ignou mba ms -07 solved assignments 2011
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IGNOU MBA MS -07 Solved Assignment 2011
Course Code : MS-07
Course Title : Information Systems for Managers
Assignment No. : MS-07/SEM-I/2011
Coverage : All Blocks
Note: Answer all the questions and send them to the Coordinator of the Study Centre you are
attached with.
1. Explain the difference between the following:
a. High-Level and Low level languages
b. Applications and Utilities
c. Shareware, Open source software, Freeware
Solved: a) High level and low level languages
The most basic difference is that the statements in a low level language can be directly mapped to
processor instructions, while a single statement in a high level language may execute dozens of
instructions.
Low level refers to the fact that this is a machine language, binary in form, generally meaning one low
level command = one executed instruction.
The complexity arises when we need to enable a programmer to designate one high level instruction that
performs several or many machine (low level) operations.
Low Level Languages: Assembler and Advanced Assembler
High Level Languages: RPG, COBOL, any that make machine level programming of a computer easier.
a high level language is a language for programming computers which does not require detailed
knowledge of a specific computer, as a low-level language does.High-level languages do not have to bewritten for a particular computer, but must be compiled for the computer they will work with.High-level
languages are closer to human language than low-level languages, and include statements like GOTO or
FOR which are regular words
On the other hand, a low level language is a computer programming language that is close to machine
language.Machine language is at the lowest level, because it is the actual binary code of 1s and 0s that the
computer understands.Assembly languages are low- level languages which are translated into machine
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code by an assembler.Each assembly language instruction corresponds to one machine language
instruction, but assembly language is easier notation for the programmer to use than machine code.
b) Applications & Utilities
In information technology, an application is a computer program designed to help people perform an
activity. An application thus differs from an operating system (which runs a computer), a utility (which
performs maintenance or general-purpose chores), and a programming language (with which computer
programs are created). Depending on the activity for which it was designed, an application can
manipulate text, numbers, graphics, or a combination of these elements. Some application packages offer
considerable computing power by focusing on a single task, such as word processing; others,
called integrated software, offer somewhat less power but include several applications. User-written
software tailors systems to meet the user's specific needs. User-written software include spreadsheet
templates, word processor macros, scientific simulations, graphics and animation scripts. Even email
filters are a kind of user software. Users create this software themselves and often overlook how
important it is. The delineation between system software such as operating systems and application
software is not exact, however, and is occasionally the object of controversy. For example, one of the key
questions in the United States v. Microsoft antitrust trial was whether Microsoft's Internet Explorer web
browser was part of its Windows operating system or a separable piece of application software. As
another example, the GNU/Linux naming controversy is, in part, due to disagreement about the
relationship between the Linux kernel and the operating systems built over this kernel. In some types
of embedded systems, the application software and the operating system software may be
indistinguishable to the user, as in the case of software used to control a VCR, DVD player ormicrowave
oven.
here are many types of application software:
An application suite consists of multiple applications bundled together. They usually have related
functions, features and user interfaces, and may be able to interact with each other, e.g. open each
other's files. Business applications often come in suites, e.g. Microsoft Office, OpenOffice.org,
and iWork, which bundle together a word processor, a spreadsheet, etc.; but suites exist for other
purposes, e.g. graphics or music.
Enterprise software addresses the needs of organization processes and data flow, often in a large
distributed environment. (Examples include financial systems, customer relationship management
(CRM) systems, and supply-chain management software). Note that Departmental Software is a sub-
type of Enterprise Software with a focus on smaller organizations or groups within a large
organization. (Examples include Travel Expense Management, and IT Helpdesk)
Enterprise infrastructure software provides common capabilities needed to support
enterprise software systems. (Examples include databases, email servers, and systems for managing
networks and security.)
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Information worker software addresses the needs of individuals to create and manage information,
often for individual projects within a department, in contrast to enterprise management. Examples
include time management, resource management, documentation tools, analytical, and collaborative.
Word processors, spreadsheets, email and blog clients, personal information system, and individual
media editors may aid in multiple information worker tasks.
Content access software is software used primarily to access content without editing, but may include
software that allows for content editing. Such software addresses the needs of individuals and groups
to consume digital entertainment and published digital content. (Examples include Media Players,
Web Browsers, Help browsers, and Games)
Educational software is related to content access software, but has the content and/or features adapted
for use in by educators or students. For example, it may deliver evaluations (tests), track progress
through material, or include collaborative capabilities.
Simulation software are computer software for simulation of physical or abstract systems for eitherresearch, training or entertainment purposes.
Media development software addresses the needs of individuals who generate print and electronic
media for others to consume, most often in a commercial or educational setting. This includes
Graphic Art software, Desktop Publishing software, Multimedia Development software, HTML
editors, Digital Animation editors, Digital Audio and Video composition, and many others.
Mobile applications run on hand-held devices such as mobile phones, personal digital assistants,
and enterprise digital assistants : seemobile application development.
Product engineering software is used in developing hardware and software products. This includes
computer aided design (CAD), computer aided engineering (CAE), computer language editing and
compiling tools, Integrated Development Environments, and Application Programmer Interfaces.
YUH ZEIT * A command-driven interface is one in which you type in commands to make the
computer do something. You have to know the commands and what they do and they have to be
typed correctly. DOS and Unix are examples of command-driven interfaces.
A graphical user interface (GUI) is one in which you select command choices from various menus,
buttons and icons using a mouse. It is a user-friendly interface. The Windows and Mac OS are both
graphical user interfaces.
Applications can also be classified by computing platform.
Where as Utility software is a kind of system software designed to help analyze, configure, optimize and
maintain the computer. A single piece of utility software is usually called a utility (abbr. util) or tool.
Utility software should be contrasted with application software, which allows users to do things like
creating text documents, playing games, listening to music or surfing the web. Rather than providing
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these kinds of user-oriented or output-oriented functionality, utility software usually focuses on how the
computer infrastructure (including the computer hardware, operating system, application
software and data storage) operates. Due to this focus, utilities are often rather technical and targeted at
people with an advanced level of computer knowledge.
Most utilities are highly specialized and designed to perform only a single task or a small range of tasks.
However, there are also some utility suites that combine several features in one piece of software.
Most major operating systems come with several pre-installed utilities.
Utility software categories
Disk storage utilities
Disk defragmenters can detect computer files whose contents are broken across several locations onthe hard disk, and move the fragments to one location to increase efficiency.
Disk checkers can scan the contents of a hard disk to find files or areas that are corrupted in some
way, or were not correctly saved, and eliminate them for a more efficiently operating hard drive.
Disk cleaners can find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take up considerable
amounts of space. Disk cleaner helps the user to decide what to delete when their hard disk is full.
Disk space analyzers for the visualization of disk space usage by getting the size for each folder
(including sub folders) & files in folder or drive. showing the distribution of the used space.
Disk partitions can divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each with its own filesystem which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an individual drive.
Backup utilities can make a copy of all information stored on a disk, and restore either the entire disk
(e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an event of accidental deletion).
Disk compression utilities can transparently compress/ uncompress the contents of a disk, increasing
the capacity of the disk.
File managers provide a convenient method of performing routine data management tasks, such as
deleting, renaming, cataloging, uncataloging, moving, copying, merging, generating and modifying
data sets.
Archive utilities output a stream or a single file when provided with a directory or a set of files.
Archive utilities, unlike archive suites, usually do not include compression or encryption capabilities.
Some archive utilities may even have a separate un-archive utility for the reverse operation.
System profilers provide detailed information about the software installed and hardware attached to
the computer.
Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses.
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Hex editors directly modify the text or data of a file. These files could be data or an actual program.
Data compression utilities output a shorter stream or a smaller file when provided with a stream or
file.
Cryptographic utilities encrypt and decrypt streams and files.
Launcher applications provide a convenient access point for application software.
Registry cleaners clean and optimize the Windows registry by removing old registry keys that are no
longer in use.
Network utilities analyze the computer's network connectivity, configure network settings, check
data transfer or log events.
Screensavers were desired to prevent phosphor burn-in on CRT and plasma computer monitors by
blanking the screen or filling it with moving images or patterns when the computer is not in use.
Contemporary screensavers are used primarily for entertainment or security.
c) Shareware, Open source software, Freeware
Shareware is demonstration software that you use for a specific evaluation period (usually 30 days)
without paying a fee. After the evaluation period expires, the shareware provider may require you to
purchase a license for the software or to quit using it. Although it's virtually unenforceable, using
shareware beyond the evaluation period violates copyright laws. Many companies develop their programs
so the features and functions become disabled after 30 days — a polite reminder that the evaluation
period has expired and you should pay for the program.
As the name suggests, freeware is software that's written and distributed freely over the Internet or on
disks. There's no charge to use the software and no trial period. Typically, the author of the software
maintains ownership and copyright of the freeware program and grants licenses for its use. A freeware
license may, for example, bar users from modifying the software or attempting to sell it to others.
Open source software is software that's available in source code form for anyone to use. Although open
source software doesn't have licensing restrictions that limit its use, modification, or redistribution, it
usually has restrictions that preserve its open source status and control its development. Examples of open
source software include the Linux operating system, the Perl scripting language, and the Apache Web
server.
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2. Discuss the relationship between data and information, information and knowledge. Also explainthe concepts of cost and value of information by the help of an example.
Solution : The Relationship Between Data And Information
The relationship between data and information is an interconnected one. Data is raw facts such as phonenumbers or addresses, and information is the organization of these raw facts into a meaningful manner.
The information may be well organized on a report or table and yet not always be meaningful to allpeople. There are different ways to arrange data to make it meaningful for different people. For example,one person might be satisfied with information that shows him or her the towns in which their customerslive in to help him or her determine where the largest volume of customers are. A different person mightwant that information expanded to include those customers street addresses as well so that they maydetermine a better shipping route. Both of these examples contain the same customers and similar data butthe first person would have no use for the street addresses in his search and the second person would nothave enough information to create a shipping route from just the towns.
The type of data used can also affect the information generated. You can gather a great deal of data on theneeds of plants to grow but if you do not put the data in the table correctly or put inaccurate data in youwill get information that is basically useless. That is the garbage in/ garbage out theory. It is also a goodidea when creating a table to group the like characteristics together to make it easier to gather informationfrom the data. Computers now make it easier to input data into tables in a meaningful manner to createinformation that might be useful to someone.
It is now easier to manipulate data and examine it in many different ways from many different points of view quickly. It is in man’s nature to gather data and group things together according to similar data togenerate information that is useful for what they are doing. An example would be similar to one show inthe study guide. An employer is looking for an employee that lives in the Trenton area and speaksSpanish. The older way to find this information was to look through each record and look for the pertinent
data that they are looking for. Then they went to card readers, which was faster but still time consuming.The employer would input all the employee’s cards into a reader and set it to look for those with the rightcriteria. The card reader would then generate information from the data that the employer needs. Thecomputer however is much more efficient. Provided that all information was put into the computercorrectly, the employer can now ask the computer to search for this data and tell it to generate a report.The time is significantly shorter than waiting for the card reader to look through all though cards.
The relationship between Information & knowledge
Information: data that are processed to be useful; provides answers to "who", "what", "where", and"when" questions
Knowledge: application of data and information; answers "how" questions
Information... information is data that has been given meaning by way of relational connection. This"meaning" can be useful, but does not have to be. In computer parlance, a relational database makesinformation from the data stored within it.
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Knowledge... knowledge is the appropriate collection of information, such that it's intent is to be useful.Knowledge is a deterministic process. When someone "memorizes" information (as less-aspiring test-bound students often do), then they have amassed knowledge. This knowledge has useful meaning tothem, but it does not provide for, in and of itself, an integration such as would infer further knowledge.For example, elementary school children memorize, or amass knowledge of, the "times table". They cantell you that "2 x 2 = 4" because they have amassed that knowledge (it being included in the times table).
But when asked what is "1267 x 300", they can not respond correctly because that entry is not in theirtimes table. To correctly answer such a question requires a true cognitive and analytical ability that is onlyencompassed in the next level... understanding. In computer parlance, most of the applications we use(modeling, simulation, etc.) exercise some type of stored knowledge.
Fig: This figure shows the relationship among data, information, knowledge and wisdom
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The concepts of cost and value of information
The decision theory suggests the method of solving the problems of decision making under
certainly risk & uncertainly.
A decision making situation is of certainly when the decision maker has full knowledge about the
alternatives & its outcomes this is possible when perfect information is available. Therefore theinformation has a perceived value in term of decision making.
The decision makes full more secured when additional information is received in case of decision
making under an uncertainly or a risk.
The information is called a perfect information if it wipes out uncertainly or risk completely.
However perfect information is myth.
The decision theory stipulates that the values of the additional information Is the value of the
change in the decision behavior resulted by the information less the cost of obtaining the
information.
If the additional information does not cause any change in the decision behavior then the value of
the additional information is zero. The value of the additional information making the exiting
information perfect (VPI) is:
VPI = ( V2 - V1 ) – ( C2 - C1 )
Where, V is the value of the information,
C is the cost of obtaining the information
V1 & C1 relate to one set of information and
V2 & C2 relate to the new set of information
If the VPI is very high then it is beneficial to serve the additional information need.
If Manager does not know the perfect information about the decision situation then he is faced
with the problem of decision making under uncertainly or risk conditions.
Given a set of the possible decisions a decision maker will select one of the bases of the available
information causes a change in the decision then the value of the new information is the
difference in the value between the outcome of the old decision & that of new information
So information has a value only to those who have the background knowledge to use it in a
decision.
The experienced manager generally uses the information most effectively but he may need less
information as experience has already reduced uncertainly for him when compared to a less
experienced manager.
In MIS the concept of the value of information is used to find out the benefit of perfect
information & if the value is significantly high, the system should provide it. If the value if
insignificant it would not be worth collecting the additional information.
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The decisions at the operational & middle management level are such that the value of the
additional or new information is low, while at the higher levels of the management the decision
being mainly strategic & tactical in nature the value of additional information is very high.
Some information has the strength of motivating the manager to think in futuristic terms.
Some information has the strength of confirming the beliefs or understanding the business
process.
Information has a cost for its acquisition & maintenance. Thus before a particular piece of information is
acquired decision makes must know its value. In decision theory the value of information is the value of
the change in decision behavior because of the information. The change in the behavior due to new
information is measured to determine due to new information is measured to determine the benefits from
its use. To arrive at the value of new information the cost incurred to get this information is deducted
from the benefits.
For Example:
If there are two products A & B to be developed with known pay- offs, as shown in figure.
A 25
B 35
(a) Decision = B
(With existing Information)
(b) Decision = A
(With new Information)
Here in matrix (a), the decision maker will select the product which has got the maximum pay-off i.e.
Product B
However if some additional information is made available to the decision-maker, according to which
the pay-off distribution changes as given in matrix (b).
Now, the decision maker will opt for Product A. The additional or new information Causes the decision maker to choose product A there by increasing
his gain from 30 to 40.
Thus the value of additional information is (40-30) =10 units.
A 40
B 30
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3. Explain the major marketing subsystems and enumerate the advantages of the use of computers insuch subsystems.
Solution : A business information system is the sum of all the tools, techniques, and procedures used by
the business to process data Such a system accepts input data about the business and generates required or
desired output information. These tools, techniques, and procedures may be carried out manually or by acomputer. Most information systems are made up of component subsystems and applications or modules
that are designed to process data in specific areas of business activity. Any business information system
can be divided into processing systems of narrower scope which accept input data, process it, and interact
with each other to produce output information and files of data.
Components of an Information System
The same fundamental ideas apply to both computer-based systems and to manual systems. Indeed, the
component parts of computer-based systems generally parallel those of manual systems since the goals of
both are fundamentally the same. It is realistic to view the activities and data of most businesses as falling
into four major categories cash inflows and outflows, sales and purchases, financial accounting and
budgeting, and manufacturing (cost) accounting. A computer-based information system can then be
logically as viewed consisting of four component subsystems that are identifiable and distinguishable, but
not isolated from one another. Each of these subsystems processes data from a certain area of business
activity, however, each depends upon the other, and reformation must flow between them for the
computer-based system to work.
Figure 1 illustrates the conceptual relationships and the logical flow of business information between
component subsystems and their application modules. As you examine this figure, consider the following
significant points:
1. The entire figure represents a computer-based business reformation system It is composed of four
distinct, but interrelated component subsystems which are represented by the large curved shapes.
2. The major components of such an information system are:
a. A cash receipts and disbursements system.
b. A sales and purchases system.
c. A financial accounting/budgeting system.
d. A manufacturing system.
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3. Each major component, in turn, consists of specific processing applications or modules which are
represented by the rectangular figures. It is these application modules that are the basic braiding blocks of
an information system.
4. It is important to note that information flow between modules is absolutely necessary in a computer-based information system. The arrows indicating reformation flow which intersect the curved shapes
demonstrate that all systems interact with each other through the modules that make up the systems.
5. The conceptual differences between information systems and accounting systems should become
clearer after careful study of Figure 1. Accounting systems process only certain kinds of events, called
transactions, because of the basic assumptions on which accounting is based Information systems, on the
other hand, are capable of processing any information (i e, more than just accounting transactions) that is
useful to management or any other user of the system.
Interdependence of Components
The necessary flow of information between applications makes it unlikely that any individual module, or
even any component subsystem, can successfully stand alone or operate independently. Each of these
modules provide the necessary "environment" for the other. Many processing applications use the same
basic data as input, but require that the data be organized or accessed differently. By the same token, the
output of some applications may be used as input for other applications.
This commonality of data needs makes it possible for a business system to create a basic set of data whichis available to all processing applications and flexible enough to be referenced by these modules in many
different ways. Such a set of data within reach of all processing applications for their use is, of course, a
data base Instead of each application organizing and storing all of its own data (which would necessarily
result in redundancy and duplication throughout the system), the data base concept extracts data that is
common to many application modules and makes it accessible to all. Only with the aid of a computer's
speed and memory is this possible, thus, implementation of the data base idea in a manual system is
generally not feasible.
Important Characteristics of an Information System
All processing applications of business reformation systems have some important characteristics in
common These fundamental ideas can be summarized as follows.
Output reports From each application module some output will be generated to provide information on
which decisions can be based or statements to meet the business' reporting requirements Although it is
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conceivable for a package to produce no printed output, this is not likely to occur very often in business
processing. The ability of computer-based systems to provide information which is not available from a
manual system is one of the primary reasons for their existence. Timely and useful management reports
are one of the significant advantages of an information system.
Interaction with other packages The transfer of data between applications (sometimes called interface)
exists to reduce duplication and redundancy in an reformation system. The capabilities of computer
systems make this kind of interchange between modules relatively easy to carry out as compared to
manual systems It is unusual to find an individual computer-based module that is not made more efficient
by accepting some organized and (at least) partially processed data from another module. By the same
token, almost all modules generate some data which can be used by other applications in the system.
Using easy to understand figures and discussion, this article provides an overview of the information,
data, and transaction flows that occur in a realistic business reformation system. Thus article explains the
four major subsystems - cash receipts and disbursements, sales and purchases, financial accounting and
budgeting, and manufacturing - that comprise such a system as well as the individual processing modules
or applications that actually carry out the system's activities. The focus of this article is on how the parts
of a total system fit together to form a functioning whole A business information system is the sum of all
the tools, techniques, and procedures used by the business to process data Such a system accepts input
data about the business and generates required or desired output information. These tools, techniques, and
procedures may be carried out manually or by a computer. Most information systems are made up of
component subsystems and applications or modules that are designed to process data in specific areas of
business activity. Any business information system can be divided into processing systems of narrower
scope which accept input data, process it, and interact with each other to produce output information and
files of data.
Components of an Information System
The same fundamental ideas apply to both computer-based systems and to manual systems. Indeed, the
component parts of computer-based systems generally parallel those of manual systems since the goals of
both are fundamentally the same. It is realistic to view the activities and data of most businesses as falling
into four major categories cash inflows and outflows, sales and purchases, financial accounting and
budgeting, and manufacturing (cost) accounting. A computer-based information system can then be
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logically as viewed consisting of four component subsystems that are identifiable and distinguishable, but
not isolated from one another. Each of these subsystems processes data from a certain area of business
activity, however, each depends upon the other, and reformation must flow between them for the
computer-based system to work.
Figure 1 illustrates the conceptual relationships and the logical flow of business information between
component subsystems and their application modules. As you examine this figure, consider the following
significant points:
1. The entire figure represents a computer-based business reformation system It is composed of four
distinct, but interrelated component subsystems which are represented by the large curved shapes.
2. The major components of such an information system are:
a. A cash receipts and disbursements system.
b. A sales and purchases system.
c. A financial accounting/budgeting system.
d. A manufacturing system.
3. Each major component, in turn, consists of specific processing applications or modules which are
represented by the rectangular figures. It is these application modules that are the basic braiding blocks of
an information system.
4. It is important to note that information flow between modules is absolutely necessary in a computer-
based information system. The arrows indicating reformation flow which intersect the curved shapes
demonstrate that all systems interact with each other through the modules that make up the systems.
5. The conceptual differences between information systems and accounting systems should become
clearer after careful study of Figure 1. Accounting systems process only certain kinds of events, called
transactions, because of the basic assumptions on which accounting is based Information systems, on the
other hand, are capable of processing any information (i e, more than just accounting transactions) that is
useful to management or any other user of the system.
Interdependence of Components
The necessary flow of information between applications makes it unlikely that any individual module, or
even any component subsystem, can successfully stand alone or operate independently. Each of these
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modules provide the necessary "environment" for the other. Many processing applications use the same
basic data as input, but require that the data be organized or accessed differently. By the same token, the
output of some applications may be used as input for other applications.
This commonality of data needs makes it possible for a business system to create a basic set of data whichis available to all processing applications and flexible enough to be referenced by these modules in many
different ways. Such a set of data within reach of all processing applications for their use is, of course, a
data base Instead of each application organizing and storing all of its own data (which would necessarily
result in redundancy and duplication throughout the system), the data base concept extracts data that is
common to many application modules and makes it accessible to all. Only with the aid of a computer's
speed and memory is this possible, thus, implementation of the data base idea in a manual system is
generally not feasible.
Important Characteristics of an Information System
All processing applications of business reformation systems have some important characteristics in
common These fundamental ideas can be summarized as follows.
Output reports From each application module some output will be generated to provide information on
which decisions can be based or statements to meet the business' reporting requirements Although it is
conceivable for a package to produce no printed output, this is not likely to occur very often in business
processing. The ability of computer-based systems to provide information which is not available from a
manual system is one of the primary reasons for their existence. Timely and useful management reports
are one of the significant advantages of an information system.
Interaction with other packages The transfer of data between applications (sometimes called interface)
exists to reduce duplication and redundancy in an reformation system. The capabilities of computer
systems make this kind of interchange between modules relatively easy to carry out as compared to
manual systems It is unusual to find an individual computer-based module that is not made more efficient
by accepting some organized and (at least) partially processed data from another module. By the same
token, almost all modules generate some data which can be used by other applications in the system.
Inquiry and response capability. Given the inherent advantages of speed and memory possessed by
computers, much of the benefit of computer-based systems is lost if critical pieces of information are not
available on request from the system. The immediate availability of up-to-date information by direct
inquiry to the system is one of the most significant advantages of computer systems.
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Data organization into files. The concepts of file, record, and data-item are essential to every computer-
based application. Since the computer does not have intuition, judgment, or reasoning powers, the
organization of input data must follow a known logical design. This logical design most often results in
each module having access to a permanent master file which is updated with each processing run by a file
of current activity. Although other types of files are sometimes necessary, the basic concept of master and
transaction files is common to all applications.
Data Organization and Input
To generate output reports the computer system must have access to certain input data, and this data must
be organized so that processing can be done efficiently. The input data to any system can be thought of as
falling into three categories.
Constant or Report Files. Relatively permanent data may be used over and over as input to a applicationmodule, but this data is not altered by the processing that takes place and is changed externally only
occasionally. This data may consist of constants, such as tax rates and limits, exemption amounts,
deduction percentages, and so on, or headings and titles to be used in output reports such as financial
statements.
There are two basic approaches to accomplishing this type of constant data input. The simplest approach
is to maintain a different computer program for each set of constants or report to be printed, and to make
headings, titles, subtotal, and total format a part of the program. This approach does, however, require that
the program be changed if a change in permanent data or report format is desired. The other basic
approach to handling permanent data makes it possible to change this data almost at will without the
necessity for altering the computer programs of a system. It involves the creation of a permanent input file
which specifies the constant data to be used or the headings, titles, subtotal, and total format for each
output report. Such a file is often called a constant data or report format file or report writer file.
Master Files. Semipermanent data of a cumulative nature may be input, then processed and changed by
the processing (this is usually called updating), and then become output to be updated again in later
processing. An example of this type of input data are the balances in general ledger accounts. Generalledger data is kept in a file and at the end of each period the account balances are updated for all of the
transactions (increases and decreases) that occurred during the period. The ending balances in each
account would then be stored and become input to the next period's transaction processing. All business
processing modules require at least one file of this kind of data. Files of this type are called master files.
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Transaction Files. Current data pertaining to activity of the present period must be processed and then
may or may not be stored in its raw form. This current data represents the basis for the updating of
cumulative (master) files. An example, consistent with the master file discussed above, would be the
accounting transactions that take place during a time period whose effect must ultimately be reflected in
general ledger balances. All business processing involves this type of data input because without current
activity no processing would be necessary. Files of current activity data are called current or transaction
files.
Now that we have an overview of the important characteristics and relationships in a business information
system, the remaining sections will discuss the component subsystems that make-up the total system.
The Cash Receipts and Disbursements Subsystem
The processing applications of this system are probably the best-known computer-based modules. Theyare usually the first processing applications to be computerized because they are relatively easy to convert
and represent highly visible activity areas for most businesses.
Accounts Receivable and Accounts Payable
The cash receipts and disbursements subsystem stands between (in an information flow sense) the other
major component subsystems. The accounts receivable and accounts payable applications receive input
from the sales and purchases subsystem and provide output to that system. Since accounts receivable are
affected by both sales and cash receipts, and accounts payable are affected by purchases and cashdisbursements, this interaction is not surprising. In addition, the receivables and payables modules
produce essential transaction processing information for inclusion in the general ledger by the financial
accounting/budgeting subsystem.
Payroll
The payroll application is interesting because it represents the closest thing to a stand-alone module in
business systems. Payroll applications can and sometimes do exist as the sole computerized area of
business activity, since no input from other areas may be necessary for the module to work. However, as
business activity becomes more complex and sales or other activity-related variables become important
factors in the determination of compensation, data from the sales and purchases subsystem may become
either very desirable or absolutely necessary input to the payroll package. The most common example of
this type of situation is a company with a large sales payroll where sales pay is based primarily on
commissions. Here, input from a sales analysis module is essential to payroll since, at the very least, a
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breakdown of sales by salesperson is needed for the payroll calculation. Also, payroll processing does
generate output information to be included in the general ledger.
The Sales and Purchases Subsystem
These modules represent the point of original data entry into the information system for many important
transactions and events. As such, there is significant information flow among the individual modules
which make up the sales and purchases subsystem as well as between these modules and those of the cash
receipts and disbursements and manufacturing subsystems. In addition, there is limited one-way
information flow from this system to the financial accounting system.
Order Processing and Inventory Management
The sales and purchases subsystem interacts significantly with the cash receipts and disbursements
subsystem. There is an 'important pairing of packages between these component systems. Order
processing and accounts receivable combine to process data on sales and cash receipts, while inventory
management and accounts payable combine to process data on purchases and cash disbursements. For
example, sales invoice summary information is passed from order processing, where these invoices are
created, to accounts receivable so that the customer master file can be updated.
At the same time, information on the status of individual customer accounts can be returned to order,
processing to aid in sales order and credit granting decisions. Similarly, accounts payable receives
purchase invoice summaries from inventory management, where they are created, in order to update thevendor master file and returns vendor activity breakdowns which aid in making purchasing decisions.
Sales Analysis
Sales analysis is the only application of the sales and purchases subsystem which directly interacts with
the financial accounting/budgeting system. Data from order processing and inventory management are
ultimately included in the general ledger, but only after being processed and summarized by the cash
receipts and disbursements subsystem. Output from sales analysis, however, is incorporated into the
budgeting function directly, so that detailed comparisons of performance by product, territory,
salesperson, customer, or other basis can be readily made. Also, this sales analysis output provides a
sound basis for the preparation or revision of future financial budgets. Sales analysis by salesperson can
also be used in the calculation of payroll where compensation is based on commissions. Because most
detailed data on sales and collections is processed and stored in accounts receivable, important
information flow also takes place between sales analysis and accounts receivable.
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Components of a Financial Accounting/Budgeting System
In many ways, this is the most basic of the processing systems. It is designed to handle the bookkeeping
and accounting cycle events for a business, from recording transactions to the production of period-end
external financial statements, and reports on the comparison of actual results to budgeted (expected)figures.
General Ledger
The cash receipts and disbursements system provides input to the general ledger application of the
financial accounting/budgeting system. This is necessary because the accounts receivable, accounts
payable, and payroll applications provide much of the data necessary for the creation of the cash receipts
and cash disbursements journals, as well as the sales and purchases journals. Direct system input (i.e., not
from other modules) to the general ledger module would involve those transactions and data that are nothandled by the other processing applications. These transactions would usually be those found in the
company's general journal. Periodically, a listing is produced of all general ledger accounts and beginning
balances, together with a summary of the increase and decrease activity in each account and the resulting
ending balances. A trial balance could then be produced and, at the end of each period, the traditional
accounting financial statements can be produced according to any format specified by the system user.
In addition, detailed listings of all transactions together with posting references can be produced so that an
audit trail of all activity through the system in either direction can be established.
Control and Budgeting
An important part of a financial accounting/budgeting system is the control aspect. Budgeting is an vital
part of any control system and can be accomplished as an extension of financial statement preparation.
The master budget for a business consists of a projected income statement (sometimes called a profit
plan), a statement of projected cash needs (a cash budget), and a projected balance sheet. These pro forma
reports constitute a formal statement of expectations for the future as well as the standard or benchmark
against which actual results will be compared. The financial accounting system can produce budgeted
statements in the same format as actual period-end financial statements so that departures from expected
results in any important revenue, expense, or other category can be disclosed by the system and
highlighted for management analysis and action.
At the same time, information on the status of individual customer accounts can be returned to order,
processing to aid in sales order and credit granting decisions. Similarly, accounts payable receives
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purchase invoice summaries from inventory management, where they are created, in order to update the
vendor master file and returns vendor activity breakdowns which aid in making purchasing decisions.
Sales Analysis
Sales analysis is the only application of the sales and purchases subsystem which directly interacts with
the financial accounting/budgeting system. Data from order processing and inventory management are
ultimately included in the general ledger, but only after being processed and summarized by the cash
receipts and disbursements subsystem. Output from sales analysis, however, is incorporated into the
budgeting function directly, so that detailed comparisons of performance by product, territory,
salesperson, customer, or other basis can be readily made. Also, this sales analysis output provides a
sound basis for the preparation or revision of future financial budgets. Sales analysis by salesperson can
also be used in the calculation of payroll where compensation is based on commissions. Because most
detailed data on sales and collections is processed and stored in accounts receivable, important
information flow also takes place between sales analysis and accounts receivable.
Components of a Financial Accounting/Budgeting System
In many ways, this is the most basic of the processing systems. It is designed to handle the bookkeeping
and accounting cycle events for a business, from recording transactions to the production of period-end
external financial statements, and reports on the comparison of actual results to budgeted (expected)
figures.
General Ledger
The cash receipts and disbursements system provides input to the general ledger application of the
financial accounting/budgeting system. This is necessary because the accounts receivable, accounts
payable, and payroll applications provide much of the data necessary for the creation of the cash receipts
and cash disbursements journals, as well as the sales and purchases journals. Direct system input (i.e., not
from other modules) to the general ledger module would involve those transactions and data that are not
handled by the other processing applications. These transactions would usually be those found in the
company's general journal. Periodically, a listing is produced of all general ledger accounts and beginning
balances, together with a summary of the increase and decrease activity in each account and the resulting
ending balances. A trial balance could then be produced and, at the end of each period, the traditional
accounting financial statements can be produced according to any format specified by the system user.
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In addition, detailed listings of all transactions together with posting references can be produced so that an
audit trail of all activity through the system in either direction can be established.
Control and Budgeting
An important part of a financial accounting/budgeting system is the control aspect. Budgeting is an vital
part of any control system and can be accomplished as an extension of financial statement preparation.
The master budget for a business consists of a projected income statement (sometimes called a profit
plan), a statement of projected cash needs (a cash budget), and a projected balance sheet. These pro forma
reports constitute a formal statement of expectations for the future as well as the standard or benchmark
against which actual results will be compared. The financial accounting system can produce budgeted
statements in the same format as actual period-end financial statements so that departures from expected
results in any important revenue, expense, or other category can be disclosed by the system and
highlighted for management analysis and action.
The MRP module produces a master production schedule based on actual sales as accumulated by the
order processing module and on forecasted sales from the budgeting module. Based on the bills of
material, MRP determines the quantity of materials, subassemblies, and other component items needed to
meet the forecasted demand. This calculated amount is then compared to inventory on hand and inventory
on order to determine necessary management actions. The MRP module will advise management whether
to reorder certain items, cancel orders for items no longer needed, or to make no changes to the ordering
plans. The objective of this application is to increase efficiency by improving productivity and customerservice, while keeping inventory levels at the minimum necessary to meet demand.
Production Monitoring
This application assists management in controlling material and labor costs and provides data to update
inventory, payroll, and production costing. Data may be entered as activities occur or accumulated and
entered in batch format from a display station at a later time.
As data are entered, the application categorizes it, for example, as labor data or inventory data. Employee
time and attendance data records are sent to payroll for the processing of paychecks. The inventory data
are checked for reasonableness, formatted into output reports and used to update inventory management
and production costing. Inventory management receives information on receipts and issues of goods.
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Summary
The component subsystems and application modules discussed have some important characteristics in
common. Each subsystem and module we have discussed has exhibited the following attributes:
Output reports of varying form, content, and frequency.
Interfaces (the exchange of information) with other modules.
Inquiry and response (interactive) capability.
Data organization into files.
Use of terminals (work stations) to input data, initiate processing, and receive output.
4. Describe the significant features of each of Visual Basic, Java, HTML, Excel and COBOLbriefly.
Solution :
Visual Basic
Visual Basic (VB) is the third-generation event-driven programming language and integrated
development environment (IDE) from Microsoft for its COM programming model. Visual Basic is
relatively easy to learn and use. Visual Basic was derived from BASIC and enables the rapid application
development (RAD)of graphical user interface (GUI) applications, access to databases using Data Access
Objects, Remote Data Objects, or ActiveX Data Objects, and creation of ActiveX controls and
objects. Scripting languages such as VBA and VBScript are syntactically similar to Visual Basic, but
perform differently. A programmer can put together an application using the components provided with
Visual Basic itself. Programs written in Visual Basic can also use the Windows API, but doing so requires
external function declarations.
The final release was version 6 in 1998. Microsoft's extended support ended in March 2008 and the
designated successor was Visual Basic .NET (now known simply as Visual Basic).
Characteristics
Visual Basic has the following traits which differ from C-derived languages:
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Multiple assignment available in C language is not possible. A = B = C does not imply that the values
of A, B and C are equal. The boolean result of "Is B = C?" is stored in A. The result stored in A
would therefore be either false or true.
Boolean constant True has numeric value −1. This is because the Boolean data type is stored as a 16- bit signed integer. In this construct −1 evaluates to 16 binary 1s (the Boolean value True), and 0 as 16
0s (the Boolean value False). This is apparent when performing a Not operation on a 16 bit signed
integer value 0 which will return the integer value −1, in other words True = Not False. This inherent
functionality becomes especially useful when performing logical operations on the individual bits of
an integer such as And,Or, Xor and Not. This definition of True is also consistent with BASIC since
the early 1970s Microsoft BASIC implementation and is also related to the characteristics of CPU
instructions at the time.
Logical and bitwise operators are unified. This is unlike some C-derived languages (such as Perl),
which have separate logical and bitwise operators. This again is a traditional feature of BASIC.
Variable array base. Arrays are declared by specifying the upper and lower bounds in a way similar
to Pascal and Fortran. It is also possible to use the Option Base statement to set the default lower
bound. Use of the Option Base statement can lead to confusion when reading Visual Basic code and
is best avoided by always explicitly specifying the lower bound of the array. This lower bound is not
limited to 0 or 1, because it can also be set by declaration. In this way, both the lower and upper
bounds are programmable. In more subscript-limited languages, the lower bound of the array is not
variable. This uncommon trait does exist in Visual Basic .NET but not in VBScript.
OPTION BASE was introduced by ANSI, with the standard for ANSI Minimal BASIC in the late 1970s.
Relatively strong integration with the Windows operating system and the Component Object Model.
The native types for strings and arrays are the dedicated COM types, BSTR and SAFEARRAY.
Banker's rounding as the default behavior when converting real numbers to integers with
the Round function. ? Round(2.5, 0) gives 2, ? Round(3.5, 0) gives 4.
Integers are automatically promoted to reals in expressions involving the normal division operator (/)
so that division of one integer by another produces the intuitively correct result. There is a specific
integer divide operator (\) which does truncate.
By default, if a variable has not been declared or if no type declaration character is specified, the
variable is of type Variant. However this can be changed with Deftype statements such
as DefInt, DefBool, DefVar, DefObj, DefStr. There are 12 Deftypestatements in total offered by
Visual Basic 6.0. The default type may be overridden for a specific declaration by using a special
suffix character on the variable name (# for Double, ! for Single, & for Long, % for Integer, $ for
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String, and @ for Currency) or using the key phrase As (type). VB can also be set in a mode that only
explicitly declared variables can be used with the command Option Explicit.
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JAVAJava is an object-oriented programming language developed by Sun Microsystems in 1990s. Since then,
Java has gained enormous popularity as a computer language. Java was chosen as the programming
language for network computers. It is a universal front end for enterprise database. Sun Microsystems
states that, ―Java is a simple, object-oriented, distributed, secure, architecture, robust, multi threaded and
dynamic language. The program can be written once, and run anywhere‖. One of the most significant
advantages of Java is that, it has the ability to move easily from one computer to another. It also has the
ability to run the same program on many different operating systems. With such exemplary benefits, Java
is a hot favorite among techies and software professionals.
Java has significant advantages compared to other languages. Java language is easy to use and therefore
easy to write, compile, debug. Moreover, it is easier to learn when compared to other programming
languages. Since Java is object-oriented, it allows you to create modular programs and reusable codes.
Platform-independent, Java is a robust language. The language lays more importance on early checking
for errors, since Java compilers can detect many problems during the time of execution of an application.
Java is multithreaded, since it has the capability for a program to perform several tasks simultaneously
within the same program. Java Development has gained a significant position in the industry with
programmers and developers finding it easier and more effective than many other languages.
Java applications are designed to be compiled and then interpreted at runtime, unlike the conventional
programming languages, which can either compile source code to native code or interpret the source
code. The language itself has borrowed the syntax from C and C++. Java considers security as a part of itsdesign. The Java language, its compiler, interpreter, and runtime environment are all developed with
security. Writing network programs in Java is similar to sending and receiving data to and from a file.
The Java programming language was developed and re-designed for use on the Internet. In the internet
domain, Java’s popularity has increased tremendously, especially on the server side of the Internet.
Nowadays, there are a large number of Java experts who strive for the enhancement and improvement of
Java development. For beginners who are interested in learning Java, the numerous Java tutorials
available online are good to start with. Java tutorials and Java tips are the best resources for learning and
improvising in Java.
Java Developmentexperts are trying to enhance their programming skills for writing secure Java
applications. In order to write a secure code in Java you need to be aware of various things such as data
handling techniques, user authentication rules, access controls etc. JavaScript is a scripting language
which shares a similar name and has the same syntax, but is in no way related to the core Java language.
Few steps are crucial for a secure Java application development. They are logical software design, proper
validation, well planed application development and standardized security test. Java has become the
language of choice world over for providing effective and sure-fire Internet solutions.
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HTML
HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) is the set of markup symbols or codes inserted in a file intended fordisplay on a World Wide Web browserpage. The markup tells the Web browser how to display a Webpage's words and images for the user. Each individual markup code is referred to as an element (but manypeople also refer to it as a tag). Some elements come in pairs that indicate when some display effect is to
begin and when it is to end.HTML is a formal Recommendation by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) and is generallyadhered to by the major browsers, Microsoft's Internet Explorer and Netscape's Navigator, which alsoprovide some additional non-standard codes. The current version of HTML is HTML 4.0. However, bothInternet Explorer and Netscape implement some features differently and provide non-standard extensions.Web developers using the more advanced features of HTML 4 may have to design pages for bothbrowsers and send out the appropriate version to a user. Significant features in HTML 4 are sometimesdescribed in general as dynamic HTML. What is sometimes referred to as HTML 5 is an extensible formof HTML called Extensible Hypertext Markup Language (XHTML)
HTMLUI is very easy to use with complete designer integration. The control is very powerful, and rich
interfaces can be created with minimal coding. HTMLUI is also suitable for a wide variety of applicationsthat require a flexible user interface. It can be used as a HTML rendering control (example: light-weight
HTML browser, embedded HTML viewer, etc.) or a 'super' layout control (example: rich user interface
with localization support).
IE Independent
HTMLUI is completely independent of Internet Explorer. This provides full independence in defining
the control's appearance and settings. HTMLUI will not be affected by Internet Explorer related security
issues.
Programmatic Access
HTML elements displayed in the current document are exposed as programmatic elements that can be
manipulated from the application code. The elements expose standard events such as Click,
MouseMove and MouseDown. The content and appearance of all elements can be changed from within
code.
Source Code
HTMLUI is written in C# and is available with full source code. The source code can be integrated into
your development environment for debugging. Samples with source code are provided in C# and
VB.NET.
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Excel
Excel is a commercial spreadsheet application written and distributed byMicrosoft for Microsoft
Windows and Mac OS X. It features calculation, graphing tools, pivot tables and a macro programming
language called Visual Basic for Applications. It has been a very widely applied spreadsheet for these
platforms, especially since version 5 in 1993. Excel forms part of Microsoft Office. The current versions
are 2010 for Windows and 2011 for Mac.
Manage your finances with Excel. Create a personal or family budget and track your income andexpenses by month or year. Create a spreadsheet that helps you plan and track your savings forretirement, or for your child's college education. Use Excel's built-in mathematical functions toautomatically calculate routine or complex equations.
Create a calendar or schedule with Excel. Whether it's a weekly, monthly or yearly calendar for yourfamily; a personal daily appointment planner; or a schedule for managing homework, bill payments,or your favorite sport team's games, Excel makes it easy to organize, filter and search through largeamounts of data.
Plan and manage a project or event with Excel. Whether you are planning a large work project or awedding or holiday party, use Excel to keep track of multiple tasks and deadlines, and the schedulesof other participants or collaborators--and as a central database of all information and files you needto execute the project or event.
Create lists through Excel. Excel's convenient tabular layout makes it easy to format many differenttypes of lists. Create checklists to make traveling and packing easier. Create an emergency phone listfor your babysitter. Manage your book, wine or DVD collections via lists. Run your household betterby using Excel lists to manage your groceries, chores and holiday gift-giving.
Create an address book to manage your mailing labels. Excel's extensive "filter," "sort" and "search"
functions make it easy to create and manage a large contact database. You will be able to find andsort contacts by city, state, street, last name or birthday, or by whatever other criteria and detail youenter. When you need to create mailing labels to send greeting cards or announcements, use Excel'smail-merge feature to quickly format and print out the names and addresses of your contacts.
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COBOL
COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) was one of the earliest high-level programming
languages. It was developed in 1959 by a group of computer professionals called the Conference on Data
Systems Languages (CODASYL). Since 1959 it has undergone several modifications and improvements.
In an attempt to overcome the problem of incompatibility between different versions of COBOL, the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) developed a standard form of the language in 1968. This
version was known as American National Standard (ANS) COBOL. In 1974, ANSI published a revised
version of (ANS) COBOL, containing a number of features that were not in the 1968 version. In 1985,
ANSI published still another revised version that had new features not in the 1974 standard. The language
continues to evolve today. Object-oriented COBOL is a subset of COBOL 97, which is the fourth edition
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in the continuing evolution of ANSI/ISO standard COBOL. COBOL 97 includes conventional
improvements as well as object-oriented features. Like the C++ programming language, object-oriented
COBOL compilers are available even as the language moves toward standardization.
Significant Language Features
The language that automated business Allows names to be truly connotative - permits both long names (up to 30 characters) and word-
connector characters (dashes) Every variable is defined in detail - this includes number of decimal digits and the location of the
implied decimal point File records are also described with great detail, as are lines to be output to a printer - ideal for
printing accounting reports Offers object, visual programming environments Class Libraries Rapid Application Capabilities Integration with the World Wide Web
COBOL, long associated with green screens, core dumps, and traditional mainframe connections, may atfirst glance seem at odds with object technology, push-button graphical interfaces, and interactivedevelopment environments. This perceived incongruity, however, is more a reflection of the mainframe’sability to keep pace with the innovations of desktop and client-server computing than a flaw in theCOBOL language.
Areas of Application
COBOL is ideally suited for the solution of business problems. For example, if a company wanted to keeptrack of its employees’ annual wages, COBOL would be ideal language for implementation. It isinteresting to note that COBOL was the first programming language whose use was mandated bythe Department of Defense (DoD).
Sample Programs
Hello world!
Accept_Num
Salesperson File
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Hello World
Description
This program demonstrates the text output function of the COBOL programming language by displayingthe message "Hello world!".
Source Code
000100 IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.000200 PROGRAM-ID. HELLOWORLD.000300000400*000500 ENVIRONMENT DIVISION.000600 CONFIGURATION SECTION.000700 SOURCE-COMPUTER. RM-COBOL.000800 OBJECT-COMPUTER. RM-COBOL.000900001000 DATA DIVISION.001100 FILE SECTION.001200100000 PROCEDURE DIVISION.100100100200 MAIN-LOGIC SECTION.100300 BEGIN.100400 DISPLAY " " LINE 1 POSITION 1 ERASE EOS.100500 DISPLAY "Hello world!" LINE 15 POSITION 10.100600 STOP RUN.100700 MAIN-LOGIC-EXIT.100800 EXIT.
Accept Num
Description
This program accepts two numbers and adds them together.
Source Code
000100 ID DIVISION.000200 PROGRAM-ID. ACCEPT1.000300 DATA DIVISION.000400 WORKING-STORAGE SECTION.000500 01 WS-FIRST-NUMBER PIC 9(3).000600 01 WS-SECOND-NUMBER PIC 9(3).000700 01 WS-TOTAL PIC ZZZ9.000800*000900 PROCEDURE DIVISION.
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001000 0000-MAINLINE.001100 DISPLAY 'ENTER A NUMBER: '.001200 ACCEPT WS-FIRST-NUMBER.001300*001400 DISPLAY 'ANOTHER NUMBER: '.001500 ACCEPT WS-SECOND-NUMBER.
001600*001700 COMPUTE WS-TOTAL = WS-FIRST-NUMBER + WS-SECOND-NUMBER.001800 DISPLAY 'THE TOTAL IS: ', WS-TOTAL.001900 STOP RUN.
Sample Run
ENTER A NUMBER: 7ANOTHER NUMBER: 7THE TOTAL IS: 14
Program Notes
This program was tested and run using the RM/1 COBOL compiler.
Sales Person file
Description
This program takes all input records of salesperson data and writes it to an output file reformatted.
Source Code
000100 ID DIVISION.000200 PROGRAM-ID. SLS02.000300 FILE-CONTROL.000400 SELECT SALESPERSON-FILE000500 ASSIGN TO DISK.
000600 SELECT REPORT-FILE000700 ASSIGN TO PRINTER.000800 DATA DIVISION.000900 FILE SECTION.001000 FD SALESPERSON-FILE.001100 01 SALESPERSON-RECORD.001200 05 FILLER PIC XX.001300 05 SP-NUMBER PIC X(4).001400 05 SP-NAME PIC X(18).
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001500 05 FILLER PIC X(21).001600 05 SP-CURRENT-SALES PIC 9(5)V99.001700 05 SP-CURRENT-RETURNS PIC 9(4)V99.001800 FD REPORT-FILE.001900 01 REPORT-RECORD.002000 05 FILLER PIC X(10).
002100 05 RT-NUMBER PIC X(4).002200 05 FILLER PIC X(6).002300 05 RT-NAME PIC X(18).002400 05 FILLER PIC X(6).002500 05 RT-CURRENT-SALES PIC ZZ,ZZZ.99.002600 05 FILLER PIC X(6).002700 05 RT-CURRENT-RETURNS PIC Z,ZZZ.99.002800 05 FILLER PIC X(65).002900 WORKING-STORAGE SECTION.003000 01 WS-EOF-FLAG PIC X.003100*003200 PROCEDURE DIVISION.
003300*003400 MAIN-ROUTINE.003500 OPEN INPUT SALESPERSON-FILE003600 OUTPUT REPORT-FILE003700 MOVE "N" TO WS-EOF-FLAG003800 READ SALESPERSON-FILE003900 AT END MOVE "Y" TO WS-EOF-FLAG004000 END-READ004100*004200 PERFORM UNTIL WS-EOF-FLAG IS EQUAL TO "Y"004300 MOVE SPACES TO REPORT-RECORD004400 MOVE SP-NUMBER TO RT-NUMBER
004500 MOVE SP-NAME TO RT-NAME004600 MOVE SP-CURRENT-SALES TO RT-CURRENT-SALES004700 MOVE SP-CURRENT-RETURNS TO RT-CURRENT-RETURNS004800 WRITE REPORT-RECORD004900 READ SALESPERSON-FILE005000 AT END MOVE "Y" TO WS-EOF-FLAG005100 END-READ005200 END-PERFORM005300*005400 CLOSE SALESPERSON-FILE, REPORT-FILE005500 STOP RUN.
Sample Run
0005 BENNETT ROBERT 1,600.35 12.500016 LOCK ANDREW S 357.72 79.850080 PARKER JAMES E 18,200.00 165.000401 REDDING OLIVIA 16,123.99 2,301.751375 BENTON ALEX J 3,250.00 56.50
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1442 ADAMS JUNE R 4,635.21 125.161842 COLE ROBERT N 14,285.14 6,385.29
Program Notes
This program was tested and run using the RM/ COBOL-85 compiler.
5. Define decision support system in your own words. Also illustrate the concept using yourorganizational context.
Solution : A decision support system (DSS) is a computer-based information system that supports
business or organizational decision-makingactivities. DSSs serve the management, operations, and
planning levels of an organization and help to make decisions, which may be rapidly changing and not
easily specified in advance.
DSSs include knowledge-based systems. A properly designed DSS is an interactive software-based
system intended to help decision makers compile useful information from a combination of raw data,
documents, personal knowledge, or business models to identify and solve problems and make decisions.
Typical information that a decision support application might gather and present are:
inventories of information assets (including legacy and relational data sources, cubes, data
warehouses, and data marts),
comparative sales figures between one period and the next,
projected revenue figures based on product sales assumptions.
Three fundamental components of a DSS architecture are:[5][6][10][11][12]
1. the database (or knowledge base),
2. the model (i.e., the decision context and user criteria), and
3. the user interface.
The users themselves are also important components of the architecture
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Development Frameworks
DSS systems are not entirely different from other systems and require a structured approach. Such a
framework includes people, technology, and the development approach.
DSS technology levels (of hardware and software) may include:
1. The actual application that will be used by the user. This is the part of the application that allows
the decision maker to make decisions in a particular problem area. The user can act upon that
particular problem.
2. Generator contains Hardware/software environment that allows people to easily develop specific
DSS applications. This level makes use of case tools or systems such as Crystal, AIMMS,
and iThink.
3. Tools include lower level hardware/software. DSS generators including special languages,
function libraries and linking modules
An iterative developmental approach allows for the DSS to be changed and redesigned at various
intervals. Once the system is designed, it will need to be tested and revised for the desired outcome.
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Classification
There are several ways to classify DSS applications. Not every DSS fits neatly into one category, but may
be a mix of two or more architectures.
Holsapple and Whinston classify DSS into the following six frameworks: Text-oriented DSS, Database-
oriented DSS, Spreadsheet-oriented DSS, Solver-oriented DSS, Rule-oriented DSS, and Compound DSS.
A compound DSS is the most popular classification for a DSS. It is a hybrid system that includes two or
more of the five basic structures described by Holsapple and Whinston.
The support given by DSS can be separated into three distinct, interrelated categories Personal Support,
Group Support, and Organizational Support.
DSS components may be classified as:
1. Inputs: Factors, numbers, and characteristics to analyze
2. User Knowledge and Expertise: Inputs requiring manual analysis by the user
3. Outputs: Transformed data from which DSS "decisions" are generated
4. Decisions: Results generated by the DSS based on user criteria
DSSs which perform selected cognitive decision-making functions and are based on artificial
intelligence or intelligent agents technologies are called Intelligent Decision Support Systems (IDSS).
The nascent field of Decision engineering treats the decision itself as an engineered object, and applies
engineering principles such asDesign and Quality assurance to an explicit representation of the elements
that make up a decision.
One example is the clinical decision support system for medical diagnosis. Other examples include a bank
loan officer verifying the credit of a loan applicant or an engineering firm that has bids on several projects
and wants to know if they can be competitive with their costs.
DSS is extensively used in business and management. Executive dashboard and other business
performance software allow faster decision making, identification of negative trends, and better allocation
of business resources.
A growing area of DSS application, concepts, principles, and techniques is in agricultural production,
marketing for sustainable development. For example, the DSSAT4 package, developed through financial
support of USAID during the 80's and 90's, has allowed rapid assessment of several agricultural
production systems around the world to facilitate decision-making at the farm and policy levels. There
are, however, many constraints to the successful adoption on DSS in agriculture. DSS are also prevalent
in forest management where the long planning time frame demands specific requirements. All aspects of
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Forest management, from log transportation, harvest scheduling to sustainability and ecosystem
protection have been addressed by modern DSSs. A comprehensive list and discussion of all available
systems in forest management is being compiled under the COST action Forsys A specific example
concerns the Canadian National Railway system, which tests its equipment on a regular basis using a
decision support system. A problem faced by any railroad is worn-out or defective rails, which can result
in hundreds of derailments per year. Under a DSS, CN managed to decrease the incidence of derailments
at the same time other companies were experiencing an increase.
Benefits
1. Improves personal efficiency
2. Speed up the process of decision making
3. Increases organizational control
4. Encourages exploration and discovery on the part of the decision maker
5. Speeds up problem solving in an organization
6. Facilitates interpersonal communication
7. Promotes learning or training
8. Generates new evidence in support of a decision
9. Creates a competitive advantage over competition
10. Reveals new approaches to thinking about the problem space
11. Helps automate managerial processes