Christ as she would witñ a friend. Each step in the colloquy involves the visual and

auditory leaming channels. And given that the colloquy is a conversation' the kines-

thetic learning channel naturally becomes involved through the nonverbal interaction

which takes place.4

., sheila ostrander and Lynn Schroeder, superlearninS (New York: Laurel/confucian

Press,1979).s See footno te 29 inChapter III for a discussion of the importance of the nonverbal aspects of

communication.

75

tçNÀgrus KNe\À/

CONCLUSION

Just as Ignatius incorporated brain-based education principles and left and right hemi-sphere learning techniques in the Spiritual Exercises, so too he utilizes the threelearning channels and multiple intelligences. Ignatius knew by using all three learningchannels and six of Gardner's multiple intelligences that he would facilitate multi-dimensional learning. Ignatius does this in the way he has the retreatant prepare forprayer, the methods of prayer he teaches, and the concluding activities of a prayerperiod. Ignatius also stresses the impolance of using all the intelligences in thelearning process, not simply the traditional academic intelligences (Linguistic andLogical-Mathematical) to promote effective, whole person learning.

Ignatius also understood the importance of using all three learning channels. Welearned from NLP that people who have developed effective strategies for accom-plishing demanding tasks have usually inco¡porated all three representationalsystems-the visual, auditory and kinesthetic-into their strategies. On the otherhand, ineffective strategies have been found to be missing one or more of the systems.The addition of a second or third system generally results in a much more effectivestrategy. That Ignatius knew the importance of the visual, auditory and kinestheticsystems for prayer is clear from the way in which he very purposefully interweavesall three throughout the entire prayer period.

..AN IGNATIAN REFLECTION ON TEACHING''

Since "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" is designed to parallel a prayer experi-ence of the Spiritual Exercises, it employs all three learning channels and the intelli-gences in the same way as Ignatius uses them.

PREPARATIONS

In the preparation for the reflection, the accessing of a resourceful leaming state reliedon both the visual and kinesthetic learning channels. You were asked to remember atime when you learned quickly and well. Through this visual remembering you relivedthe feelings associated with the event, thereby involving the kinesthetic learningchannel. You also used the visual learning channel when you thought of yourselfpresent at all those classes you have taught and attended. There as well may have been

some strong kinesthetic reactions to these memories as well. The final piece of thepreparation invited you to establish some specific objectives for doing the reflectionwhich probably required some internal dialogue, using the auditory learning channel.

When you remembered a time when you learned easily and well, you were workingin Spatial, Body-Kinesthetic, and Intrapersonal intelligences. The simulatedComposition of Place also drew upon Spatial and Body-Kinesthetic intelligences.When you set up some objectives for yourself for the reflection period, you wereusing both Linguistic and Logical-Mathematical intelligences.

76

11çç |.bouc í'l-h.k-Dittæ-sknJ Lc*-nt-9

REFLECTION

During the reflection, you used all three learning channels. First you looked at your-

self as teacher and then reflected about what you leamed by looking at yourself in that

way. You likely conducted something of an intemal auditory dialogue with yourselfwhile doing the reflection. Undoubtedly, there were emotional reactions associated

with seeing yourself as teacher and then gaining some insight or understanding fromthis. The main points of the reflection also loosely followed the structure of an

Ignatian contemplation, interweaving Spatial, Body-Kinesthetic, Linguistic, Logical-Mathematical, and Intrapersonal intelligences.

CONCLASION

The conversation with the respected teacher modeled the Ignatian colloquy. The con-

versation involved all three learning channels and had you work primarily out ofInterpersonal intelligence. The reflection on the process which concluded the exercise

returned you again to Linguistic and Logical-Mathematical intelligences.

REFLECTION ON IGNATIANMETHODOLOGY AND THE CLASSROOM

If your experience of reading this chapter is to lead to some type of action, it would be

appropriaæ to øke a few minutes to begin thinking about how the content of this chapter

relates to the classroom. Take a few minutes to answer the questions below as best as

you can, realizing that Chapter VI will make more explicit the connection between

Ignatian methodology and current educational psychology and leaming theory.

1. What have I done and what do I do in my teaching that parallels current educa-

tional theories and has some of the Ignatian comPonents presented in this chapter?

(Listed below for easy reference are some major theories discussed in this

chapter.)

I-earning Style

- Vsual Learners

- Auditory Learners

- Kinesthetic Learners

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

- Linguistic Intelligence

- Musical Intelligence

- Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

- Spatial Intelligence

Norrs

77

rÇN¡crus KNew

Body-Kinesthetic Intelligence

Interpersonal Intelli gence

Intrapersonal Intelli gence

2.

J.

2. After completing the above reflection, what are the next steps I want to exploreor take regarding current educational theory and Ignatian methodology related tomy teaching?

Three things I want to explore or do are:

1.

EVALUATION

To evaluate this chapter in order to see what effect it has had upon you, you may wishto do the following:

1. Listed below are terms from the Prelection of Educational Terminology. Do youunderstand any of these terms better now than when you began this book?

- Learning Style

- Visual Learners

- Auditory Learners

- Kinesthetic Learners

- Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

- Linguistic Intelligence

- Musical Intelligence

- Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

- Spatial Intelligence

- Body-Kinesthetic Intelligence

- Interpersonal Intelligence

- Intrapersonal Intelligence

78

liæo' Àlour (l-)r¡L¡¡-D¡rtrcnslotet Lcot-i-g

Norrs2. Listed below are the objectives from the start of this chapter' Take a few minutes

and think abour how this chapter has met these objectives for you.

- To explain two pieces ofcurrent educational theory and research

- Learning StYle Research

- Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

- To explore the connection ofeach ofthese pieces ofcurrent educational

research with Ignatian purpose and methodology in the spiritual

Exercises

- To explore the relationship between "An Ignatian Reflection on

. Teaching" and these two pieces of current educational theory and

Ignatian methodologY

- To continue exploring implications for the classroom

79

80

CHAPTER V

lgreoølo,n ottd. Cttrre¡'ll-eâ'-coclonaL P*-Á9-t

n the last two chapters we examined how Ignatius in his methodology in the

Spiritual Exercises understood and used brain-based learning and multi-dimen-sional learning theory. In this chapter we will explore some cunent educational para-

digms and their connection with Ignatian paradigms. We will look at the lgnatian par-

adigm in the Spirirual Exercises and in the two recent documents on Jesuit education:

Go Forth and Teach and lgnatian Pedagogy. The objectives of this chapter are:

- To explain certain pieces ofcurrent educational theory and research

- Higher Order Thinking Skills

- Teaching as Enculturation

= AILAS (Authentic Teaching, Learning, and Assessment for All Students)

Communities

' Dimensions of Learning

- To explore the relationship of each of these pieces of current educational

research with the Ignatian paradigm in the SpiritUal Exercises and currentJesuit educational documents

- To explore the relationship between "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" and

current educational theory and Ignatian methodology

' To continue exploring implications for the classroom

PRELECTION

Take a few minutes to reflect on the following questions.

What do you already know about teaching for higher level thinking skills?

8t

tÇN431¡LJt KNe\¡'

What do you think will be the relationship between teaching for higher levelthinking skills and Ignatius' purpose and methodology in the Spiritual Exercises?

What do you know about teaching as enculturation? What do you think is its rela-

tionship with Ignatian purpose and methodology in the Spiritual Exercises?

What do you know about ATLAS Communities?

What do you know about the Dimensions of Learning?

If you know anything about either AILAS Communities and the Dimensions ofLearning, what do you think will be their relationship with curÍent Jesuit educa-

tional documents?

82

lgnaz-rø øá Currenc €drc*c-ronql P*Jigms

NorrsCURRENT EDUCATIONAL THEORY AND RESEARCH

Educators today regularly discuss how to change and improve schools' The literature

is replete with theorists and researchers \,/ho are seeking to create better models foreducation and better educated students. Educational researchers and theorists have

espoused many different pafadigms, each with its own particular emphasis, that they

believe will improve the quality of education and instruction in schools. Cunent edu-

cational theories focus on higher order thinking skills, learning communities,

authentic learning tasks with authentic assessment, alternative assessment, coopera-

tive leaming, etc., to mention but a few of the movements and trends in education' In

this chapter, we will examine three current educational paradigms and explore how

they relate to the Ignatian paradigm in the Spiritual Exercises and also how they relate

to both Go Forth and Teach and Ignatian Pedagogy, two recent documents about Jesuit

educational philosophy and methodology.

One additional note about the methodology of this chapter is necessary before we

begin exploring Ignatian and current educational paradigms. In this chapter we willdiscuss a cuffent educational theory and then immediately explore its Ignatian con-

nection rather than waiting to cover all of the theory before examining Ignatian con-

nections as we did in the previous two chapters.

HIGHER LEVEL THINKING SKILLS

Higher level thinking skills is an educational movement very much in vogue today'

The thinking skills movement has many advocates who have somewhat similar and at

times differing approaches. A variety of commercial programs are available for

teaching thinking skills both as a separate curriculum and as a piece integrated into

the regular curriculum.ot

As a preparation for our discussion of higher level thinking skills, take a few moments

and answer the following questions on the types of thinking which occur in your

classroom. Answer these questions in terms of:

3 = Very Often or Often 2 = Sometimes l= Seldom or Never

I encourage students to seek alternative answers'

Students relate subject matter to experiences in other subjects or in their personal lives'

¿s A¡t L. costa, ed., Developing Minds,2 vols. rev. ed. (Alexandria: VA, Association for

Supervision and Curriculum Development [ASCD], 1992)' Volume I contains an excellent

series of aficles about the teaching of thinking skills in schools' Volume 2 reviews several

commercial programs for teaching thinking skills'

83

IçNÀCIUS KNC\À2

Students actively listen to one another.

Students give reasons for making statements.

Most questions posed during a class can be answered with short or one word answers.

Whatever the text says is accepted as the right answer.s

Please keep in mind your answers to these questions during our discussion about promoting thinking skills in the classroom. Many thinking skills researchers and theorists

talk about the teaching for, of, and about thinking.o? This distinction of the teachingpr,of, ald about thinking will serve as the framework for our discussion of thinking skills.

TEACHING FOR THINKING

No matter what higher level thinking skill theory or thinking skill program you

examine, you will find that they all agree that classroom atmosphere contributesgreatly to the promotion of student thinking. The teaching þr thinking refers tothis atmosphere.

- Is there a possibility for multiple student answers or solutions to a question orproblem?

- Do students have the oppornrnity to brainstorm many possible solutions to a

problem?

- How is creative thinking fostered?

- Do students elaborate reasons for the answers they have given?

- Are sh¡dents actively involved in listening to their classmates?

- Are the questions asked ones that require more than one or two word answers?

If the answers to all or most of the above questions are "yes," then a thinking atmos-

phere is at work in the classroom because the thinking which is being taught is

modeled concretely in the practices of the classroom.

Teaching os EncalturationDavid Perkins and his colleagues, in an article which establishes the context forteaching higher order thinking skills, present an interesting discussion about the

* These questions are adapted from "Self-Reflecúon on Your Teaching: A Checklist" by John

Ba¡ell. The futl questionnaire can be found in Developing Minds ('lol' I ), Appendix C, page 379 'a? See Chapter 7 of Devetoping Minds, vol. l. Also see Donald C Orlich, et al., Teaching

Strategies: A Guide to Better Instruction,3rd. ed. (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, 1990) for agood summary of the research on thinking skills as applied to the classroom.

84

Norrsdifferences between teaching as transmission and teaching as enculturation'n8

Perkins considers teaching as transmission to be the model of teaching in which the

teacher imparts essential information to students who in turn memorize this infor-mation. In the transmission model students feedback their knowledge of the infor-mation to the teacher through their answers to questions, quizzes, and tests'

Talking about teaching as transmission, Perkins and his colleagues note that the

transmission model ca; be useful in teaching basic material such as math facts' Itneed not necessarily be mere rote memorization, but can be combined with helping

students understand what is behind these basic facts. However, Perkins and his col-

leagues conclude that the transmission model of teaching falls short when it comes

to inculcating higher level thinking skills-teaching pr thinking' Believing that

teachers are always modeling no matter what it is they are doing in the classroom'

Perkins argues for an enculturation model of teaching which stresses basic atti-

rudes and fredispositions for higher level thinking skills. By enculturation Perkins

means that the very subject matter being taught is also present in the methodology

used to teach the matter. In other words, the teacher himself practices what he

preaches. Perkins states:

one reason to turn to an enculturation model is that some sort of culture in classroom

always exists: We a¡e enculturating whether we recognize it or not, so we may as well

take heed and enculture what we want. For example, inevitably, the transmission

model enclutures certain sorts of inclinations and sensitivities. Consider a rather rigid

version of the model where [the] students' role is to sit quietly and receive the infor-

mation they need for a test. In such an environment, an inclination to be passive with

respect to knowledge tends to develop. Students do not become disposed to seek and

evaluate information on their own; rather, they learn to count on the environment to

automatically feed them information'oo

perkins' notion of teaching as enculturation recognizes that whatever is happening in

the classroom is modeling both the explicit and implicit values we have as teachers'

If we believe that the promotion of higher level thinking skills is an important com-

ponent of our teaching, then it is necessary to set up an atmosphere that promotes and

sustains that belief.

TEACHING OF THINXTNG

The teaching o/thinking refers to instructing students about specific thinking skills'

How do we as teachers in the classroom help our students to develop specific thinking

skills by demonstrating these skills and by providing time to practice them? For

example, do we ever model aloud our own thinking processes in trying to solve a par-

ticulaì problem or find an answer to a question? A good general guideline for the

ls Shari Tishman, Eileen Jay and David N. Perkins, "Teaching Thinking Dispositions: From

Transmission to EnculturationJ Theory into Practice (Teaching Higher Level Thinking Skills)

summer, 1993 (columbus, oH: College of Education: The ohio State university' 1993)'

'o Perkins, p.150.

85

rÇNÀc:lus KNew

Norcs teaching o/thinking is to examine the subject matter being taught in terms of the cog-

nitive process required for that content and then to teach those cognitive processes as

the thinking skills necessary for that content. It is usually a good idea not to presume

that the cognitive processes necessary for your content have been taught in another

subject and transferred to yours. Ideas for the teaching o/thinking can be found in any

of the "thinking skill" programs and books available for developing thinking skills.'"

Another way ro think about the teaching o/thinking is to think about the traditionalcategories of Benjamin Bloom's taxonomy:51

- Recall

- Comprehension

= Application

= Analysis

- Synthesis

- Evaluation

In Bloom's system the thinking process is usuatly considered to begin with the firstrwo steps of Recall and Comprehension, which are described as lower order thinkingskills. Building upon these lower level thinking skills, the student moves to the other

four levels: Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation, which are considered to

be the higher order thinking skills. While thinking skills are usually broken down into

these six discrete categories, the thinking process itself often draws from these cate-

gories simultaneously.

TEACHI NG AB OUT TH I N KI NG

The teachin g about thinking focuses on having students reflect about their own

thinking processes. The rerm regularly applied to this type of thinking is "metacogni-

tion." If one teaches about thinking, one has students analyze their own leaming or

problem solving processes. For example, as you are reading along in this book, take

a few moments and review your own thinking processes. What has been occurring in

your mind? V/hat have you learned during this reading process, and, more importantlyfor thinking about thinking, how have you learned it? The focus in metacognition is

more on the "how" of learning than on the "what." In fact, traditional study skillscourses primarily stress the development of metacognitive skills for the student. The

e For example. Robin Fogarty and James Bellanca, Patterns for Thinking: Patterns for Transfer

(Palatine, IL: IRI Group [Skylight Publishers]' I989).5' Benjamin S. Bloom, M. D. Englehar, E. J. Furst, W H. Hill, and D. R. Kratwohl, Taxonomy of

Educational Objectives, Handbook l: Cognitive Domain (New York: David Mckay Co., 1956).

86

lgnerrø -á C*--e-. edit--'-J !ï:lS-t

goal of this type of thinking is for students to monitor and improve their thinkingpro""r.", so that they have strategies for analyzing what works and what does not'

Metacognitive strategies can help make students better and more effective learners

capable of transferring thinking skills to different situations'

TEACHING OF THINKING SKILLS AND IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY

In his methodology in the Spirit ual Exercises, Ignatius creates a paradigm that is quite

similar to the paradigm found in the teaching for higher level thinking skills'

Ignøtius ønd Teaching for ThinkingDavid Perkins' distinction between teaching as transmission and teaching as encul-

turation as being important to teaching þr thinking is def,rnitely one that lgnatius

knew and understood. Ignatius believed that a person simply could not hear or read

about the spiritual life, but had to experience it. He learned this from his reflections

while he was recovering from his wounds received at the battle of Pamplona' On the

basis of this and subsequent spiritual experiences, Ignatius wrote the Spiritual

Exercises which are a series of prayer exercises designed to lead the retreatant to a

deeper spiritual life and the greater service of God. All the various exercises of the

foui weeks are designed to teach the retreatant ways to reflect on his experience to

help him order his life for the greater service of God. Woven implicitly in every exer-

cise are the three basic Ignatian questions: "What have I done for Christ?" "What am

I doing for Christ?", and that question which challenges the retreatant to do more, the

magis,..What more can I do for Christ?" This last question, because it contains the

uery aim of the Spiritual Exercises and implicitly exists within all the exercises

Ignatius teaches the retreatant, models what it teaches. When something models in its

Àethodology what it is teaching, it creates an atmosphere which promotes the very

subject .uit", being taught. This is precisely what Perkins means by teaching as

enculturation, the best way of teaching /or thinking. Ignatius in his Spiritual

Exercises, because methodology models aim, shows that he understood the impor-

tance of teachingfor thinking.

Ignatius ønd Teaching of ThinkingIlnatius is careful throughout the Spiritual Exercises to teach the types of thinking

p--""rr", he wants the retreatant to use. The three principal methods of prayer: medi-

iation, contemplation, and application of the senses, along with the examination ofconscience, are clearly examples where he promotes the teaching o/thinking' Ignatius

also knew that thinking skills involved many different types of mental processing. In

meditation Ignatius emphasizes the memory, understanding, and will' Each of these

mental functions helps the retreatant achieve greater personal insight leading to greater

service of God by employing different types of thinking skills. Ignatius also stressed

the creative thinking .t itt. *ittt his use of the imagination in prayer. The imagination

becomes fully involved in prayer in the composition of Place and the colloquy. Both

contemplation and application of the senses rely heavily on the imagination to help the

retreatant gain deepei personal insights. Ignatius' use of all of these mental faculties

demonstrates how much he appreciated the importance of teaching o/thinking'

87

rÇN¡c:rus KNe\v

Norrs If we think about the Spiritual Exercises in terms of Bloom's taxonomy, their focus ison the higher level thinking skills of analysis, evaluation, synthesis, and application.Ignatius always accentuates synthesis and application of what has been learned in aprayer to one's personal life. Ignatius does this by asking the retreatant to "draw some

profit" from the subject matter of prayer by using analysis and evaluation. The ulti-mate goal of the Spiritual Exercises is to help the retreatant use what has been learned

during the retreat in his subsequent life. For lgnatius, the ultimate test of the transfor-mations from making the Spiritual Exercises is whether the retreatant lives a life ded-

icated to God in a love that is shown by deeds, not just words. Ignatian Pedagogysummarizes this Ignatian attitude about higher level thinking skills well when it dis-cusses their role in Ignatian pedagogy:

(31) l) In Jesuit schools the learning experience is expected to move beyond roteknowledge to the development of the more complex learning skills ofunderstanding, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

2) If learning were ro stop there, it would not be lgnatian. For it would lackrhe component of REFLECTION wherein students are impelled to considerthe human meaning and significance of what they study and to integratethat meaning as responsible learners who grow as persons of competence,conscience and compassion.

Ignatius and Teaching about ThinkingIgnatius also understood that teaching about thinking is important. Throughout the

Spiritual Exercises Ignatius uses thinking about thinking, or metacognition. Ignatiusteaches metacognition in the brief reflection period at the end of each prayer period,where the retreatant reviews how things went during the prayer time. The retreatant

reflects about the various processes employed during prayer, paying palicular atten-

tion to what helped him pray well and what did not. Based upon these reflections, the

retreatant decides what he will keep the same and what he will alter during the nextperiod of prayer. Thus the retreatant, through reflections about what has worked and

not worked during prayer, gains a greater understanding about what he can use and

not use to pray effectively. All of this is a basic metacognitive strategy which Ignatiusknew and promoted in his Spiritual Exercises.

TEACHING OF THINKING SKILLS AND,,AN IGNATIAN REFLECTION ON TEACHING"

If you think back to when you completed "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching," you

will realize that you employed many types of thinking skills during the exercise. Theexercise began with your remembering a time when you learned easily and well. You

started by recalling some information. Immediately after that, you used your visualimagination to see yourself present at a class or series of classes which you taught orattended. Then, you set objectives for your reflection by doing some analysis and

evaluation. In the main points of the reflection you were invited to employ many dif-ferent thinking skills, ranging from imagination to analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.All these processes led you to do some type of application to your future teaching.

88

'lgnoc-.ø -á

C*--e-a A*t*--J p*dtf*

NorssFinally, you evaluated the whole process by reflecting on the processes you used

during the reflection. You were also asked to consider applying what you leamed to

,o-" frtur" learning situations. As you can readily see, the whole reflection process

contained many types of thinking skills and, as such, promotes the teaching for' of'

and about thinking.

TWO INTEGRATED APPROACHBS TO LEARNING

One of the trends in current educational research is an attempt to link education more

closely with the world in which students live. The thrust of the approach is to tie

school based education more cìosely to students'experiences outside school and with

the types of situations and problems students will encounter in their adult lives' Two

g.ouþ, of researchers cuneìtly proposing such approaches are ATLAS Communities

and the Dimensions of Learning. Sin". both programs are at work in education today'

it is worth exploring triefly each of these theories to see what connection they have

with Ignatian thought and methodology.

ATIA,S COMMUNITIES

The first group of researchers who are exploring this idea of education as experien-

tially andieal-world based is a group which calls itself "ATLAS (Authentic Teaching,

Learning, and Assessmefi for-All Students) Communities'"" ATLAS Communities

bring together several educational theoristssr into a consortium working to improve

education in the united states. Rather than competing with each other in the field of

educational research, they have joined together to form a common voice to help

improve schools and student learning'

AILAS Communities focus on the tasks of learning for which schools have responsi-

bility in terms of productive "habits of mind, heart, anà work'" Habits of mind in an

ATLAS Communities school means that the school fosters the development of intel-

lectual and imaginative powers in students which they will need for their work and for

productivity in later lif;. ATLAS Communities believe that these skills must move

52 The AILAS Communities team is composed of four educational research and development

organizations and th¡ee school districts. The members of this team are the coalition of

Essential Schools at Brown university; the Education Development center in Newton' MA;

Project Tnro atHarvard University; the School Development Program at Yale University; and

the school districts of Gorham, Maine; Norfolk, Virginia; and Prince George's county'

Maryland. working together they have published Authentic Teaching, Learning' and

Assessment for AII Students (AILAS Communities' Education Development center' 55

Chapel Street, Newton, MA 02160, phone: 617-969-7100)'5r we have spent some time exploring the work of one of the members of the consortium earlier

in this chapter when we discussed Howard Gardner's research on multiple intelligences'

89

IqNÀCIUS KNg\2

beyond basic literacy skills to include the abiliry to live in a complex world byapplying old knowledge and experience to new situations. They see the need for stu-

dents to imagine new possibilities, consider the implications of choices made, to lookat the source of information for both content and accuracy, and to adopt multiple per-spectives to solve a problem.

Habits of heart, a phrase which ATLAS Communities borrowed from Robert Bullah,rdefines those personal qualities which the individual needs to live productively in theworld today. Some of these qualities noted are: "love, caring for others, generosity,civility, equity, the obligation to pursue our own interests with due regard for the

rights and interests of others."55

Habits of work describes those skills and attitudes necessary for a person to contributeto society and to his own independence. These habits are necessary for a society to be

successful and productive as opposed to a society where individuals do things simplybecause they have to do them.

With these three habits as the overriding values of an educational community, ATLASCommunities developed a philosophy of education which stresses:

. . .instead of striving to cover a wide range of subjects, students and teachers gen-

erate and pursue essential questions that go to the heart of people's concerns and cutacross disciplines. They address these questions by engaging in authentic activitiesthat reflect the habits and skills that are required in life and work outside the school.Ongoing assessments enable teachers and students to document and reflect on theirprogress and to give and receive the feedback and support they need to continue todevelop. A personalized environment provides for close personal relationships and

the sharing ofdiverse perspectives and makes it possible for adults to understand the

background, strengths, and needs of each student.s

ATLAS Communities employ a variety of techniques to accomplish the developmentof these three habits of "mind, heart, and work." The curriculum is organized around"essential questions" which force the student to explore and reflect about the answer tothese questions from many different perspectives and from many different develop-mental levels. A sample essential question is: "What makes people human?" InATLASCommunities students explore these essential questions across disciplines for the

purpose of gaining a deeper understanding which they can bring back to their commu-nities outside the school world. It is in this context that teachers serve in the roles ofcoaches and models. Tþachers also provide ongoing assessment of how the students are

doing in their explorations of these essential questions. The process of assessment is a

s Robert N. Bellah, Richard Madsen, William M. Sullivan,Tipton, Habits of the Hean: Individualism and CommitmentHarper & Row, Publishers; Perennial Books, 1987).55 ATLAS, Habits, p.4.5" ATLAS, Learning Environment, p. 3.

Ann Swidler, and Steven M.in American llp (New York:

90

Currenc eÁucec-,onql- Po-odigms

Nor¿scontinual one with a constant interplay of evaluation, which leads to further exploration

and reflection, which leads to more evaluation. Thus the whole educational process is

indeed one of "Authentic Teaching, Learning, and Assessment for All Students'"

ATLAS COMMUNITIES AND IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY

St. Ignatius would find the three habits of mind, heart and r¡¿ork, which are the cen-

terpùces of ATLAS Communities, very similar to principles and beliefs he presents

in his Spir;r ual Exercises. ATLAS Communities believe that if education is to be suc-

cessful it must involve the entire person in real life tasks' Ignatius emphasizes the

necessity of involving the whole person while making the Spiritual Exercises' which

focus on the real life task of ordering one's life to the greater service of God. In doing

this Ignatius instilled various habits of mind by teaching different methods of prayer'

which involved diverse aspects of intellectual functioning' The whole purpose of the

Spiritual Exercises is to dlvelop habits of heart which lead to greater love of God'

This love of God in turn leads to habits of work-the leading of one's life in the world

in the service of God. For Ignatius,the hnbit of work is summed up well by his con-

stant reminder that love is always shown in deeds and not simply in words' The

spiritual Exercises, then, foster the three habits of mind, heart, and worlc, which are

the same fundamental concerns of the AILAS Communities'

ATLAS COMMUNITIES AND GO FORTH AND TEACH

Besides the similarities between the basic outcomes of AILAS Communities and St'

Ignatius' Spiritual Exercises, interesting parallels exist between the educational phi-

lãsophy of the AILAS Communities and the characteristics and goals of Jesuit edu-

cation âs presented in both Go Forth and Teach and lgnatian Pedagogy

The overall goal of AILAS Communities is to create a community of lifelong learners

who are contributing members to the society in which they live' Go Forth and Teach

stresses this same theme:s?

(25)Godisespeciallyrevealedinthemysteryofthehumanperson,..createdintheimage and likeness of God;" Jesuit àducation, therefore , probes the meaning ofhuman life andis concerned with the total formation of each student as an indi-

vidual personally loved by God. The objective of Jesuit education is to assist in

the fullest porribl, deveLopmenl of all of the God-given talents of each indi-

vidual person as a member of the human community'

The "personalized environment," a quality which AILAS Communities deem to be

important for their schools, closely resembles the personalizeð care and concern

5' In our discussion of ATLAS Communities and Jesuit Education' Go Forth and Teach will be

cited to demonstrate the similarities between the two. Similar excerpts can be found in

Ignatian Pedagogy,but it will be cited in the next section which compares the Ignatian

Pedagogicat Paradigm and Robert Marzano's Dimensions of Learning'

IçNACIUS KNC\V

Nores (cura persorrulis), an essential characteristic of Jesuit education. Go Forth and Teachdescribes personalized care and concern in this way:

(43) Growth in the responsible use of freedom is facilitated by the personal rela-tionship betwee¡t student and teacher. Teachers and administrators, both Jesuitand lay, are more than academic guides. They are involved in the lives of thestudents, taking a personal interest in the intellectual, affective, moral and spir-itual development ofevery student, helping each one to develop a sense of self-worth and to become a responsible individual within the community. Vy'hile

they respect the privacy of students. they are ready to listen to their cares andconcerns about the meaning of life, to share their joys and sorrows, to helpthem with personal growth and interpersonal relationships. In these and otherways, the adult members of the educational community guide students in theirdevelopment of a set of values leading to life decisions that go beyond "sell':that include a concern for the needs of others. They try to live in a way thatoffers an example to the students, and they are willing to share their own lifeexperiences. "Cura personclis" (concern for the individual person) remains a

basic characteristic of Jesuit education.

Historically, Jesuit education has always stressed the development of the habits ofmind. Go Forth and Teach expresses the importance of habits of mind in this way:

(26) A thorough and sound intellectual forntation includes mastery of basic human-istic and scientific disciplines through careful and sustained study that is basedon competent and well-motivated teaching. This intellectual formation includesa growing ability to reason reflectively, logically and critically.

Jesuit education not only stresses the traditional academic skills but also fosters the

development of the imaginative and creative powers of mind, which the ATLASCommunities consider to be an essential part of their curriculum. Go Forth and Teach

explains this emphasis:

(2S) In Jesuit education, particular care is given to the development of the imagina-tive, the affective and the creative dimensions of each student in all courses ofstudy. These dimensions enrich learning and prevent it from being merely intel-lectual. They are essential in the formation of the whole person and are a wayto discover God as He reveals Himself through beauty. For these same reasons,Jesuit education includes opportunities-through course work and throughextracurricular activities-for all students to come to an appreciation of litera-ture, aesthetics. music and the fine arts.

Habits of heart is an essential educational product of Jesuit education. Go Forth andTeach describes this basic attitude which permeates Jesuit education:

(33) Since the truly human is found only in relationships with others that includeattitudes of respect, love and service, Jesuit education stresses-and assists indeveloping-the role of each individual as a member of the human community.Students, teachers, and all members of the educational community are encour-aged to build a solidarity with others that transcends race, culture or religion.In a Jesuit school, good manners are expected; the atmosphere is one in whichall can live and work together in understanding and love, with respect for allmen and women as children of God.

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lgnac-ro ød' Current A**"¿ P*dtS*

NorrsJesuit education also stresses the service of others as an essenttal habit af heart Ío be

fostered:

(37)Whileitrespectstheintegrityofacademicdisciplines'theconcernofJesuiteducationispreparationfor.Iife'whichisitselfapreparationforeternallife.Formation of the individual is not an abstract end; Jesuit education is also con-

cerned with the ways in which students will make use of their formation within

the human .o'*uni,y, in the service of others ..for the praise, reverence, and

serviceofGod.''ThesuccessofJesuiteducationismeasurednotintermsofacademic performance of students or professional competence of teachers' but

rather in terms of this quality of life'

T\e habits of work is also an essential product of Jesuit education, but in Jesuit edu-

cation the emphasis is always in terms of u lou" of God which is shown in "deeds' not

words." Go Forth and Teach expresses this concept:

(82) Jesuit education helps students to realize lhal talents are gifis to be developed' no¡'

for self-saúsfaction àr sell-gain, but rather, with the help of God,p r the good of the-

human communi4'' Students are encouraged to use their gifts in the service of

others,outofaloveforGod:..Todayourprimeeducationalobjectivemustbetoform men and women for others; men and women who will live not for themselves

but for God and tus chnst-for the God-man who lived and died for all the world;

men and women who cannot even conceive of love of God which does not include

lovefortheleastoftheirneighbors;menandwomencompletelyconvincedthatthelove of God which does noiissue in justice for men and women is a farce.""

clearly, there is much that parallels Ignatian thought in what the AILAS Communities

are proposing for educational reform today. Many additional sections from both Go

Forth and Teach and Ignatian Pedagogy could be cited to show connections between

ATLAS Communities iheory of education and the basic characteristics of Jesuit edu-

cation. Indeed, one could pict< up the ATLAS Manual and, with some additions from

Go Forth and Teach and lgnntian Pedagogy' use it as a tool to assist in examining the

philosophy, curriculum and methodologies of a Jesuit school'

DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING

Robert J. Marzano'e and his colleagues explore educational theory in ways slightly

different from the AILAS Communities. Basically, Marzano and his colleagues

reach the same conclusions as ATLAs communities, that learning must be real-

world related and involve many different aspects of the human person for it to be

truly effective. stating that we have only become aware in recent years how people

learn, Marzarro con"ludes that it is time to create a model of learning that builds upon

the research rather than what has been simply passed on from previous generations'

$ pedro Am¡pe, S.J. Men for others (Rome: International Center for Jesuit Education, 1973), p' 9'

5e Four different books comprise this series. The first published is Robert J' Marzano, A

Different Kind of classroom: Teaching with Dimensions of Learning (Alexandria' VA:(continued...)

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rqNÀctus KNew

Using this premise, Marzano and his colleagues propose a five step model whichthey call "The Five Dimensions of Learning." These dimensions are:

- Dimension l. Positive Attitudes and Perceptions about Learning

- Dimension 2. Acquiring and Integrating Knowledge

- Dimension 3. Expanding and Refrning Knowledge

- Dimension 4. Using Knowledge Meaningfully

- Dimension 5. Productive Habits of Mind.

Each of these dimensions deserves some comment. The first dimension, "PositiveAnirudes and Perceptions about Leaming," is an important one, since all learning isaffected by the state of the student when he begins leaming. Marzanoó states it in this way:

Without positive attitudes and perceptions, students have little chance of learning pro-ficiently, if at all. In other words, for learning to occur, students must have certain atti-tudes and perceptions. . . . A primary focus of effective instruction, then, is estab-lishing positive attitudes and perceptions about learning.o'

The second dimension, "Acquiring and Integrating Knowledge," is based upon thework of cognitive psychologists who view the process of leaming as one where thelearner is actively involved in leaming. In this type of learning the learner is con-structing personal meaning and relating it to previously acquired knowledge. Thisview of learning contrasts with the view of learning that sees learning as the passivereception of information handed on from teacher to student.

In the third dimension, "Extending and Refining Knowledge," Marzano and his col-leagues emphasize the need on the learner's part to work with the material beinglearned by finding out how it relates to previously learned material. This emphasisfocuses on the integrating of new knowledge with old but in ways that help thestudent achieve greater insight and understanding of the newly learned material. This

5e (continued...)Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development IASCD], 1992), which is a basic

overview of the program. The second book is Robert J. Marzano, Debra J. Pickering, Daisy E.

Arrendondo, Guy J. Blackburn, Ronald S. Brandt, and Cerylle A. Moffett, Tþacher's Manual:Dimensions of Learning (Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 1992). The third book is the trainers manual

available for Dimensions of Learning. The fourth book in this series is Robert J. Marzano,Debra Pickering and Jay McTighe, Assessing Student Outcomes: Performance Assessment

Using the Dimensions of Learning Model (Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 1993).m The Teacher's Manual: Dimensions of Learning contains many concrete suggestions and

techniques for implementing each of the dimensions. While some of the techniques are meant

for primary grades, many are easily adaptable to the secondary level.o'Assessing Student Outcomes, p. l.

lgnociø o-á C---oc €árcoc'rr-ol. Ps*d'igms

Norrsdimension contains many techniques regularly discussed by proponents of higher

level thinking skills (e.g., comparing, contrasting, inducing, deducing, etc.).

The fourth dimension, "Using Knowledge Meaningfully," insists that the best and

most effective learning occurs when the student uses the newly learned material in

ways that are meaninglul for the student. This dimension emphasizes that knowledge

becomes readily available to the student when it is transferred to a real-world context'

The fifth dimension, "Productive Habits of Mind," emphasizes the development of

processes of thinking that will be useful in different situations' The content' while

i.portunt, has equal importance with the process used to learn it. Important in this

dimension is that the process used is transferable to a variety of situations'u2

IGNATIUS AND THE DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING

The five dimensions of learning proposed by Marzano and his colleagues relate to

some basic Ignatian principles and methodologies. Marzano's first dimension'

"Positive Attitudes und P"r..ptions about Learning," closely parallels the method-

ology Ignatius suggests as preparation for a period of prayer. Just as Marzano and his

colleagues stress the importance of preparation and establishing the proper atmos-

phere ãnd mental state for learning, Ignatius does so in his points and preludes for

prayer, which becomes prelection in traditional Jesuit pedagogy'

Marzano and his colleagues next three dimensions, "Acquiring and Integrating

Knowledge," "Expanding and Refining Knowledge," and "using Knowledge

Meaningfully," all emphaiize ways to broaden the student's experience and enhance

that experience by uring u variety of thinking skills so that what has been learned

becomes an integral part of the student's life. Ignatius'spiritual Exercises shares the

exact same purpose with these three dimensions of learning. The Spiritual Exercises

leads the retreatant through a series of exercises which help the retreatant to examine

his life in relationship to coo. Through exercises centered on the themes of each of

the four weeks and a variety of prayer methods, Ignatius helps the retreatant to

"acquire and integrate knowledge" about himself. Simultaneously, Ignatius' stress on

the magis,"What more can I do for Christ," always has the retreatant examining how

what has been learned can be used in daily life'

Ignatius teaches very concrete ways of "expanding and refining knowledge" through

his stress on using different mental faculties during prayer. Ignatius' insistence on

repetition, which is not simply a reviewing of old material, but an attempt to deepen

that knowledge and to make it a fuller part of one's person, also helps the retreatant

expand and refine knowledge. The culmination of the spiritual Exercises with the..Contemplation to Attain the Love of God" helps the retreatant to see and understand

that God is present in all of creation. The retreatant finishes the Spiritual Exercises

@ It is interesting to note that is the exact same language and description of the habits of mind

of the ATLAS Communities.

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Norts infused with a love of God and with an understanding of how to find God in allaspects of his life. The knowledge gained through the making of the SpiritualExercises becomes an integral part of the person and is available to help theretreatant live a life of service of God through a love "shown by deeds, not words."The knowledge from making the Spiritual Exercises has been transferred from theretreat to the whole context of the his life. It is a knowledge which has taken onmeaningful dimensions for the person since it has become part of the guiding beliefsby which he organizes and leads his life. The entire process of making the SpiritualExercises creates "productive habits of mind," the last of Marzano's dimensions oflearning.

DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING AND IGNATIAN PEDAGOGY

Besides the connections between Marzano's Dimensions of Learning and Ignatianmethodology, similarities exist between these dimensions and the IgnatianPedagogical Paradigm, presented in Ignatian Pedagogt'. The five dynamic elementsof the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm are: context, experience, reflection, action, and

evaluation. Ignatian Pedagog¡' describes the three main dynamic elements as:

(28) Srarring with EXPERIENCE, the teacher creates the conditions whereby stu-dents gather and recollecl the material of their own experience in order todistill what they understand already in terms of facts, feelings, values, insightsand intuitions they bring to the subject matter at hand. Later the teacher guidesthe students in assimilating new inlbrmation and further experience so thattheir knowledge will grow in completeness and truth. The teacher lays thefoundations fbr learning how to learn by engaging students in skills and tech-niques of REFLECTION. Here memory, understanding, imagination and feel-ings are used to grasp the essential meaning and value of what is beingstudied, to discover its relationship to other facets of human knowledge andactivity, and to appreciate its implications in the continuing search for truth.Reflection should be a formative and liberating process that so shapes the con-sciousness of students-their habitual attitudes, values and beliefs as well as

ways of thinking-that they are impelled to move beyond knowing toACTION....

(29) The continual interplay, then, of EXPERIENCE, REFLECTION and ACTIONin the teaching-learning dynamic of the classroom lies at the heart of an

I_enatian pedagogy. It is our way of proceeding in Jesuit schools as we accom-pany the learner on his or her journey of becoming a fully human person. It isan Ignatian pedagogical paradigm which each of us can bring to the subjectswe teach and programs we run, knowing that it needs to be adapted and appliedto our own specilrc situations.

The overall purpose of the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm is to present an integratedlearning modet where each of the dynamic elements works together with the others.While the model is broken down into its component parts for easier understanding, allof the elements are continuously at work during learning. This continual interaction

96

lgnecio ená Curren. g@

Norzsof dynamic elements is very similar to Marzano's description of how the five dimen-

sions of learning function together:

The five dimensions of learning are loose metaphors for how the mind works during

learning, Certainly there are not five independent types of thinking that occur during

learning; learning involves a complex system of interactive processes.o'

Besides there being an overall similarity between Marzano's dimensions of learning

and the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm in terms of the interaction of the elements,

there are also similarities between specific dimensions and specific elements of the

Ignatian pedagogical Paradigm. Marzano's first dimension, "Positive Attitudes and

Perceptions abour Learning," deals with establishing positive attitudes and disposi-

tions for the learner as he approaches the task of learning. As such it contains part of

the elements related ro "context" in the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm. "Context,"

however, in the lgnatian Pedagogical Paradigm is broader and more detailed than

Marzano's first dimension. Ignatian Pedagogt' describes some essential characteris-

tics of context in this waY:

(35) Similarly, personal care and concern for the individual' which is a hallmark ofJesuit education, requires that the teacher become as conversant as possible

with the life experience of the learner. since human experience, always the

Startingpointinanlgnatianpedagogy'neveroccursinavacuum,wemustknow as much as we can about the actual context within which teaching and

learning take Place. ' . .

(38) a) the real context of a student's lrle which includes family, peers, social situ-

ations. the educational institution itself, politics, economics, cultural cli-mate, the ecclesial situation, media, music and other realities. All of these

have an impact on the student for better or worse' ' ' '

(39)b)thesocio-economic,potiticatandculturalcontextwithinwhichastudentgrowscanserious|yaffecthisorhergrowthaSapersonforothers....

(40) c) the institutional environment of the school or learning center, i.e. the com-

plex and often subtle network of norms, expectations and especially rela-

iionships that create the atmosphere of school life. Recent study of Catho-

lic schools highlights the importance of a positive school environment' ' ' 'The results oi r"ð"nt research suggest that the climate of the school may

wellbethepreconditionnecessarybeforevalueeducationcanevenbegin,and that n]u.h *or" attention needs to be given to the school environment

inwhichthemoraldevelopmentandreligiousformationofadolescentstakesPlace.'..

(41)d)whatpreviousll,acquiredconceptsstudentsbringwiththemtothestartofthelearnittgprocess.Theirpointsofviewandtheinsightsthattheymayhave acquiåå fro,o earlier study or picked up sponraneously from their cul-

tural environment, as well as their feelings, attitudes' and values regarding

the subject matter to be studied form part of the real context for learning'

u3 A Different Kind of classroom: Teaching with Dimensions of Learning, p.2'

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Nor¿s Marzano's second dimension of learning, "Acquiring and Integrating Knowledge,"contains many of the same characteristics as the lgnatian Pedagogical Paradigm's ele-

ments of "experience." Ignatian Pedagogldescribes experience as:

(42) 2. EXPERIENCE for Ignatius meant "to taste something internally." In thehrst place this calls for knowing facrs, concepts, principles. This requiresone to probe the connotation and overtones of words and events, to analyzeand evaluate ideas, to reason. Only with accurate comprehension of what isbeing considered can one proceed to valid appreciation of its meaning. ButIgnatian experience goes beyond a purely intellectual grasp. Ignatius urges

that the whole person-mind, heart and w¡ll-should enter the learningexperience. He encourages use of the imagination and the feelings as wellas the mind in experience. Thus affective as well as cognitive dimensionsof the human person are involved. because without internal feeling joinedto intellectual grasp, learning will not move a person to action. . . .

(43) Thus we use the term EXPERIENCE to describe any activity in which in addi-tion to a cognitive grasp of the nu¿tter being considered, some sensation of anaffective nature is registered by the student. In any experience, data is perceivedby the student cognitively. Through questioning, imagining, investigating itselements and relationships, the student organizes this data into a whole or a

hypothesis. "What is this?" "Is it like anything I already know?" "How does itwork?" And even without deliberate choice there is a concomitant affectivereaction, e.g. "I like this. . . ." "I'm threatened by this. ' . ." "I never do well inthis sort of thing. . . ." "It's interesting. . . ." "Ho hum, I'm bored."

Once a student has a particular experience, he is expected to reflect on that experience."Reflection" in the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm has many of the same characteris-tics as Marzano's third dimension of learning, "Expanding and Refining Knowledge'"Ignatian Pedagogy defines reflection as:

(47) 3. REFLECION: Throughout his life Ignatius knew himself to be constantlysubjected to different stirrings, invitations, alternatives which were oftencontradictory. His greatest effort was to try to discover what moved him ineach situation: the impulse that leads him to good or the one that inclineshim to evil; the desire to serve others or the solicitude for his own egotis-ticalaffi¡rmation....

(48) At this level of REFLECTION, the memory, the understanding, the imagina-tion and the feelings are used to capture the meaning and the essential value ofwhat is being studied, fo discover its relationshþ with other aspects of know-ledge and human activity, and to appreciate its implications in the ongoingsearch for truth and fieedom. This REFLECTION is a formative and liberatingprocess. It forms the conscience of learners (their beliefs, values, attitudes and

their entire way of thinking) in such a manner that they are led to move beyondknowing, to undertake action.

(49) We use the ternt reflection to mean a thoughtful reconsideration of some sub-ject matler experience, idea, purpose or spontaneous reaction, in order tograsp its sigtrificance more fully. Thus, reflection is the process by whichmeaning surfaces in human experience:

98

øå C---e-r €drcet-¡o-ol. P*odq-s

Norrs(s0)

are the assumpti"ons in this theory of the atom, in this presentation of the

history of native peoples, in this statistical analysis? Are they validl are they

fair? Are other assuÀptions possible? How would the presentation be dif-ferent if other assumptions were made?"

(sl)considerarion. Fãr example, "In studying this short story, what particularly

inreresrs me? Why?. . ." i'Whut do I find troubling in this translation? Why?"

(s2)for myself and ior otherr. For example. "what likely effects might environ-

mental efforts io check the greenhouse effect have on my life, on that of my

family, and friends? . . ' on the lives ol people in poorer countries?"

(53) - bt.achieving personal insights into events, ideas, truth or the distortion oftruth andttre iite. For example, "Most people feel that a more equitable shar-

ing of the world's resources is at least desirable, if not a moral imperative. My

own life style, the things I take for granted, may contribute to the culrent im-

balance. Am l willing to reconsider what l really need to be happy?"

(s4)why?").-..andwholmightbeinrelationtoothers'Forexample"'Howdoes what I have reflected upon make me feel? Why? Am I at peace with

that reaction in myself? Why? If not, why not?"

Reflection always leads to action in the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm' Action has

some characteristics of Marzano's fourth dimension, "Using Knowledge

Meaningfully," but the Ignatian conception of action goes well beyond simply applying

new knowledge to a life situation. Action always involves a choice for the more' the

magis,which is what distinguishes it from Marzano's dimension of "Using Knowledge

Meaningfully." lgnatian Pedagogy sums up the Ignatian conception of action:

(59) 4. ACTION: For Ignatius the acid test of love is what one does, not what one

says. "Iove is shown in deeds, not words." The thrust of the spiritu al Exer'

cjs¿s was precisely to enable the retreatant to know the will of God and to

do it freelY. . . .

(62\ The term "Action" here refers to internal human growth based upon experi-

ence that has been reflected upon as wel! as its manifestation externally' Itinvolves nvo steqs:

l) I nte rio rized C hoic e s.

After reflection, the learner considers the experience from a personal, human

point of view. Here in light of cognitive understanding of the experience and

ihe affections involved (positive or negative), the will is moved. Meanings per-

ceived and judged present choices to be made. such choices may occur when

a person delides that a truth is to be his or her personal point ofreference' atti-

tuã" o, predisposition which will affect any number of decisions. It may take

the form of giadual clarification of one's priorities. It is at this point that the

student chooses to make the truth his or her own while remaining open to

where the truth might lead.

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rçNÀcrus KNew

Nores 2') Choices ExternaLlv Maniftsted.

In time, these meanings, attitudes, values which have been interiorized, madeparr of the person. impel the student to act, to do something consistent with thisnex. conv,ictior¡. If the meaning was positive, then the student will likely seek

to enhance those conditions or circumstances in which the original experiencetook place. For example, if the goal of physical education has been achieved,

the student will be inclined to undertake some regular sport during his freetime. If she has acquired a taste for history of literature, she may resolve to

make time for reading. If he finds it worthwhile to help his companions in theirstudies, he may volunteer to collaborate in some remedial program for weakerstudents. Ifhe or she appreciates better the needs ofthe poor after service expe-

riences in the ghetto and reflection on those experiences, this might influencehis or her career choice or move the student to volunteer to work for the poor.

If the meaning was negative, then the student will likely seek to adjust, change,

diminish or avoid the conditions and circumstances in which the originalexperience took place. For example, if the student now appreciates the reasons

for his or her lack of success in school work, the student may decide to improvestudy habits in order to avoid repeated failure.

The final dynamic element of the lgnatian Pedagogical Paradigm is evaluation. Whileevaluation does not appear as a separate dimension in Marzano's Dimensions ofLeaming, it is interwoven into the whole process of using the five dimensions in the

classroom. Marzano and his colleagues explore ways to use evaluation in connection

with their program in their companion piece, Assessing Student Outcomes:Performance Assessment Using the Dimensions of Learning Model. The main theme

of this work is to help teachers use and design performance assessment with the fivedimensions of learning.*

In the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm, evaluation has both the traditional purposes

usually associated with academic tasks, but also has an additional meaning. IgnatianPedagogy discusses both functions of evaluation:

(63) 5. EVALUATION: All reachers know that from time to time it is important to

evaluate a student's progress in academic achievement. Daily quizzes,

weekly or monthly tests and semester examinations are familiar evaluationinstruments to assess the degree of mastery of knowledge and skillsachieved. Periodic testing alerts the teacher and the student both to in-tellectual growth and to lacunae where further work is necessary for mas-

tery. This type of feedback can alert the teacher to possible needs for use ofalternate methods of teaching; it also offers special opportunities to in-dividualize encouragement and advice for academic improvement (e.g.

review of study habits) for each student.

(64) lgnatian pedagogy, however, aims at formation which includes but goes be-yond academic mastery. Here we are concerned about students' well-rounded

d For another thorough discussion of performance and alternative assessment, see Joan L.

Herman, Pamela R. Aschbacher, and Lynn Vy'inters, A Practical Guide to Alternative Assessment

(Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development [ASCD], 1992).

roo

Currenr €drcocro-J P*odq-s

growth as persons for others. Thus periodic evaluation of the student's growthin attitudes, priorities and actions consistent with being a person for others isessential. Comprehensive assessment probably will not occur as frequently as

academic testing, but it needs to be planned at intervals, at least once a terrn. Ateacher who is observant will perceive indications of growth or lack of growthin class discussions, students' generosity in response to common needs, etc.,

much more frequentlY.

We have seen that Robert Marzano's Dimensions of Learning contains basic concepts

which are very similar to five dynamic elements of the Ignatian Pedagogical

Paradigm. In fact, Marzano's theory could be readily used to help implement the

Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm in the classroom of Jesuit schools today.

REFLECTION ON IGNATIAN METHODOLOGYAND THE CLASSROOM

If your experience of reading this chapter is to lead to some type of action, it would be

appropriate to take a few minutes to begin thinking about how the content of this chapter

relates to the classroom. Take a few minutes to answer the questions below as best as

you can, realizing that the next chapter will make more explicit the connection between

Ignatian methodology and current educational psychology and leaming theory.

1. What have I done and what do I do in my teaching that parallels cunent educa-

tional theories and has some of the Ignatian components presented in this chapter?

(Listed below for easy reference are some major theories discussed in this

chapter.)

Higher Level Thinking Skills

- Teaching/or Thinking- Tþaching as Enculturation

- Teaching o/Thinking- Teaching about Thinking

ATLAS Communities- Habits of Mind- Habits of Hean- Habits of Work

Dimensions of Lcarning

' Positive Attitudes and Perceptions about Learning

- Acquiring and Integrating Knowledge

- Expanding and Refining Knowledge

- Using Knowledge MeaningfullY

- Productive Habits of Mind.

tor

IçNÀCIUS KNC\V

Norts 2. After completing the above reflection, what are the next steps I want to exploreor take regarding current educational theory as it relates to Ignatian methodologyand my teaching?

Three things I want to explore or do are:

t.

EVALUATION

To evaluate this chapter in order to see what effect it has had upon you, you may wishto do the following:

l. Listed below are terms from the Prelection of Educational Terminology. Do youunderstand any of these terms better now than you did when you began this book?

- Higher Level Thinking Skills

' Tþachingþr Thinking

- Teaching o/Thinking- Teaching about Thinking

- Metacognition

- Teaching as Enculturation

- Experiential Based Leaming

- AILAS Communities

- Robert Marzano's Dimensions of Lcarning

2. Listed below are the objectives from the start of this chapter. Take a few minutesand think about how this chapter has met these objectives for you.

. To explain certain pieces ofcurrent educational theory and resea¡ch

- Higher Order Thinking Skills

- Teaching as Enculturation

- AILAS Communities

- Dimensions of l*arning

- To explore the connection of each of these pieces of current educationalresearch with the Ignatian paradigm in the Spiritual Exercises andcufTent Jesuit educational documents

2.

3.

toz

Curror €d*cec'o-ql- P*-oÁig-s

NorasTo explore the relationship between "An Ignatian Reflection on

Teaching" and currenr educational theory and Ignatian methodology

To continue exploring implications for the classroom

AN IGNATIAN REPETITION FOR CHAPTERS III-V

Since we have spent the last three chapters discussing cunent educational theories and

their connection with Ignatian methodology in the Spiritual Exercises and Jesuit edu-

cation, it is fining that we conclude this section of the book with an Ignatian repetition'

1. Take a few minutes and reflect about the important points for you from these

chapters. (You might want to play some music which helps you relax and become

more reflective.) What words, images, or phrases come to mind?

2. Did you learn anything new? If so, what?

3. Did you understand anything more fully or deeply? If so, what?

ro3

tqNAclus KNe\ù2

Norts 4. Did anything leave you unsettled or disturbed? If so, what? (This is a key Ignatianquestion and one that can frequently lead to deeper learning and understandingwhen it is explored.)

5. If you were to represent the last three chapters in some visual manner, (e.g., chart,

drawing, sketch, mind map, painting) what would it be?

6. If the last three chapters were a piece of music or a song what would it be?

to4

tgnecion od Cu--e-c eÁt coctott'L

7. If you had to think of some type of physical gesture or activity which describes

the last three chapters what would it be?

8. Do the questions above help you experience any of the purposes of Ignatian rep-

etition? Do they bear any relationship to the Ignatian application of the senses?

Norns

ro5

to6

CHAPTER VI

ll,l,ocian eâu,cocío¡l

o far in this book we have completed an "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching"'

explored Ignatius' methodology in the Spiritual Exercises, and examined

current educational theory and its connection to Ignatius'understanding of learning'

You have been asked to think about what you do in your own classroom and how it

relates to both the educational and Ignatian learning theory presented. By way of con-

cluding this book, I would like to ipend some time exploring what are the implica-

tions in what Ignatius knew about educational theory for Jesuit education today'

The objectives for this chapter are:

o To discuss Jesuit and lgnatian education

- To explore Ignatian education in the classroom

- To do an Ignatian repetition of this book

PRELECTION

As a prelection for this chapter take a few moments to reflect on the following questions'

Norts

l. What is Jesuit education?

2. What is Ignatian education?

3. Is there a distinction between Jesuit education and Ignatian education in your

mind? If so, what is the difference?

4. If you were going to construct an lgnatian repetition for this book, how would

you do it?

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rÇN¡crus KNew

JESUIT EDUCATION AND IGNATIAN EDUCATION

I would like to make one distinction to start this discussion between Jesuit educationand Ignatian education. You will notice this chapter is entitled, "Ignatian Education."It is done so deliberately to stress a distinction between Jesuit education and Ignatianeducation.

Jesuit education is a system of education started by Ignatius and his companions in the

sixteenth century and carried forward for nearly four hundred and fifty years by the

followers of Ignatius, the members of the Society of Jesus, the Jesuits. Jesuit educa-

tion implies that there is a definite relationship between a particular educational insti-tution and the Society of Jesus regarding the sponsorship and governance of the insti-turion. For years Jesuits ran the institution doing the bulk of administrating and

teaching. As we are all well-aware today, Jesuit secondary schools in the United States

no longer have the number of Jesuits both administering and teaching as was once the

case. rù/ith this decline ofJesuit personnel in the schools, a frequently discussed ques-

tion today is what makes a school a Jesuit school? While we in Jesuit education con-tinue the process of exploring this question and living with several different models

and approaches in order to respond to the challenges presented by it, it is equallyimportant to examine the Ignatian dimensions of Jesuit education'

As we continue exploring what makes a school a Jesuit school, I believe that an

important aspect in answering that question is "What is lgnatian about the school?"By Ignatian, I mean not just what occurs in terms of religious activities of the school

and in the retreat and community service programs, but how does the school model

Ignatian methodologies and learning theory. How does what happens in the English,chemistry, geometry, and Spanish classroom use Ignatian educational principles?How does the entire life of the school, particularly the academic life of the school,

model what Ignatius knew and understood about the human mind and learning whichhe left us as his legacy in the Splritual Exercises'l

Ignatian education, to my mind, is derived from the principles and methodologies ofSt. Ignatius in his Spiritual Exercis¿s. If one is to be "an Ignatian educator," onewould develop teaching methodologies which model the methodologies of the

Spiritual Exercises. One would take the basic Ignatian principles which we have

explored in this book and apply them in the classroom. An Ignatian classroom wouldbe alive with personalized care and concern for the student. It would stress that

learning begins where the student is, not where she is supposed to be or where a par-

ticular curriculum program assumes she is.

The classroom activities would model the way Ignatius teaches the retreatant in his

Spiritual Exercises. They would stress preparation for learning, both by establishing a

proper context and atmosphere for learning and by using prelection, a Jesuit educationalprinciple that derives directly from the Spiritual Exercises. Not only would the Ignatianclassroom stress traditional academic skills, such as memorization, understanding, com-prehension, and clear, logical reasoning, but it would also emphasize the use of the cre-ative and imaginative faculties of the mind as Ignatius does in the three principal

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Noresmethods of prayer which he teaches in the Spiritual Exercises-meditation, contem-

plation and the application of the senses. The teacher would assist the student in the

iearning process by stressing active learning achieved by involving the whole person in

the learning process. Reflection in many different forms and many different ways, espe-

cially providlng the time to be reflective during classroom activities, would be stressed

as a key component of the educational process. The Ignatian principle that it is impor-

tant to do a few things well rather than do many things , non muha, sed multum, would

play an important role in both the material covered and how it is covered.

Throughout the learning process there would be continual assessment that serves both

the purpose of evaluation for grades, but also the equally important purpose of helping

the teacher know how to proceed with assisting the students' learning' This assess-

ment would function in ways that the frequent meetings with a retreat director do in

the Spiritual Exercises-to help the director to know where the retreatant is and where

to go in the process of making the Spiritual Exercises. Finally, the Ignatian teacher

would understand and frequently use Ignatian repetition not just to review the mate-

rial, but to help the material to become a deeper understood and felt part of the stu-

dents' learning experience. This entire process would always be focused toward cre-

ating students who are aware that their purpose in life is to "praise, reverence' and

serve God." If we use the current language of Jesuit education' these students would

see themselves as "men and women for others" and as "persons of competence, con-

science and compassion."

This Ignatian classroom certainly could be one in which anyone could teach no matter

whether Jesuit or not. It ,nuy oi may not be in a Jesuit school' What would make it

Ignatian would be the use of the techniques and methodologies of the Spiritual

Exercises as the primary pedagogical methods of the classroom. Anyone imbued with

an understanding und- appt".iation of Ignatius' methodologies of the Spiritunl

Exercises could conduct an Ignatian classroom, no matter where that school is and

who is sponsoring the school.

Much of what is being stressed as new and important in education today Ignatius

already implicitly undeistood and incorporated into his Spiritual Exercises. Since our

Ignatián neritage already contains many of these ideas, our challenge is to reexamine

that heritage and to make it an integral part of what happens in our classrooms'

If we are looking for a model to follow to help insure that our classrooms are lgnatian'

then the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm is there to help us. The Ignatian Pedagogical

Paradigm of context, eiperience, reflection, action, and evaluation provides an excellent

framework for meeting this challenge and helping us to continue the four hundred and

fifty year tradition of iesuit education in the twenty-first century' What we in Ignatian

e¿ucation are being asked to do is to "evaluate" our curent "context." we do that by

examining our "experiences" of lgnatian education. We do that reflectively, using all the

parts of the mind, just as Ignatius does in his Spiriru al Exercises, so that what we reflect

ãn will not only have cognitive components, but also will have the heart and soul

involved. Based upon our reflections, we look to any actions we need to take to begin

another century of lgnatian education. Throughout this process, we have three basic

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tÇNac:¡rJ5 KNe\V

Ignatian questions from the Spiritunl Exercises as our guide: "What have I done forChrist?"; "What am I doing for Christ?"; and "V/hat more (magis) can I do for Christ?"

I believe that if we make our classrooms Ignatian then a significant part of the ques-tion of what makes a school Jesuit will be answered, because the very methodologiesat work will model the values we seek to inculcate. We will be using the "teaching as

enculturation" model proposed by David Perkins and "practicing what we preach."

This is the challenge which is being presented to Jesuit educators around the worldtoday. Both Go Forth and Teach and the more recent lgnatian Pedagog¡,herald thischallenge. Ignatian Pedagogt'sums up this challenge:

(l l) Pedagogy is the way in which teachers accompany learners in their growth anddevelopment. Pedagogy, the a¡t and science of teaching, cannot simply bereduced to methodology. It must include a world view and a vision of the idealhuman person to be educated. These provide the goal, the end towards whichall aspects of an educational tradition are directed. They also provide criteriafor choices of means to be used in the process of education. The world viewand ideal of Jesuit education for our time has been expressed in TheCharacteristics of Jesuit Education. Ignatian Pedagogy assumes that worldview and moves one step beyond suggesting more explicit ways in whichIgnatian values can be incarnated in the teaching-learning process.

This may seem like a difficult challenge, but the approach we take to begin this taskis an important first step. Vy'e begin this process where Ignatius begins the process ofworking with the retreatant making the Spiritual Exercises. Remember that Ignatiusinsists that the retreat director always begin by finding out where the person makingthe Spiritual Exercises is in her life. This is the context for making the SpiritualExercises, the key starting point, because they must be adapted to meet the needs ofthe individual making them. So we begin this process by discovering where we are inour own classrooms. What is it that I do in my classroom that contains many of theIgnatian characteristics we have been talking about? One other consideration is alsoimportant. We need to remember that what Ignatius knew and understood aboutlearning are indeed characteristics of good pedagogy so that many good pedagogicaltechniques will be very similar to Ignatian techniques.

The purpose of the remainder of this chapter is to provide a framework for you to con-tinue this process of reflecting about the Ignatian classroom. Two different frame-works will be provided for you. One is in the form of an Ignatian contemplation,which will be an Ignatian repetition, while the other is in the form of some sampleclass vignettes which can be analyzed in terms of different Ignatian componentspresent or not present in each vignette.

..AN IGNATIAN REFLECTION ABOUT AN IGNATIAN CLASSROOM'

Any reflection about an Ignatian classroom should somehow model the Ignatianmethodologies of the Spiritual Exercises. Therefore, just as you experienced "An

ilo

lgnoriø €drcor'rn

Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" in Chapter I, I am suggesting that you complete the

next exercise which is entitled, "An Ignatian Reflection About an Ignatian

Classroom," as a way of using the methodologies taught by Ignatius in the Spiritual

Exercises.This exercise also functions as an lgnatian repetition to help deepen what

has been already learned in this book.

PREPARATION FOR THE REFLECTION(Ignatian Points and Preludes)

Step l. Take a few moments and think back to an experience you had in the past which

tlas na¿ very positive effects in your life since that experience, e.g., a special course,

a significant teacher, a retreat, a personal crisis which led to new levels of under-

stanãing and growth, etc. The experience can be from any aspect of your life, but it

should be one that has signifrcantly affected your life. Spend a few moments remem-

bering and enjoying that experience.

Step 2. Now see yourself teaching one or two classes at a time when you are teaching

at your best. You really felt that what you wanted to achieve with the students was

achieved and you left the class with a sense of satisfaction'

Step 3. From the introduction to this section, you already know that the purpose of this.reflection is to look at the Ignatian dimensions of the classroom' Set some objectives

or purposes for yourself while you are doing this reflection' What is it I would like to

learn from this reflection? How would I like to learn it?

THE MAIN PART OF THE REFLECTION(This wilt use the methodology of øn lgnatian contempløtion.)

Step 4. You are going to reflect on yourself as teacher in your classroom from the view

point of Ignatian In"íhodology. You can do this several different ways' You may wish

io explore the structure of an lgnatian prayer period and see what parts are present in

yourìlurrroom. You ¡ruy *unt to look at your classroom from the perspective of

current education ,"r"*.h and learning theory. You will find the lgnatian method-

ology and its connection to a class listed on page l13. You will find cunent educa-

tiorial theory and its connections to the Spiritual Exercises listed on pages l14 and

ll5. Take a few moments and decide which way you want to consider the Ignatian

dimensions of Your teaching.

l. Now I want you to return to the class where you were at your teaching best'

Make yourseif present and enter into the class or classes. You can do this two

different *uy,. ^on"

way is to place yourself right in the event as an actor taking

part in a play. The secónd way is to watch yourself involved in the event as ifyouwereu"u*".ufollowingtheactionthatishappening.Youcanlearnsome.thing by using both methods of looking at a past event. As you watch yourself

in your class ihat do you see, hean feel that is distinctively lgnatian about what

is ãccurring in your class? Be sure to use all three of these senses. Each sense

will be one of the points for this reflection'

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rqNÂcrus KNew

Nor¿s A special note . lf you are only watching yourself as a teacher, you may want to spend

some time watching the students and noting their reactions. You may learn someinteresting things by doing this.

2. When something strikes you as signifrcant or important, stop and reflect aboutit. Does this particular idea suggest any additional ideas you might want to con-sider? rù/hat does what you have learned from this experience suggest to youabout your future Ignatian classroom? If something strikes you as extremelyimportant, spend all the time you need to think about it without concern aboutcovering all the points listed here.

coLLoSuY

Step 5. Once you have had sufficient time to reflect about each of these points, con-

clude this exercise by having an imagined conversation with St. Ignatius. In yourimagination place yourself in Ignatius' presence and hold a conversation with himabout what he knew about how people learn and what he sees as the essential parts ofhis methodology needed for the twenty-first century. Hold a real conversation, both

listening and speaking with lgnatius.

REVTEW

Step 6. After you have completed this exercise, spend a few moments thinking about

the processes you used during the exercise. Which ones were particularly helpful foryou? Which ones were not so helpful? If you did a similar exercise in the future, are

there things you learned from doing this exercise which would be important to use

again? Are there things which may not have worked well here, but which you mightwant to try in a different time and context?

I am sure by now you recognize all the lgnatian principles at work in this reflectionand how the whole person becomes involved in the reflection process by using manydifferent mental faculties.

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lgnor'^" €Árcqr'rr

NorrsA LIST OF IGNATIAN PRINCIPLES

IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY IN RELATIONSHIP WITH ANTHE SPIRITT]AL EXERCISES IGNATIAN CI-ASS

Preparation for PraYer

' Preludes:

- Preparatory Prayer

- Composition of Place

- Grace Sought

Main Part of Prayer

Understanding, Will

Understanding,.Will

Imagination, Will

Colloquy

Review at the End of PraYer

next time of PraYer?

Preparation for Class (Context)

- Prelection of Homework

State and AtmosPhere for Leaming

- Setting Objectives for a Class

Active Learning and Reflection(Experience, Reflection, Action)

- Use of both traditional academic

skills plus the use of the creativeand imaginative Parts of the mind

' Stress on the imaginative dimen-sions of learning over the morelogical, rational Processes

standing and integration, notsimply review

Ways of Involving Others in theLearning Process

cooperative learning, think-pair-share, etc.

Metacognition, the thinking aboutthe learning process Learningjournals, etc.

process?

ently when I next leam?

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rÇN¡c:lus KNe\2

I

II

Nor¿,s A LIST OF BDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND LEARNING THEORY

EDUCATIONALTHEORY IGNATIAN CONNECTION

Brain-Based Education

- Each Brain is Unique

Physiology

Left/Right Hemisphere

Learning Style

. Vsual

Multiple Intelligences

ematical

Use of the whole brain during themaking of the Spiritual Exercßes

individual is

and particularly the ColloquY

- Use of memory and understandingin meditations

Interweaving of hemispheres duringthe period of prayer- Use of the memory and the under-

standing during preParation forprayer, the praYer itself, and thereview at the end

during the preparation for Prayerand the prayer itself

Ignatius understood the importanceof using all three learning channelsor modalities to accomplish thepurpose of the Spiritual Exercises

Place, Contemplation, Applicationof the Senses and the Colloquy

during Prayer, and the Colloquy

and Postures Selected for Prayer

Ignatius uses six of the seven intelli-gences in the Spirilual Exercises

- Points for Prayer, Grace Sought,the Understanding of Meditation

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lgnerio ۇscq<ion

NorrsEDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND LEARNING THEORY CONt'd

EDUCATI)NALTHE)RYIGNATIANCoNNECTI0N

Higher Level Thinking Skills

ATLAS Communities

Dimensions of Leørning

about Learning

Knowledge

Knowledge

- Composition of Place,

Contemplation, APPlication of the

Senses, and the ColloquY

where the changes of the SPiritualExercises become rooted

Exercises are carried out; a loveshown in "deeds not words"

The Spirituøl Exercises model alldimensions of thinking skills

Spirituai Exercises are one and

the same-enculturation into the

spiritual life

the Spiritual Exercises and the dif-ferent mental faculties used to pray

of each Prayer Period

All three habits are concepts whichIgnatius stresses in the SpiritualExercßes;there is also a similaritywith the themes of Go Forth andTeach

Close relationship between lgnatianPedagogical Paradigm and Dimensians

Action

Exercises

rqNArlus KNew

CLASSROOM VIGNETTES

For those of you who would prefer a more academic approach to reflecting about theIgnatian dimension in a classroom, ten different classroom vignettes follow. You canuse the list of Ignatian Principles on page 126 or the list of Educational Research and

Learning Theories on pages 127 and 128 as a framework for thinking about each ofthe classroom vignettes. Here are some questions you may wish to have in mind as

you read the vignenes.

- What is Ignatian in each classroom vignette?

- What is not particularly Ignatian in each classroom vignette?

' What would I change in a particular vignette to make it more lgnatian?

' How does this vignette compare with my own classroom? What is similar?What is dissimilar?

- What do I like in a particular vignette?

- What do I not like in a particular vignette?

- Am I willing to explore further both those things I like and those things I donot like about a particular vignette?

I would like to make one final suggestion for exploring the Ignatian dimensions of theclassroom. Have someone who has read this book observe your class and note what

dimensions she sees in your class that are lgnatian. You might also want to use thatperson as a consultant to help you incorporate lgnatian principles, which might not be

present into your class, into fr¡ture classes. Perhaps you could re$rn the favor and

observe her class and help her incorporate additional Ignatian principles into her class.

n6

lgnariø €Á*cesion

Nor¿sIGNATIAN DIMENSIONS

CLASSROOM VIGNETTE 1

The class begins with a brief prayer led by a student. After the prayer, the teacher asks

the students to turn to their partners and discuss the major points they remember from

yesterday's class. They are also to compare their responses to the homework questions

assigned for today's class. After five minutes of discussion with their partners, the

teacher asks the students to put all books and notes away. The teacher asks each

student to write down the major points she remembers from yesterday's class and to

answer one of the questions from last night's homework assignment' The teacher asks

five sfudents to read their responses to the major points learned yesterday' Then the

teacher asks five more sfudents to read their responses to whatever homework ques-

tion they choose. The teacher assesses where the students are in terms of their under-

standing of yesterday's class from their ability to answer the homework questions'

Based on that information, the teacher decides whether to review the material from

yesterday at some length or to move on to the material that is to be covered for today's

class. After a fifteen minute presentation of the material, the teacher asks the students

ro take a minute and write down for themselves what they know and understand from

the presentation and what they are not certain they understand. The teacher asks the

students to turn to their partners and discuss their responses to the questions. A ques-

tion and clarification period follows with the teacher first asking the students who

understand a particular point to answer the other students' questions. If necessary, the

teacher provides his own explanation of the material to help alleviate a lack of under-

standing of the material among the students. The teacher spends the time remaining

in the period by going over the homework assignment using a traditional prelection'

CI^ASSROOM VIGNETTE 2

The class begins with a brief prayer. The teacher then asks the students to put all their

books and notes away and to take out a sheet ofpaper for a quiz on yesterday's class

and last night's homework. The quiz consists of ten questions that require a one or two

word answer. After the completion of the quiz, the teacher briefly reviews the quiz and

calls upon various students to give their answers to each question. Now, the teacher

asks the students to take out their notebooks and begins to lecture about the material

in the current chapter. The teacher has a brief outline of the major points for today's

class on the blackboard for the students to follou' during the presentation. The lecture

consumes most of the class period. The class closes with a brief opportunity for the

students to ask some questions of the teacher about the material presented during the

lecture. In the last two minutes the teacher reminds all the students to copy down the

homework assignment from the blackboard and to be sure to complete it because itwill be collected and graded tomorrow.

ï7

IGN,ÀCIUS KNC\\/

CLASSROOM VIGNETTE 3

The class begins with a brief prayer led by the teacher. The outline for today's classwith the suggested time for each component is written on the blackboard.

- 5 minutes quiet journalizing time.

' What did I learn yesterday?

' Where does this material fit with the material that we previously covered?

- What do I think will be the next step(s) in the material that we are

covering in class now?

o 20 minutes cooperative learning groups of three students each.

o Review yesterday's class and last night's homework. Be sure that each memberof the group understands yesterday's class and last night's homework assign-ment.

graded.

- 10 minutes previewing tonight's homework assignment and a brief introductionof the new material contained in the assignment.

' Note: Tomorrow's class will be an interactive lecture, where students should be

prepared to explain as best they can, the new ideas contained in tonight'shomework assignments.

CI-A,SSROOM VIGNETTE 4

The class begins with the teacher walking into the room two minutes late and severalstudents walking into the room five minutes late. The students have just come fromfirst lunch period and various games that they have been playing. The teacher has totell them repeatedly to be quiet and find their seats. After five minutes, the teacherfinally yells at the class in a loud, angry voice to be seated and be quiet or class willstart at the end of the school day. The students become quiet quickly. The teacher tellsthe students to put their books and notes away. A fast and quick oral review of thecurrent material follows with the teacher asking questions in rapid succession andnaming the student he is calling upon at the start of each question. The review lasts

three minutes. If a student does not know the answer instantly, the teacher immedi-ately calls upon another student. The teacher then tells the students to take out lastnight's homework. He asks a student to read the first question and answer it. The otherstudents are instructed to correct their homework after each student has finishedanswering the question and once the teacher has commented upon whether thestudent's response was correct or not. V/hen this task is completed, the teacher asksthe students to take out their textbooks. The teacher calls upon a student to beginreading on a certain page. The teacher reminds the students who are not reading aloudto be sure to pay attention. At the end of a section the teacher asks the student who

il8

lgnorio €årco¡rø

read to summarize the main points of that section. The teacher reminds the students to

take notes or make notes in their textbook while the student revie'ws the section he has

read. The remainder of the class continues in this fashion. The students have become

very quiet and, in fact, some of them are taking a post-lunch siesta. The teacher makes

u pãinì of calling on several students as they begin to doze off to sleep' The bell rings

and the teacher realizes that he has not given a homework assignment' As the s'tudents

pack their books and talk, the teacher yells out the homework assignment' The teacher

i"p"u,r the assignment at least three times as students head out the door.

CIA,SSROOM VIGNETTE 5

The class begins with a prayer by a group of students. The teacher asks each student

to create some type of oìtlin" oi yesterday's presentation (mind maps are preferred'

but any type of outline is acceptable). The teacher plays quiet music in the background

while the students do this exercise. The students are then asked to share their outlines

with another student. They are asked to note what is the same in their outlines com-

pared with the other student's outline and what is different? Did the students miss any

iey points from yesterday's class? The students are asked to note these omissions in

a learning journal and to add a review of these points to tonight's homework assign-

ment. Th;ìeacher gives an overview of tonight's homework assignment as a prelec-

tion. The teacher notes that a number of points in the homework will be explained in

the introduction to the new material which will follow. The teacher then spends fifteen

minutes introducing new material which is very technical and somewhat complicated'

The teacher then asks the students to write down what they understand and what they

are not sure about in the new material. She asks all those students who understand the

first point of the new material to raise their hands. she asks those students who are not

.ur"ìbout this point to find one of these students who knows the material' Abriefperiod of peer teaching follows. The teacher follows the same procedure for the other

ir"o *u¡oi points of tñ-e presentation. Next, the teacher gives the students a problem

or task thairequires them to use the new material. The teacher asks them to work on

their own. The teacher then asks some students to present a solution to the problem

on the blackboard. The other students compare their answer with the one on the black-

board, while the teacher comments on specific elements of the solution that are par-

ticularly good or makes any cofrections or additions that are necessary' The class ends

with the students working in groups of three both on understanding the material just

presented and on the hornework assignment. The teacher collects the sample problem

from each student so that, having some idea of hou' much of the concept the students

understand, she will know where to begin tomorrow's class'

CI^A,SSROOM VIGNETTE 6

The class begins with a prayer. After the prayer, there is a brief oral review of yes-

terday's class. The teacher asks some questions followed by a lengthy pause and then

calls on five students to give their answers to a particular question' The rest of the

class is asked to pay atteniion to the five responses and see how these responses match

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tÇN,Àcrus KNewI

I

I

I

I

Norss or do not match with each student's thinking. The teacher uses three such questions,and, based upon the students' response, concludes that the students have a good graspof yesterday's class and that it is time to present some new material. The teacher callsattention to the blackboard where there is an outline of the new material to be pre-sented as well as a schematic diagram. The teacher asks the students to spend a fewminutes thinking about what they already know about these topics and how it mightrelate to what they haùe already learned in this course. After private reflection time,the teacher asks the students to break into groups of three. They are to remain in theirgroups of three during the presentation that follows by the teacher. The teacher thenpresents the new material for fifteen minutes, but after each main point, there is timefor the students in their groups of three to discuss what it is they have learned andwhat it is that they are not sure about. Students are also encouraged to compare withone another the notes they have taken during the presentation. The teacher calls on anumber of groups to find out what they understand and what is still giving them sometrouble. When the teacher feels that the class understands the first point, the teachermoves to the second point using the same methodology. In the last five minutes of theclass the teacher does a prelection of the homework assignment which is based on thenewly presented material. Then the teacher asks each group of three to write a one ortwo sentence summary of what it is that they know and understand from today's class.As the students leave, the teacher collects these statements to gain some informationabout where to proceed with this lesson in tomorrow's class.

CI^A,SSROOM VIGNETTE 7

The class begins with a prayer led by a group of students which is related to thecontent that the students have been covering during this two-week period. Thepurpose of the next two classes is to review for a unit test two days from now. Inpreparation for this class the students completed a work sheet last night that coveredall the major points in the past two weeks. Besides reviewing and studying the mate-rial for today's class, the students were asked to rate how well they knew each pointusing a scale consisting of "knowing it very well" to "still not really understandingit." The teacher reads off the major points and establishes three groups for each point:those who know the material well; those who have a basic understanding of the mate-rial, and those who are still struggling to master the material. During the next fifteenminutes the students who know the material well are to figure out ways they will teachthe material to the other two groups. They are specifically to figure out ways topresent the material visually to the other two groups so that they will have that mate-rial readily accessible in visual memory. Those who have a basic knowledge of thematerial are to figure out what areas they still need some help with and to have somequestions ready for their student teachers who will teach them in the next segment ofthe class. There is an option for this group of students to work alone or in smallgroups. The group with the least understanding of the material will work with theteacher who will try to explain the material in a way different from previous class pre-sentations. The teacher has had the students keep a journal monitoring their learningprocesses so that he already has some idea where students experience difficulty in

r2(]

lgnecio ۇ*cecio-

Nortslearning, The final segment of the class involves peer teaching by the students who

kno* a particular point or points well to those who have a basic knowledge of the

subject or are still struggling to understand the material. The homework assignment is

for ihe students to journal their reactions to this process and to come to class tomorrow

with areas where they still need further help in understanding the material' Students

should also prepare some questions for class the next day which they believe will be

on the test.

CI-\,SSROOM VIGNETTE 8

The class begins with a prayer. The teacher darkens the room and plays quiet music

in the background during most of the class period. The teacher is introducing new

material to the students and wants to find out what the students already know about

this topic. The teacher gives some suggestions about relaxing and letting the mind

roam where it wishes. Oìce the atmosphere is established, the teacher introduces the

new topic. There are suggestions about what the topic means and what studying this

particuiar point will enúil. Students are asked to let their minds think about whatever

ih"y **t io when they hear the topic. How is the topic like things they already know?

How do they think it will be different? What words, phrases or images come to mind

when they think about this topic? After an adequate period of time, the students are

invited to take out their journals and write down what thoughts occured to them

during the exercise. Finaliy, students are invited to share their reflections to the ques-

tions above. Their ,"rponr", to questions about the topic are listed on newsprint or

large pieces of paper which are placed around the classroom and remain in place

during this segment of the course. The homework assignment includes reading about

some initial concepts for this segment of the course with the emphasis on how these

ideas are similar or not similar to what the student expected to discover in learning

this material. The students have several specific questions to answer in their journals'

CIA,SSROOM VIGNETTE 9

Today is test day. The class begins with the teacher telling the class that everything

must be put away and out of sight. Everyone must be quiet. The test will not be dis-

tributed until all the conditions are met. The teacher reminds the students that it must

be written in ink, legible (what cannot be read will be marked wrong) and that all

spelling errors will be deducted from the final grade. It takes a few minutes for the

students to settle in before the test can be distributed' The teacher makes a few cor-

rections of typos and writes the corrections on the board' The teacher reminds the stu-

dents that they knew this material well the day before' The teacher wishes them well

and tells the class to do the best job they can on this test' The teacher reminds them

that only questions about what is written on the test will be allowed' No other ques-

tions will be answered. The srudents begin the test and continue working at it for the

remainder of the Period.

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rÇNÀcrus KNew

CI-A.SSROOM VIGNETTE I O

The class begins with a prayer. Immediately after the prayer the teacher spends a fewminutes establishing a positive learning state, e.g., a time when the students learnedeasily and well. The teacher then orally lists the objectives for the class and invites thestudents to write them down. An outline of the class has been written on the board andis explained briefly by the teacher. Next the teacher conducts a brief oral review ofyesterday's class, but first gives the students a couple of minutes to write down whatthey remember from yesterday's class. Then the teacher gathers information aboutwhat the students already know and understand about today's topic. Next the teacherpresents new material in the form of a fifteen minute interactive lecture (students areinvolved in the lecture through frequent questions, summaries, and reflection time).Immediately following the lecture, students are given an assignment to work on whichinvolves the main points of the lecture. Students then compare their work and sharewith each other what they understand and do not understand. A question and answerperiod follows. A quick review of the main points of the class follows. The reviewattempts to use more right hemisphere techniques and more of Gardner's Spatial,Body-Kinesthetic, and Musical intelligences than left hemisphere and Linguistic,Logical-Mathematical intelligences. The class concludes with a prelection of thatnight's homework and a few minutes for students to journal about what they havelearned and how they have learned itduring this class. If there is time, students sharesome of their journalled ideas with a classmate.

CONCLUSION

So what did Ignatius know? By now, you realize that Ignatius, even in the sixteenthcenturt, knew much about how the human mind works and how it learns material sothat it remains an integral part of the person. You have examined in detail lgnatius'methodology in the Spiritual Exercises and its connection to current educationaltheory. Simultaneously, you have examined your own experiences of Ignatian educa-tion in your classroom. Throughout this book you have been invited to think abouthow what Ignatius knew can be applied to the Ignatian high school classroom today.You have done this using a variety of reflection techniques. As a result of these reflec-tions you have been asking yourself if there is more that you can do to develop theIgnatian dimensions of your teaching-the Ignatian question of "What more can Ido?" This "more question" leads to future actions. Any future action requires us to dosome type of evaluation, which usually leads us to start that cycle of context, experi-ence, reflection, action, and evaluation over again.

This book has been designed to help this process. It does not have all the answers,because if we are true to the process of context, experience, reflection, action, andevaluation, we will need to experience this process frequently. Ignatius certainlyexpected a person who made the Spiritual Exercises to return to the various medita-tions and contemplations regularly because the possibility always exists of learningsomething new or gaining a slightly different insight. Moreover, as educational

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lgno<iø €dsarron

Norrsresearch continues, particularly the research relating to the human brain and how it

functions, it will be necessary to update and refine what we know and understand

about what Ignatius knew in light of new developments in that research' I personally

believe that if I could return a century from now I would be truly amazed at all the

developments which have occurred in brain research and its implications for the

teaching-learning Process.

In the meantime we continue to reflect on our teaching in Ignatian schools' seeking to

find out how we can continue to make it Ignatian as we pass from the twentieth to the

twenty-first century with its new challenges and the potential for growth it presents us'

t23

t24

APPENDIX A

lg.no-cion Ce--ínoLo1¡

St. Ignatius LoYola

St. Ignatius was a Basque bom in l49l. He became a knight and fought in the battle ofpamllona where he waì shot in the leg by a cannon ball on May 20, l52l ' His recovery'

which occurred at the family castle at Loyola' is where he experienced his conversion

caused in part through his ieading of the only two books available, The Lives of the

Saints and The Life of Christ. After recovering from his wound, he began his spiritual

journey which eventually led to the founding of the Society of Jesus' Ignatius was the

first superior general of the society. He died in Rome on July 31, 1556'

There are several biographies of lgnatius available, but for a brief description of his

life see Go Forth and Teach: The Characteristics of Jesuit Education #169-183'

Society of Jesus

The Society of Jesus is the religious order founded by St. Ignatius and his first com-

panions. The society *u, upp-ued by Pope Paul III in 1540. The first members of

ihe Society placed themselves at the service of the Pope and engaged primarily in

spiritual ministry. Gradually, the society became involved in education with the first

Jesuit school founded at Messina in 1 548. For a brief discussion of how the Society

became involved in education see Go Forth and Teach # 184-198' John O'Malley's

The First Jesuits, Chapter 6, ..The Schools,'' examines in greater detail how the

Society became involved in education'

Jesuits

Jesuit is the name by which the members of the Society of Jesus became known' See

John O'Malley's Iåe First Jesuits, pages 68-69, for a discussion of how the followers

of St. Ignatius came to be called i'Jesuits," and some comments about the second

meaning of the word in most dictionaries as "one given to intrigue or equivocation'"

The Spiritual Exercíses ol St. Ignatius

The spiritual Exercises of st. Ignatius aÍe an ordered set of prayer exercises devised

byst.Ignatiuswhilehewasalayperson.Theyaredesignedtohelpapersonprayer-ruuy

"*ãmine his life and his relati,onship wittr God. During Ignatius' lifetime' he pri-

marily directed lay people in the making of the Spiritual Exercises' The goal of

making the Spiritual Exårcises is to help à pttton orient his life to greater love and

service of God through imitation of Chriit's selfless life in service to others' The usual

time period for making the Spiritual Exercises is one month which is devoted solely

to pråy", and reflectiÃ. It is a book which is primarily designed to help the retreat

Norts

t25

IçNÀCIUS KNE\À'

director guide the person making the Spiritual Exercises (the retreatant). It is not abook which one can simply sit and read in order to experience its purpose. Rather, the

various prayer exercises need to be experienced actively by the one making them

through the use of all the faculties of the mind: memory, understanding, imagination,and will. The Spiritual Exercises are derived from Ignatius' own experience of spiri-tual conversion and his subsequent spiritual journey. Most key Ignatian concepts and

"vocabulary" come from the Spiritual Exercises.

Annotations

The Annotations are a series of notes that Ignatius provides at the beginning of his

Spiritual Exercises primarily to help the retreat director guide the retreatant. These

Annotations contain some important points about the Ignatian conception of learning.

The Ignatian concepts of active participation in the learning process, personalized care

and concern for the individual, and covering the material well rather than covering a

lot of material cursorily come directly from Ignatius' statements in the Annotations.

- Nineteenth Annotation Retreat refers to Annotation nineteen in the SpiritualExercises in which Ignatius makes provision for a person who is unable to set

aside a fult month solely devoted to prayer to make the Spiritual Exercises. The

person, rather, makes the Spiritual Exercises over an extended period of time by

setting aside daily time for prayer and reflection while continuing to carry on his

normal life.

Structure of an Ignatian Prayer Period

There is a definite structure to each period of prayer in lgnatius' Spiritual Exercises.

Some key terms from that structure are:

- Points "Points" are the main areas that will be considered during a prayer period.

One can compare them to the major divisions of an outline. Traditionally, one

considers the points for the next morning's prayer before one retires for the

evening. They are the first step in the important lgnatian processes of prepara-

tion for prayer.

- Preludes The preludes are the introductory exercises at the start of the prayer

period which are designed to help the retreatant establish a proper atmosphere

for prayer. Ignatius always uses two preludes: The Composition of Place and TheGrace Sought. They occur immediately after a brief Preparatory Prayeç where

the retreatant asks that all his "intentions, actions, and operations" during the

prayer be directed to God. This preparatory prayer begins all the prayer exercisesin the Spiritual Exercises.

- Composition of Place is the first prelude. In the Composition of Place the

retreatant uses his imagination to create an imagined scene which helps to estab-

lish a proper atmosphere for a specific prayer period. The Composition of Placevaries depending upon what the topic for prayer is. For instance, if one is praying

t26

\penaix

about a scene from the life of christ, one places oneself present at that scene

through the use of the imagination. If the subject matter of prayer is more

abstract, such as sin, then Ignatius suggests a specific scene which relates to that

subject matter.

- Grace Sought is the second prelude. It is a statement of the particular grace the

retreatant seeks from the subject matter for prayer. Ignatius suggests that the

grace sought should relate to the subject matter of the prayer'

Prayer Methods Ignatius teaches the retreatant several different methods of prayer in

his Spiritual Exercises.Each of these methods of prayer consists of a number of points

(see above). Three of the principal methods of prayer Ignatius uses are: meditation'

contemplation, and the application of the senses'

, Meditation is a type of prayer Ignatius introduces in the First week of his

Spirirual Exercises. Meditation asks the retreatant to consider rationally a par-

ticular subject and its implications in one's life. It relies primarily on reasoning

skills to lead the retreatant to deeper insights about himself and his relationship

with God. Once the retreatant has rationally considered the subject matter' he is

asked to move to the more affective level of relating these considerations to how

he leads his life in relationship with God'

- Contemplation is another method of prayer which Ignatius teaches in his Spiritual

Exercises. He introduces this method at the start of the secondweek and it becomes

the primary method of prayer throughout the rest of the Spiritual Exercises' In con-

templation, the retreatant primarily uses the imagination by entering into a partic-

ular scene and experiencing all that he can see, hear and feel while he is associated

in that scene. The purpose of contemplation is to help the retreatant to move more

easily from the "uåt, "*p"rienced

to the affective responses to these events without

necessarily employing much rationalistic thinking'

- Application of the Senses is the third principal method of prayer Ignatius uses

in úis Spi.itual Exercises. In the application of the senses the retreatant repeats

previous prayer material by using åach of the five senses' The purpose is to help

the retreatant to deepen insights and understanding gained from the previous

prayer and to move dìrectly to affective responses to the subject matter of prayer'

There are two additional prayer related topics which Ignatius introduces in his

SpiritualExercises.'ExaminationofConscienceandRepetition.

- Examination of conscience (called the "Examen" by most Jesuits) is an

additional pruv"t technique which Ignatius teaches the retreatant during the

spiritual Exercises. It is not a formal method of prayer used while making the

Spiritual Exercises. It is, rather, an ancillary prayer process designed to help

the retreatant to develop positive spiritual practices or to work on eliminating

particular failings both while making and after completing the Spiritual

Exercises. Th" Ëxum"n asks an individual to select a particular virtue to be

cultivated or fault to be rid of and spend prayer time twice a day examining

Norrs

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rçNÅctus KNew

Norts how one has succeeded in this task since the last examination period. Basedupon how well one has succeeded or not since the last Examen, one decidesupon an appropriate course of action to either continue the process or tryanother course of action to achieve the specified goal.

- Repetition While repetition is not a form of prayer that lgnatius teaches inhis Spiritual Exercises, it is a key Ignatian concept relating to prayer. Ignatiusstresses the importance of repetition of prayer throughout the SpiritualExercises. Repetition in the Spiritual Exercises is not simply a redoing orreviewing of the material prayed over. Repetition has the idea of incorpo-rating deeper understanding and insight into the material as well as appropri-ating it more deeply as an integral part of oneself. Repetition focuses on boththings which were profitable during prayer and those which were not.

- Colloquy The colloquy is the concluding activity of a prayer period. The col-loquy is a conversation with Christ or Mary about insights and understandingsgained during prayer. The colloquy helps to deepen any new insights or under-standings gained during prayer. Each prayer period in the Spirirual Exercisesshould conclude with a colloquy followed by a brief vocal prayer such as an OurFather. Ignatius notes that a colloquy need not be limited to the conclusion ofprayer, but that it can occur at any time during prayer when one is deeply movedby a particular consideration.

Structure and Important Exercises of the Spiritual Exercises

Ignatius divides his Spiritual Exercises into a series of four weeks. Within these fourweeks are most of the key meditations and contemplations which Ignatius created.

- Principle and Foundation is the presupposition which underlies the entire workof the Spiritual Exercises. The first sentence sums up this presupposition bystating: "Human beings are created to praise, reverence, and serve God our Lord,and by means of doing this to save their souls." At the start of the actual makingof the Exercises, the retreatant spends some time reflecting about and prayingover the Principle and Foundation. The Principle and Foundation containsanother key lgnatian concept-indifference. Ignatian indifference is a predispo-sition not to seek or use one thing or another as an end in itself, but only in as faras it leads the person to greater service of God. Indifference becomes a key com-ponent for the retreatant during the rest of the Spiritual Exercises. Indifference isespecially important at the time of making an election (see below) so that deci-sions are made from a free disposition without having predeterminations to onething or another dictating what a person chooses to do. -

- The First Week consists of a series of meditations which focus on the subjectmatter of sin. The retreatant begins by meditating on the sin of the angels, the sinof Adam and Eve, and the effects of sin in general. Building from these consid-erations, the retreatant examines his own sinfulness and the effects it has on hisrelationship with God throughout the remainder of the exercises of this week.

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\poåi.: À

Nor¿'s- The Second Week focuses on events from the life of Christ until his Passion and

Death. Ignatius introduces the retreatant to a form of prayer he calls contempla-

tion. The focus of the entire second week is on Christ and his life so that the

retreatant can learn from these considerations how to imitate Christ in his own

life. The second week contains several of the key contemplations and medita-

tions of the Spiritual Exercises.

o The Kingdom is a key contemplation in the Spiritual Exercises. Ignatius uses

the contemplation on the Kingdom to introduce the retreatant to the theme ofthe second week-the imitation of Christ. This contemplation asks the

retreatant to reflect about the service of an earthly king and all that entails.

After reflecting about an earthly king, the retreatant reflects and prays about

how much greater it will be serving Christ the King. The purpose of this con-

templation is to create the desire within the retreatant for greater imitation and

service of Christ as he begins to contemplate the life of Christ throughout the

remainder of the second week.

- The TWo Standards is another key exercise of the second week of the

Spiritual Exercises. In this meditation (Ignatius calls this a meditation and not

a contemplation) the retreatant is asked to reflect upon and pray about the

standard of Satan and the standard of Christ. The purpose of the meditation is

to contrast the standard of Satan and the standard of Christ, so that the stan-

dard of Christ clearly appears as the one the retreatant wishes to follow This

meditation helps the retreatant further strengthen his desire to imitate Christ.

o Three Classes of Persons is another key exercise of the second week.

Ignatius adds the phrase "to aid one toward embracing what is better" to the

titte which conveys the purpose of this meditation. The first class of persons

is one who wants to do good but continues to postpone taking the necessary

steps to do so. The second class also wants to do good, but compromises and

does not achieve the desired good. The third class of persons is one who

desires to do good, and is not attached to a particular way of accomplishing

this, but is open to the way that best helps him serve God. This meditation

(along with the Three Ways of Being Humble) helps the retreatant approach

any election (see below) he may be making during the Spiritual Exercises

with a receprivity for doing the will of God rather than his own.

- Three Ways of Being Humbte is another key exercise of the second week'

All three wavs of being humble which Ignatius has the retreatant pray about

lead to eternal salvation, but the third degree is the highest one' The third

degree is one in which the retreatant desires to be like Christ who was poor and

a subject of contempt. This exercise helps the retreatant to continue the process

of strengthening his desire to follow Christ and to be open to choosing the best

,way to follow Christ if he is making an election during the retreat.

- Election During the second week of the Spiritual Exercises, Ignatius pro-

vides the opportunity for the retreatant to make a decision about important

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rqNÀcrus KNew

choices in his life. Ignatius provides detailed exercises and instructionsabout how to make a proper choice within the context of making the

Spiritual Exercises. While not everyone necessarily embarks upon makingthe Spiritual Exercises with the idea of making a significant life choice, oftenissues arise during the course of the retreat that involve such a decision'

' Discernment is another key Ignatian concept in the Spiritual Exercises.Throughout the Exercises the retreatant, with the guidance of the retreat

director, learns how to analyze the spirirual movements occurring withinhim. He leams to discern what Ignatius calls the "good" from the "evil"spirit. Ignatius provides rules for the discernment of spirits in the SpiritualExercises. What the retreatant learns about the discemment of spirits duringthe Spiritual Exercises provides the foundation for developing his spirituallife once the Spiritual Exercises are completed. The notion of discernment isa key element of Jesuit spirituality. It played a significant part in the selec-

tion of ministries by Ignatius and the early Jesuits.

The Third Week of the Spiritual Exercises is devoted to contemplating the

events of Christ's passion and death. The purpose of this week is to help the

retreatant strengthen his desire to follow Christ, while recognizing that part ofthe imitation of Christ involves experiencing the complete giving of oneself as

Christ did in his passion and death.

The Fourth Week of the Spiritual Exercises asks the retreatant to reflect upon

the events associated with the Resurrection and the Risen Christ's appearances

to the Apostles after the resurrection. Incidentally, Ignatius adds an appearance

by Christ to Mary his mother, which is not contained in the Gospels, as one ofthe meditations for this week. The purpose of this week is to continue to

strengthen the retreatant's commitment to follow Christ by contemplating the

Risen Christ and, in particular, his interactions with his apostles, the bearers ofhis message to the world.

Contemplatio ad Amorem (The Contemplation to Attain Love) is the concludingcontemplation of the Spiritual Exercises. It is designed to help the retreatant

cement all that has been learned and understood throughout the making of the

Spiritual Exercises so that the retreatant deeply experiences the love of God and

in return responds as completely as possible to that love in the way he leads his

life. It contains the often repeated Ignatian phrase, "Love ought to manifest itselfmore by deeds than by words," which for Ignatius is the sign of true love.

Finding God in All Things is a unique Ignatian spiritual insight. Ignatiusbelieved that God can be found in all things not just in prayer, but in the

mundane and ordinary events of life. This is one of the graces gained frommaking the Spiritual Exercises. It is the spiritual insight which led Ignatius tofound a religious order that works in the world rather than apart from it as had

been the monastic tradition of Ignatius' time.

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\pe-d,tr

Jesuit Education

This next section describes some key documents and terms relating to Jesuit education.

- Ratio Studiorum (1599) (Plan of Studies) is a handbook designed to help

teachers and administrators in Jesuit schools. It contains a series of rules and

directives which were used to operate Jesuit schools. The Ratio was gradually

developed over the first half century of Jesuits involvement in education. The

Ratio is the product of the early Jesuits reflection on their experience in educa-

tion. The finalized version published in 1599 became the handbook for Jesuit

education for many subsequent centuries.

- Prelection is one of the traditional Jesuit teaching methods described in the

Ratio.Prelection in its traditional form involves the teacher's previewing ofthe homework assignment for students. During the preview the teacher notes

the particular areas that students should pay careful attention to. The teacher

may also use the prelection to set up the focus and method of studying a par-

ticular assignment. For a fuller discussion of prelection see Four Hallmarksof Jesuit Pedagogy.

- Repetition is another traditional Jesuit teaching methodology. Repetition is

the time afforded for reviewing a subject. Repetition, however, is not

simply review or rehashing already learned material. Repetition always

carries with it the idea of deeper appropriation and understanding of the

material already learned. In the Ratio there are five times and levels of rep-

etition: immediately after the prelection, the next day, weekly, monthly and

yearly. The Ratio also stipulated a period of time for repetition before any

major examination. For a fuller discussion of repetition see Four Hallmarksof Jesuit PedagogY.

- Go Forth and Teøch: The Characteristics of Jesuit Education is the English

version published in the United States of the 1986 document on the characteris-

tics of Jesuit education written by the International Commission on the

Apostolate of Jesuit Education (ICAJE). There are ten sections containing

twenty-eight characteristics of Jesuit education. The ten organizing themes of Go

Forth and Teach are:

' Belief in God and the Goodness of Creation

' Concern for the Personal Growth of Each Individual

o Growth in Knowledge and Freedom

- Commitment to Faith in Jesus Christ

- Promotion of Justice in the World

- Service of the Church

- Excellence in All Things

- Collaboration in Community

Nor¿s

r3t

'ÇNÀCIUS KNC\V

Nore,s - Discernment

- Ignatian Spirituality and Jesuit Pedagogy

Some key Ignatian Terminology from Go Forth and Teach:

o Cura Personalis (Personalized Care and Concern) One of the essentialcharacteristics of Ignatian education, it derives from lgnatius'belief that theSpiritual Exercises must be adapted to the age, needs, and talents of the indi-vidual making them. It becomes important in Ignatian education because itis the starting point for working with students where they are and not neces-sarily where a teacher might wish them to be. The primary educational focusis on the individual needs of the student.

- Active Learning Active learning as a characteristic of Jesuit educationderives from Ignatius insistence in the Spiritual Exercises that the personmaking them must be actively involved in the process. Simply readingabout or listening to someone talk about the Spiritual Exercises will notaccomplish their purpose. In Jesuit education the student needs to be

actively engaged in the learning process rather than passively receivingknowledge.

o Reflection Reflection is one of the more critical mental processes used in theSpiritual Exercises. Ignatius teaches many different ways of reflection forthe retreatant in his Spiritual Exercises. Go Forth and Teach repeatedlystresses the importance of reflection as an essential element in the Ignatianeducational process. There are eleven instances where Go Forth and Teach

emphasizes reflection as a crucial element in Jesuit education.

- Faith that Does Justice The goal of Ignatian education is to create studentswho live a faith that recognizes the obligation to work for justice in theworld. This idea is captured by the famous phrase of Fr. Pedro Amrpe(Superior General of the Society of Jesus, I 965- I 983), "Men (and Women)for Others." This phrase captures an essential characteristic of Jesuit edu-cation-the creation of men and women who live their lives in service ofothers, especially those most in need.

- Preferential Option for the Poor This characteristic of Jesuit educationstresses that Jesuit education always has as a main priority the service of thepoor and the disadvantaged.

- Apostolic Instrument in the Service the Church This characteristic ofJesuit education stresses the importance of Jesuit education as a means topromote service in and for the Church.

- Excellence Jesuit education has always stressed excellence. Traditionally,the emphasis on excellence applied to academic excellence. Go Forth and?rer¿cå stresses that excellence applies to all aspects of Jesuit education and

should not be limited to academic excellence.

132

Nores- Magis (The More) This Latin phrase derives directly from Ignatius'Spiritual Exercises where he asks the retreatant the question: "What morecan I do for Christ?" Go Forth and Teach notes that magis needs to be

considered within the context of the individual's gifts and abilities ratherthan against some absolutized ideal. The goal is to help all the membersof the educational community develop all their God given talents to theirfullest extent.

- Collaboration This is a key new characteristic of Jesuit education empha-

sized in Go Fonh and Teach. Collaboration stresses the mutual cooperation,

interaction, and respect of all those involved in Jesuit education: Jesuits, lay,

other religious, students, parents, Board of Trustees, etc., to accomplish the

goals of Jesuit education.

- Ignatian Pedagogy: A Practical Approach is the 1993 document written by the

International Commission on the Apostolate of Jesuit Education (ICAJE) and

promulgated by Fr. Peter-Hans Kolvenbach, superior general of the Society ofJesus. Ignatian Pedagogy provides a fuller development on lgnatian Pedagogy

which was briefly described in the tenth section of Go Fonh and Teach'

Currently, Jesuit educational works worldwide are in the process of imple-menting this model known as IPP, the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm' The

opening paragraph of the document describes its purpose well:

l. This document grows out of the lOth part of The Characteristics of JesuitEducation in response to many requests for help in formulating a practicalpedagogy which is consistent with and effective in communicating the lgna-

tian worldview and values presented in the Characteristics document. It isessential, therefore, that what is said here be understood in conjunction withthe substantive lgnatian spirit and apostolic thrust presented in The

Characteristics of J esuit Education.

There are five main components in this paradigm which are explained below. In my

current thinking the central part of the paradigm is the experience, reflection, and

action components. These three always take place in a context and conclude with some

type of evaluation, the other two components of the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm'

- Context refers to the entire context in which Jesuit education occurs' Particular

emphasis is given to the context of the student and the various elements which

affect that context from the political situation within a country to the individual's

strengths and limitations. Ignatian education always begins with this under-

sønding of context because it is the starting point which Ignatius insists on forthe making of the Spiritual Exercises. The Spiritual Exercises are always adapted

to the cha¡acteristics of the individual making them'

- Experience is the second element of the paradigm. Experience means all that the

student brings to learning by way of experience and lack of experience. The

teacher helps the student comprehend fully and understand completely what it is

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lÇN,t'.9¡art KNg\Àt

he already knows as well as assists in broadening his experience. Experience not

only includes facts but also the feelings, values, etc., associated with the facts

and the higher level thinking skills of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation'

Reflection is the third element in the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm. Throughreflection the student comes to better comprehend and understand his experience

and its implications in his life. Reflection is the pivotal point in this paradigm to

help the student move from experience and action. Reflection in the Ignatian

Pedagogical Paradigm always calls for some kind of action' Reflection fre-quently is lacking in the educational process, yet its importance is regularly

stressed in general educational circles today'

Action is the fourth comPonent in the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm. Actionmeans that as a result of reflecting on an experience the student is moved to some

type of action. That action may be different given the particular content and ele-

ments within it, but the implicit idea is that action is always a step toward greater

service of one's fellow peisons based upon a love of God. These actions may be

quite small and not immediately lead to radical transformation, but they should

be pieces in that process.

It is important to note that while these three central elements of the paradigm are

analyzed separately for discussion that they can be working simultaneously'Ignatian Pedagogy comments upon this:

(2g) The conrinual interplay, then, of EXPERIENCE, REFLECTION and ACTIONin the teaching-learning dynamic of the classroom lies at the heart of an

Ignatian pedagogy. It is our way of proceeding in Jesuit schools as we accom-

pany the learner on his or her journey of becoming a fully human person.

Evaluation is the fifth component in the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm.

Evaluation refers not only to academic evaluation but to fuller types of evalua-

tion where the student and teacher reflect upon the broader sPectrum of personal

growth and commirments. The Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm stresses that the

ãvaluation include some type of systematic analysis of how a student is growing

in becoming "a person for others."

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APPENDIX B

eâ*.oclon J C. --ín oLo 11

Brain-Based Education

Brain-Based Education is a current educational theory that stresses the importance ofrelating what is being learned with how the brain processes information. Leslie Hart

began much of this movement in education with his book, Human Brain and Human

Leàrning. Geoffrey and Renate Caine have expanded upon Hart's original work in

their books, Making Connections: Teaching and Human Learning and Mindshifts: A

Work on Brain-Based Learning. The Caines postulate twelve points about the human

brain and its relationship to learning:

l. The brain is a parallel processor.

2. Learning engages the entire physiology.

3. The search for meaning is innate.

4. The search for meaning occurs through "patterning'"

5. Emotions are critical to patteming'

6. Every brain simultaneously perceives and creates parts and wholes'

7. Leaming involves both focused attention and peripheral perception.

8. Learning always involves conscious and unconscious processes.

g. Vy'e have two types of memory: a spatial memory system and a set of systems for

rote learning.

10. The brain understands and remembers best when facts and skills are embedded in

natural spatial memory.

11. Learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat.

12. Each brain is unique.

Two of the key concepts that the caines discuss in their theory of brain-based educa-

tion are:

- Spatial Memory is the memory we create from interacting with our environ-

ment. Spatial memory learns quickly, easily and usually with minimum effort' It

is the memory where we store how we interact with our environment' It is the

type of memory that is least used in traditional classrooms, yet it is a very pow-

erful one which can be updated quickly and frequently through new experiences'

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- Taxon Memory is the second kind of memory which the Caines discuss in theirtheory of brain-based education. Taxon memory is the memory where we store

lists and repetitive actions. Taxon memory learns through practice and rehearsal.

Once the material is present in taxon memory it becomes fixed and often isstored in isolation from other types of taxon memory. It is the type of memoryfrequently stressed in the traditional classroom.

Hemispheric Processing

Hemispheric Processing is the result of the educational research which examined the

functions of the two hemispheres of the brain in learning. The initial research empha-sized the different functions of the left and right hemisphere in the learning process.

Current research is beginning to show that both hemispheres are involved in manylearning tasks, but that one hemisphere may be used more for a particular learning task.

o Left Hemisphere Processing refers to a way of processing information thatinvolves verbal, logical, sequential and abstract functioning. It is the type of pro-cessing associated with most academic disciplines.

- Right Hemisphere Processing refers to a way of processing information thatinvolves non-verbal, intuitive, random, and analogical functioning. It is the type

of process used in art, music and physical education.

Learning Style

Learning Style educational research refers to a student's preferred ways of learning.There are many different theories of leaming style advanced by researches today.Each researcher includes his or her own particular emphasis about what makes up alearning style. The learning channels or modality preference is one of the primaryareas of focus for learning style research.

' Visual Learners learn primarily by seeing the material. Books, pictures, videos,

charts, graphs, etc., all help the visual learner comprehend material easily.

- Auditory Learners learn primarily by hearing the material. The auditory learneris usually well suited to a lecture style learning format.

- Kinesthetic Learners leam primarily by physically interacting with the materialto be learned. They need to move to learn and retain information well that has

been learned through some type of physical involvement in the leamingprocess-the rehearsal of a particular basketball play.

Multiple Intelligences

Multiple Intelligences is the theory of intelligence proposed by Howard Gardner in hisbook Frames of Mind: The Theory of Muhiple Intelligences. Gardner posits seven dis-tinct intelligences after he looked at the research from brain damaged patients, phe-

t3ó.

\penalx B

Norøsnomenons such as idiot savants, areas with an identifiable set of core operations, and

developmental histories with a distinct set of core operations, and support from both

psychological experiments and psychometric findings. From his examination of this

theoretical and research information, Gardner posits seven intelligences. Each one ofus is a composite of these seven intelligences. We probably have a couple we have

developed well and use all the time. We may have some that are not that well devel-oped and that we do not use regularly.

- Linguistic Intelligence is the ability to use language well. At its highest level ofdevelopment it is the intelligence of the poet, the playwright, the novelist, etc.

- Musical Intelligence is the ability to both compose and create music. It is the

intelligence of the composer and the musical performer.

- Logical-Mathematical Intelligence is the ability to work with mathematical

symbols and abstract thought easily and well. It is the intelligence of the mathe-

matician and scientist.

- Spatial Intelligence is the ability to look at one's world and transform it into

some artistic form. It is the intelligence of the painteç sculpture, and the architect.

- Body-Kinesthetic Intelligence is the ability to control one's body in physical

movement. It is the intelligence of the athlete and the dancer.

- Interpersonal Intelligence is the intetligence which deals with other people. Itis the intelligence of the person who has "good people skills," and one of the

primary intelligences in the business world.

- Intrapersonal Intelligence is the intelligence which helps us organize and

manage our life. It is an internal functioning which tt/e use to sort through what

happens in our lives and to make decisions about the various directions our lives

will take. People with this intelligence well developed are usually those whom

we respect and admire because they "have their heads on straight."

Iligher Level Thinking Skills

There are many proponents of teaching thinking skills in education today. This school

of educational thinking arises from the belief that much of education is only teaching

memorization and not teaching students how to think, especially at the more sophis-

ticated levels of thinking'

- Teaching/or Thinking means to create an atmosphere in the classroom which

models the higher level thinking skills being taught. One way to consider this is

to ask the question: "Do the types of questions and the kind of tasks used in the

classroom create and sustain an atmosphere of higher level thinking skills?" Ifthe answer is "yes" then one has created an atmosphere which supports the

teachingfor thinking. If the answer is "no" then what is being taught does not

promote an atmosphere of the teachingþr thinking'

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rÇru431a,t KNe\Å'

Norss Teaching o/Thinking means the direct instruction of students in thinking skills'

It is especially important for the teacher to model for the students the thinking

skills which she is trying to inculcate.

Teaching about Thinking also goes by the name of Metacognition' In metacog-

nition one thinks about the very process of thinking. A teacher helps students to

learn how to review their own thinking processes so that they learn how to use

more effective thinking techniques'

Teaching as Enculturation is a phrase coined by David Perkins and his col-

leagues to stress that the teacher must practice what she preaches' If the teacher

sayi that she is teaching higher level thinking skills, but only asks questions

which require short memorized answers, then she fails to establish an atmos-

phere which enculturates higher level thinking skills. It is another way to think

about the teaching o/thinking. This is a phrase which sums uP well what Jesuit

education attempts to do in creating students who are "men and women forothers" and "students of competence, conscience, and compassion'"

Experiential Based Learning

There is a very strong movement in education today to relate what is learned in the

classroom directly with the life experiences of the students. Both of the programs

mentioned here contain many of the ideas and concepts discussed in current Jesuit

educational documents. Two of the programs that promote this type of experiential

based learning are:

- ATLAS (Authentic Teaching, Learning, and Assessment for All Students)

Communities is a consortium of educational research groups who are working

together to create schools which develop in students habits of mind, heart, and

workrelatedto real life experiences. These educators believe that unless schools

create these habits and relate learning to the lives of the sn¡dents that true edu-

cation does not take Place.

- Robert Marzano's Dimensions of l*arníng is a specially designed learning

theory based upon how the mind learns rather than on what ought to be taught'

Mar¿ano and his colleagues posit five dimensions to learning:

The Dimensions of Learning theory contains many parallels to the Ignatian

Pedagogical Paradigm and can serve, with some modifications, as a methodology for

integrating the lgnatian Pedagogical Paradigm into the classroom.

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Nor¿sAuthentic, Performance-Based, Alternative Assessment are terms appeanng

in educational literature today that address the need to evaluate students in ways

other than traditional tests, quizzes, and papers. Portfolio assessments come

under this broad category as do projects, demonstrations, videos, etc., as a way

of evaluating students' academic performance'

Cooperative Learning is an instructional methodology popular in education

toOay. There are three main proponents of cooperative learning, Robert Slavin,

Oavi¿ and Roger Johnson, and Spencer Kagan. Each one puts a particular

emphasis on uã.iou, elements of cooperative leaning. Cooperative learning

seeks to make the students interdependent on each other for their learning of a

particular subject as well as interdependent on each other for their final grade'

booperatiue learning also helps students to develop better skills for working in

groups and assuming different roles within a group'

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Bibliolroyh.y

Armstrong, Thomas. Muttipte Intelligences in the Classroom.Alexandria VA:Association for Supervisionand Curriculum Development, 1994.

Amrpe, S.J, Pedro. Men for Others. Rome: International Center for Jesuit Education, 1973.

Aschenbrenneç S.J., George. "Consciousness Examen ," Review for Religious,3l, 1992.

Authentic Teaching, Learning, and Assessment for Alt Students. Newton, MA: ATLAS Communities,Education Development Center, I 993.

Bellah, Robert N.; Madsen, Richard; Sullivan, William M.; Swidleç Ann; and Tipton, Steven M. Habitsof the Heart: Individuatism and Commitment in American Lúe. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers;Perennial Books, 1987.

Blakeslee, Sandra. "seeing and Imagining: Clues to Working of the Mind's Eye," New York Times,August31, 1993, p.Cl.

Bloom, Benjamin S.; Englehart, D.; Furst, E. J.; Hill, W. H.; and Kratwohl, D' R., Taxonomy ofEducational Objectives, Handbook l: Cognitive Domain. New York: David Mckay Co', 1956.

Caine, Geoffrey and Renate and Crowell, Sam. Mindshifts: A Workbook on Brain'Based Lcarning.Redlands, CA: 4C Connections, 1991. There is a recent revision of this book published under the titleof Mindshifts: A Brain-Based Process for Restructuring Schools and Renewing Education. Tuscon,

ÃZ:Znphyr Press, 1994.

Caine, Renate Nummela and Geoffrey. Making Connections: Teaching utd Human Lcørning. Alexandria,VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1991.

Costa, Art L., ed. Developing Minds,2 vols., rev. ed. Alexandria: VA: Association for Supervision and

Curriculum Development, 1992.

Dunn, Kenneth and Rita. Teaching Students Through Their Leaming Styles: A Practical Approach.Reston, VA: Reston Publishing Company, 1978.

Fogarty, Robin and Bellanca, James. Patterns for Thinking: Patterns for Transþr. Palatine, IL: IRI Group,Skylight Publishers, 1 989.

Foundøtions. Carl E. Meirose, S.J., ed. Washington, DC: Jesuit Secondary Education Association,1994.

Ganss, S.J., George E. The Spiritual Exercises of Saint Ignatius: A Translation and Commentary. St' Louis:Institute for Jesuit Sources, 1992'

Gardner, Howard. Creating Minds, New York: Basic Books, 1993.

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tçN.Àcrus KNew

Gardner, Howard. Frames of Mind: Theory of Muttipte Intelligences. New York: Basic Books, 1985.

Gardner, Howard. Muttiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice. New York: Basic Books, 1993'

Go Forth and Teach: The Characteristics of Jesuit Education. Washington, DC: Jesuit Secondary

Education Association, 1987. Reprinted in Foundations (see above).

Gregorc, A.F, Gregorc Style Delineator: Development, Technical and Administrative Manual. Maynard,

MA: Gabriel Systems, 1982.

Grinder, Michael. Righting the Educational Conveyor Belt,Znd ed. Portland, OR: Metamorphous Press, 1991.

Harmin, Merrill. Inspiring Active Learning: A Handbook for Teachers. Alexandria, VA: Association forSupervision and Curriculum Development, 1994.

Hart, Leslie A. Human Brain and Human Learning. New Rochelle, NY: Brain Age Publishers, 1987.

Herman, Joan L.; Aschbacher, Pamela R.; and Winters, Lynn. A Practical Guide to Alternative Assessment.

Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1992.

Ignatian Pedagogy: A Practical Approach.Rome: Society of Jesus, 1993. Published in the United States

in Foundations (see above).

Jensen, Enc. The Learning Brain. Del Mar, CA: Turning Point for Teachers, 1994'

Kolb, David. Experiential Learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1984.

Lazear, David. Multiple Intelligence Approaches to Assessment: Solving the Assessmenr Conundrum.Tuscon, AZ:Zephyr Press, 1994.

Lazear,David. Seven Pathways of Learning. Tuscon, PrZ: Z,ephyt Press, 1994.

Lazear, David. Seven Ways of Knowing.Palatine, IL: Skylight Publishing' 1991.

Laze^r, David. Seven Ways of Teaching. Palatine, IL: Skylight Publishing, 1991'

Lewis, Byron and Pucelik, Frank. Magic of NLP Demystified. Portland, OR: Metamorphous Press, 1992.

Marzano, Robert J. A Different Kind of Classroom: Teaching with Dimensions of Learning' Alexandria,VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1992.

Marzano, Robert J.; Pickering, Debra J.; Arrendondo, Daisy E.; Blackbum, Guy J.; Brandt, Ronald S.; and

Moffett, Cerylle A. Teacher's Manual: Dimensions of Learning. Alexandria, VA: Association forSupervision and Curriculum Development, 1992'

Marzano, Robert J.; Pickering, Debra; and McTighe, Jay. Assessing Student Outcomes: PerformanceAssessment Using the Dimensions of Learning Model. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervisionand Curriculum Development, 1993.

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Bibtic'g--ph1-

Metts, S.J. Ralph E. Four Hallmarks of Jesuit Pedagog¡': Prelection, Reflection, Active I'earning, andRepetition. New York: JSEA Commission on Research and Development, 1991. Reprinted inFoundations (see above).

Metts, S.J., Ralph E. Learning or Not. Buffalo: United Educational Services, 1992.

Meyers, Chet and Jones, Thomas B. Promoting Active Learning: Strategies for the College Classroom.

San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993.

O'Keefe, J. and Nadel, L. The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Mind. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978.

O'Malley, S.J., John W. The First Jesuits. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993.

Orlich, Donald C.; Kauchak, Donald P.; Harder, Robert; Pendergrass, R.A.; Callahan, Richard C.; Keogh'

Andrew J.; and Gibson, Harry. Teaching Strategies: A Guide to Better Instruction,3rd. ed. Lexington,MA: D.C. Heath, 1990.

Ostrander, Seila and Schroeder; Lynn. Superlearning. New York: LaureVConfucian Press, 1979'

Tetlow, S.J., Joseph A. "The Most Postmodern Prayer: American Jesuit Identity and the Examen ofConscience ,lg2}-1990," Studies in the Spiritualiry of Jesuits,26,no. I (January,1994). St. Louis: The

Semina¡ on Jesuit Spirituality.

Tishman, Shari; Jay, Eileen; and Perkins, David N. "Teaching Thinking Dispositions: From Transmissionto Enculruration." Theory into Practice (Teaching Higher Level Thinking Skills) Summer, 1993.

Columbus, OH: College of Education: The Ohio State University, 1993, pp. 147-153.

West, Thomas, G. In the Mind's Eye: Visual Thinkers, Gifted People V/ith Learning Difficulties, Computer

Images, and the Ironies of Creativity. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books, 1991.

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lnåev.

Action .'.......'..2,5,7-9,13,14,22,24-25,31, 33, 55, 56, '72,73,77,

, 109, ll1, 113, ll5,122,1.28,133,134Active leamingAnarysis :'.'....:::.::.-...---.'......' 1 il i1 I 'lrl)L?;L??,;:î7',\\:^Annotations 8,27'30,33, 45, 46, 55, 67 , 126

Apostolic Instrument in the Service of the Church "9,33Application ..8, 15,21,23-25,30,32,33,46,48,50, 52,53,56,69,

70,73,74,86,87, 88, 105, 109, rl3-115,127Application of the Senses ...........8,21,23-25,30,33, 15,32,46,48,50,52,53,

Aschbacher, PamelaAschenbrenner, S.J., George """""""25' l4lATLAS Communities .............. '10, 82, 89-93, 95, 101, lO2' I75' l4IAuditory Leamers """"""10, 62,'17,78' 136

Authentic, Performance-Based, Alternative Assessment """"'10' 139

Bellanca, James """""""'86' 141

Blackburn, Guy .......... ""'94' 142

Blakeslee, Linda """""""51t l4lBloom, Benjamin """86' 88' 141

Body-Kinesthetic Intelligence 10, 65, 69,71'72'78' 137

Brain-Based Education ..'.10,35-37,39,45,46,55-57,67,70,76'll4' 135' 136

Brandt, Ronald """"""""94' 142

Caine, Geoffrey '38' 39' 135' 141

Caine, Renate """"""""'36' 38' 39' 135' I4lCallahan, Richard """"""54' 143

Collaboration ............... """""'9' 33' 131' 133

colloquy ..................6, 8, 15, 26,33,32,53-56,71,',72,75,77,87, 112-115, 128

Competånc", conscience, and compassion '..'..... """"138composition of Place ..........4,8, 14, 17 , 18,22,32, 33, 47 , 55,68, 71, 76, 87 , 713, ll5, 126

Comprehension .......... """"""16' 86' 98' 108

Concìuding activities """""'6' 45'71'75'76Contemplatio ad Amorem """'9' 2l'33' 130

Contemplation ............ ........9,8, 15, 17, 18,20-25'27,32,33'46'48,50-52,68,69, 7 !-7 3, 77, 87, 95, 1 09- 1 1 1, l l 3- 1 1 5, 127, 129, 130

Contemplation to Attain the Love of God """"""""9' 95

Context .......".'.....1, 3,6-9,ll, 16, 18,25,27'32'33'39'4I'42'45'49, 54,63, 84, gO, 95-97, 108-110, 112, ll3, 115, 122, 130, 133

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Cooperative Leaming ..10, 83, I13, I18, 139

Cura Personalis ........... ..................9,28,33, 45,92, 132Dimensions of Learning 10, 81, 82, 89, 91,93-97,100-102, 115, 138, 142Discernment ................ .....,...2,9,33, 130,32

Dunn, Kenneth """""""'60' l4l

Educational psychology ..............1,3,6,8, ll, 16, 19,31,35-37,56,59,77,101Election .'......'.'..'9, 33,128,129Evaluation ................7-9,33, 57,78, 86, 88, 91, 96, 100-102, 109, 122, 133, 134Examen ..............,24,25, 127, 128, l4l, 143Examination of Conscience .............. .................8 ,24,25,33,87, 127Excellence .....9, 17,33, l3l, 132Experience .2, 3, 5-9, 13, 14, 18,22, 24, 25,29, 31, 33,34, 39-41, 45, 46, 49-53, 55, 56, 62,

73,76,77,87,88,90,95-101, 105,109, lll-113, ll5, 120, 122,126, l3l, 133, 134Experiential-Based Learning .....................10Faith that Does Justice ............... ....9,33,132Finding God in AII Things ......9,21,33, 130First Week .............8, 20-22,24,25,33, 41, 48, 127, 128

Foundations ................ ..2,7 ,21, 96, l4l-143Fourth Week ........ ..9,20,33, 130Ganss, S.J., George .................15,17,20,23,37,74,141Gardner, Howard .59, 60, 64-73,75-79,89, 122, 136, 137, l4l, 142Gibson, Harr ........ ..........54,143Go ForthandTeach .......2,9,28,33,81,83,91-93,110, l15, 125, l3l-133,142Grace Sought 5, 8, 15, 18,32,33, 68, ll3, ll4, 126,127

Grinder, Michael .............63,l'42Hardeç Robert .................54,143Harmin, Menill ...............46,142Hart, Leslie ..............37, 135, 142Hemispheric Processing .............. 10, 57, 136Herman, Joan ......'..' """'100, 142

HigherLevelThinkingSkills ....10,81-83,85,87,88,95, l0l, 102, l15, 134, 137,138,143Ignatian Education ....107-109, 122,132,133Ignatianmethodology ............... ..................1,6, 11,18,26,27,30,31,34-36,45,54,56,57,

59, 60, 66, 77-79,81, 87, 91, 96, 101-103, 111, 113Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm .......7,8,22,91,96-101, 109, l15, I33, 134, 138Ignatian Pedagogy .........2,7-9,13,14,27-30,33,45,73, 81, 83, 88,91,93, 96-100, ll0, 133, 134,142Ignatian Pedagogy: A Practical Approach .2,9,133,142Ignatian questions ......14,87, 110

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Imagination ...............5, 7 , 17 -1g, 22, 23,26, 48,50-52, 54, 69,7l-''13,87, 88, 96, 98, Il2-ll4' 126, 127

Indifference """"20' 36' 37 ' 728

Interpersonal Intelligence ............... .'..10, 66, '71'72'75,77,78,137

Intrapersonal Intelligence ..............- """"""""'10,66' 69-72'78' 137

Jay, Eilleen """'85' 94' 142' 143

JesuitEducation ...........2,3,g,28,29,33,45,81,91-93, 97,103,107-110, 125, l3l-133, 138, l4l,l42Jesuits ...........'.'....2,8,24,32,74,108, 125, 127,130'137'133'143Jesus Christ .'.'...'.'.'.'2,8, 1'7 ,22,33, 50, 74' 108' 125' 731-133' 142

Kauchak, Donald """"""54' 143

Keogh, Andrew """""""54' 143

Kinesthetic Learners """"10' 62'77' 78' 136

Kingdom, the ............. """""""'9' 20'33' 129

Learning Style ......... ..........10, 59, 60-62, 63, 66,67,77-79' ll4, 136

Learningtheory.....l,3,6,8, 11,16, 19, 31,35-37,56,59,75,77,81, l0l, 108' 107, 111, 114, 115, 138

Left Hemisphere Processing ........... .......'...10, 47,49,50, 52,55-57 '71,74, 136

Linguistic Intelligence """10'65'70 '77 '78'137Logical Mathematical Intelligence.'........'.... """""""'65 '66'77 '78'137Madsen, Richard """"""'90' 141

Magis""""""'8'33'73'87'95'99'110'133Mary........."""'16,54"74'75'113'128'130Marzano, Robert ""'10' 9l'93-102' 138' 142

Meditation .....8, 15, 17, 18, 21-25,27,32,33,46,48-50, 69-73' 87, 109, 113, 114, 127,129

Memory ..6, 10, 2l-23, 38-42, 48-57, 68-71,73,75,87,96,98, 113, ll4, 120, 126, 135, 136

Men and Women for Others '...'......".".... """""'2' 9' 33' 93' 109' 138

Metacognition ............ ................10,2',1,55,56,86,88, 102, 113, 138

Metts, 5.J., Rutph """"""43' 143

Multiple Intelligences '.'..........'.. """""'10' 59

Multi-dimensional learning """"""'59-79' 8l

Musical Intelligence """"'10' 65' 69'74'75'77 '78' 137

Nineteenth Annotation Retreat """"""""""'9

Pendergrass, R.A. """"""54' 143

Personalized Care and Concem """"""""'9' 30' 45' 9L'92' 108' 126

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Points '.'....'....'-4-6. 8, 15, 16, 18, 19,21,23,26,29,135Preferential Option for the Poor ......... """"""'9, 33,132Prelection ..........'..'....3,8-11,31,33-35, 57,59,78,81,95,102,I07Preludes ..4, 8, 17, 23,33,52,69Preparatory Prayer ..................4, 14, 16, 17 ,23,31, 47, 52, Ll3, 126

Principle and Foundation ........... ."'8, 19, 20,33,36, 128

Ratio Studiorum(|S99) "'.."""'2,9,33, l3lRecall ....'...'..4' I l, 16, 17,25,41,48,55, 63, 70,71,86Reflection .............2-9,11-19, 27,22,24-37,33-35, 52,55-57,59,72,76-79,81, 84, 88, 89,

gl, 96,98-103, l0?, 109-113, 115, 120, 122, 125, 126, l3l-734, 143

Repetition ..8,9,24,30,33,95, 103, 105, 107, 109-111, ll3, 127,128,131, 143

Retreatdirector .........27-29,45, 109, ll0, 125, 126,130Retreatant 13,20-29,45-55, 66-76,87, 88, 95, 96, 108, ll0, 126-130, 133

Right Hemisphere Processing .........10, 35,36,47-49,51, 53-57, 71,73,74,136Second Week ........ ....."."'8, 20,23,33, 50, 74, 127, 129

Society of Jesus .....2,8,33,74,108, 125, 132,133,142Spatial Intelligence ...........10, 65,66,69-72,77,78, 137

spatial Memory ...10,39-42,48-57,'.10,71,73, lI4, 135

Spiritual Exercises ..1,6-8, ll-13, 14-16,17,19-27,29-33'35-37,40,42,45-50,52-55, 5',7, 59,60, 66-69, 73-76,81-83, 87, 88, 91, 95,

96, 99, 102, 103, 107-l I l, ll3-115, 122, 125-130, 132, r33, l4lSt. Ignatius ....'..1, 7, 8, 13, 15, 33, 36,91,108,112,125Startingpoint ......... .....18,20,29,45,46,67,97,110, 114, 132,133Student .........16,28,29,32,38,43,46,60'62,63,66,84,86,89-92,

132-134,136,142Sullivan, Williamswid,er, Ann : 11:11:" :,

,,t,,. .--. --..'11 : :::33: lilSynthesis .23,52,73, 86, 88, 134

Taxon Memory .................10,40,42,49-53,56, 57, 70,71, ll4, 136Teacher ..........-.4'7,15, 18, 26,28,38,45, 56'77,85,92,94,96,97,

100, l0l, 109, lll, ll2,ll7-122, l3l-134, 138,142Teaching ........2-6,8, 10, ll, 14-18,24-27,29,31,32,34' 35,39,40,41,42,45,

54-57,59, 60, 62, @,75-79,8l-89, 9l-93, 96,97,100-103, 107'108, ll0, lll, 115, ll9, 12l-123, 131, 134, 135, 137, 138, l4l-143

Teaching aboutThinking .'10,86,88, l0l, 102'115, 138

Teaching as Enculturation ......... ...10, 81 ,82,84,85, 87, l0l, 102, ll0, l15, 138

TeachingþrThinking 10, 84, 85, 87, l0l, 102, 115,137

TÞaching o/Thinking ...10, 83, 85-88, l0l, 102, ll5, 138

Tetlow, S.J., Joseph """"'24,143Third Week ............9, 20, 33, 130

Three Classes of persons .........9, 20,33, 129

Three Ways of Being Humble '9,20,33, 129

Tishman, Shari ........ """"85, 143

I

Tïvo St¿ndards ................ """"'9' 20'33' I29

Understanding ............... .........1, 3, ?, 8, 11, 16, 2L,23,24'n '28' 30' 37 '39'45' 48' 50' 52'

53, 56, 69-:.1,73,74,77,87 ,88, 90, 92,94,96, 98, 99, l04',

*:îî"ffffiî :----'r-:1,,--ti,:,-|,ii",, -*L!nWhole person learning

Will, the ,,,.'.'...'7, 13,20,22,24,48-50, 52, 56, 69-72' 99, ll5, I29...........,-...100, 142

Winters, Lynn .........

t49

Reading Chart Guide

CurrentEducational

Theories

STRUCTURE OF AN IGNATIAN PRAYER PERIODPREPARATION

Night Before: At the time ol Prayer:

Preparing SubjectMatter for Nexl Day

PreparatoryPrayer

First Prelude(Composition

of Place)

Second Prelude(Ask for thegrace sought)

Learning Modality

Visual

Auditory

Kinesthetic /inselectingposture

Hemisphere

Left

Right

Types of Memory

Spatial

Taxon

Multiplelntelligences

Verbal/ Linguistic

Logical/ Mathematical

Musical

Visual/Spatial

Body/ Kinesthetic

lntrapersonal

lnterpersonal

/

STRUCTURE OF AN IGNATIAN PRAYER PERIOD

CurrentEducational

Theories

MAIN PART OF PRAYER CONCLUDING ACTIVITIES

Usually broken down into Points To prayer itself After

Meditation Comtempla-tion

Applicationof theSenses

Colloquy ClosingPrayer

Post PrayerReflection

Learning ModalitY

/ some

/ some Visual

Auditory

Kinesthetic

Hemisphere

/ some / some Lefl

Right

Types of Memory

/ some / some

Spatial

Taxon

MultiPlelntelligences

/{

,// some

/ some

I { / / Verbal/ Linguistic

Logical/ Mathematical

Musical

Visual/SPatial

Body/ Kinesthetic

lntraPersonal

lnterpersonal