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NUML Journal of Critical Inquiry ISSN 2222-5706

Vol 14 (II), Dec, 2016

Indexed & Abstracted by Proquest & Ebscohost HEC Recognized Multidisciplinary Journal in “Category Y”

Chief Editor

Dr. Muhammad Safeer Awan Dean, Faculty of English Studies & Languages

National University of Modern Languages

Editor

Dr. Farheen Ahmed Hashmi Director Publications

National University of Modern Languages

NATION

AL U

NIV

ER

SITY OF MOD

ERN

LA

NG

UA

GES

PUBLICATION BRANCH NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MODERN LANGUAGES

ISLAMABAD, PAKISTAN

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Patron-in-Chief Maj. Gen. (R) Zia Uddin Najam HI (M)

Rector, National University of Modern Languages

Patron Brig. Riaz Ahmed Gondal

DG, National University of Modern Languages

Editorial Board

Dr. Randi Reppen Professor English Department Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, USA

Dr. Robin Truth Goodman Professor The English Department Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA

Dr. James D'Angelo Professor Department of World Englishes Chukyo University, Nagoya, Japan

Dr. Almuth Degener Associate Professor Department of Indology University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany

Dr. Sergei Serebriany Director E. M. Meletinsky Institute for Advanced Studies in the Humanities Russian State University for the Humanities, Moscow, Russia

Dr. Haj Ross Professor Department of Linguistics and Technical Communication, College of Arts & Sciences University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA

Dr. Masood Ashraf Raja Associate Professor Department of English College of Arts & Sciences University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA

Dr. Steven Talmy Associate Professor Department of Language & Literacy Education University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

Dr. John Gibbons Adjunct Professor School of Languages, Cultures and Linguistics Monash University, Malbourne, Australia

Dr. Maria Staton Assistant Professor Department of English Ball State University, Muncie, IN, USA

Dr. Ryan Skinnell Assistant Professor Department of English & Comparative Literature College of Humanities & the Arts San José State University, San José, CA, USA

Dr. Ummul Khair Ahmad Associate Professor Language Academy Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia

Dr. Jesse Egbert Assistant Professor Department of Linguistics & English Language Brigham Young University, Prove, UT, USA

Dr. Claire Chambers Lecturer in Global Literature Department of English and Related Literature University of York, Heslington, York, UK

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Dr. Dawn Langley Dean General Education & Development Studies Piedmont Community College, Roxboro, NC, USA

Dr. Bernhard Kelle Professor of Linguistics University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany

Dr. Nelofer Halai Professor Institute for Educational Development Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan

Dr. Samina Amin Qadir Vice Chancellor Fatima Jinnah Women University Rawalpindi, Pakistan

Dr. Waseem Anwar Dean of Humanities & Professor of English Forman Christian College (A Chartered University), Lahore, Pakistan

Dr. Amra Raza Chairperson/Associate Professor Department of English Language & Literature University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan

Dr. Aalia Sohail Khan Principal Government Post Graduate College for Women Satellite Town, Rawalpind, Pakistan

Dr. Shahid Siddiqui Vice Chancellor Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad, Pakistan

Dr. Arshad Mehmood Department of English National University of Modern Languages

Dr. Naveed Akhtar Director QEC National University of Modern Languages

Dr. Sibghatullah Assistant Professor Department of English National University of Modern Languages

Dr. Marium Deen Assistant Professor Education Department National University of Modern Languages

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Vol 14 (II), Dec, 2016 ISSN 2222-5706

CONTENTS

Editorial Board V Contents VII Contributors VIII

Research Papers

Muhammad Safeer Awan 1 Teaching the Empire to Write Back: Locating Kipling’s “english” In the Postcolonial Literatures of the Subcontinent

Zawar Hussain Shah Hashmi 18 Motivation and Willingness to Communicate in English (WTCE): Synthesizing Socio-Educational and WTCE Models

Zohra Fatima 38 Humor, Satire and Verbal Parody in The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy: A Relevance Theoretic Approach

Muhammad Ilyas Chishti & Muhammad Aslam 54 Marked Cultural Cues, Folk Traditions and Social Representations Embedded within Schimmel’s As Through a Veil

Syeda Saira Hamid 70

Transforming Teacher Education for the Globalization of Education

Musarrat Azher & Muhammad Asim Mahmood 86 Exploring Variation across Pakistani Academic Writing: A Multidimensional Analysis

Book Review

Liaquat Ali Channa 114 All American Yemeni Girls: Being Muslim in a Public School

Copyright Statement 119 Disclaimer 120 Call for Papers 121 Subscription Form 122

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Contributors

Teaching the Empire to Write Back: Locating Kipling’s “english” in the Postcolonial Literatures of the Subcontinent

Professor Dr. Muhammad Safeer Awan is the Dean of Faculty of English Studies and Languages at the National University of Modern Languages (NUML) Islamabad, Pakistan. The areas of his academic interests, teaching and research, have been postcolonial studies, comparative literature, and Pakistani Literature in English and Urdu. Currently, he is the chair of National Curriculum Revision Committee (NCRC) for English, constituted by Higher Education Commission (HEC) Pakistan.

Email: [email protected]

Motivation and Willingness to Communicate in English (WTCE): Synthesizing Socio-Educational and WTCE Models

Dr. Zawar Hussain Shah Hashmi is currently working as an Assistant Professor at Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj, KSA. His permanent appointment, as an Assistant Professor, is at National University of Modern Languages, Islamabad in the Faculty of English Studies (FES). He completed his doctorate from the same university in 2015. As a PhD scholar, he availed a research fellowship at University of North Texas (USA) sponsored by US State Department. The academic and scholarly pursuits of Dr. Hashmi are led by his multidisciplinary interests. His research work, done so far, reflects this approach in mergence of applied linguistics with sociolinguistics. He is further interested in Socio-cultural Perspective of L2 and Cultural Studies. He is also interested in Transculturalism and Transnationalism as consequent phenomena of Globalization and their impact on South Asian Literature and culture.


Humor, Satire and Verbal Parody in The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy: A Relevance Theoretic Approach

Zohra Fatima is working as a Lecturer at Fatima Jinnah Women University, The Mall Rawalpindi and holds an MPhil in English (Linguistics) from the same university. She is currently doing her PhD in English (Linguistics) from National University of Modern Languages (NUML), Islamabad. She has been teaching English Language courses at university level for more than two years. Her research interests include Experimental Linguistics, Pragmatics and Second Language Learning, Semantics and Pragmatics Interface, and Intercultural Semantics and Pragmatics.


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Marked Cultural Cues, Folk Traditions and Social Representations Embedded within Schimmel’s As Through a Veil

Dr. Muhammad Ilyas Chishti (Main Author) is currently working as Assistant Professor at NUST-School of Natural Sciences, Islamabad. He is a PhD in English Linguistics from National University of Modern Languages, Islamabad. His PhD work encompasses a critical discourse dimension of Schimmel’s works Pain and Grace, Mystical Dimensions of Islam and As through a Veil. His research interests include Critical Discourse Studies, Pragmatics, Sociolinguistics and Sufi Discourse. He has diverse teaching experience and has taught at International Islamic University, Islamabad, Foundation University, Rawalpindi, and UET Taxila as a visiting faculty. He is in GEC panel of various universities. He has expertise in debates, declamations and dramatics. Other than his academic responsibilities, Dr. Chishti has the honour of conducting events at high profile and literary events at prestigious forums and is often invited to judge the proceedings of All Pakistan Declamation Contests.


Muhammad Aslam (Co-Author) is a PhD scholar in English Linguistics at International Islamic University, Islamabad. He was declared as a gold medalist from Beaconhouse National University, Lahore during his MPhil studies in TESL. He is currently working as a lecturer of English Language Teaching and Linguistics in Institute of Education and Research, University of the Punjab, Lahore. Muhammad Aslam also worked here as the Head of Department for three years. He is working as an external examiner at University of Lahore and Lahore College for Women’s University and teaching as a visiting faculty at University of Lahore. His research interests include English Language Teaching, Critical Discourse Studies, and Pragmatics.



Syeda Saira Hamid is pursuing her PhD from National University of Modern Languages, Islamabad. She is currently working as a Senior Subject Specialist Biology at Government, Teachers Training College, H-9 Islamabad. She is the author of Punjab Text Book Board of Biology class XII, Ecology (3- chapters) 2003. She has won the presidential award on book writing title Everyday Science for Youngsters. She topped Punjab Public Service Commission (PPSC) as subject specialist Biology in province Punjab in 1993. She has deep interest in educational planning, management, and teachers’ training in new trends of globalization. She is well-equipped in training teachers from preschool to higher secondary level in subjects of educational administration, school management, ESD, Environmental Biology, Science, humanities, to serve all school audiences.


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Exploring Variation across Pakistani Academic Writing: A Multidimensional Analysis

Dr. Musarrat Azher (Main Author) is currently working as a lecturer in the department of English Language and Literature in University of Sargodha. She has more than 18 years of teaching experience. Her research interests include Pakistani English, Register variation studies, academic writing, multidimensional analysis and corpus linguistics. She has published multiple research papers on Pakistani academic writing, register variation, and English language teaching and learning both in national and international journals.


Dr. Muhammad Asim Mehmood (Co-Author) is currently working as an associate professor and chair of the department of Linguistics in Government College University, Faisalabad. His contribution in the field of corpus linguistics and in the recognition of Pakistani English as an indigenous variety is recognized worldwide. He has exclusively worked in the areas of corpus linguistics, Pakistani English, and English Language Teaching. In addition, he has vast teaching experience at graduate and post graduate level.


All American Yemeni Girls: Being Muslim in a Public School

Dr. Liaquat Ali Channa is currently serving BUITEMS, Quetta as an Associate Professor in the Department of English. He is a Fulbright PhD alumnus. He teaches courses related to theory and research and practice in applied linguistics. His areas of interest are Educational Linguistics, Language Policy and Planning, Second/Foreign Language Learning and Teaching, Bilingual Education, Research on research methodology, and English as a/the Medium of Instruction. He has published his scholarship in both national and international journals.


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Teaching the Empire to Write Back: Locating Kipling’s “english” in the Postcolonial Literatures of the Subcontinent

Muhammad Safeer Awan

Partly because of empire, all cultures are involved in one another; none is single and pure, all are hybrid, heterogeneous, extraordinarily differentiated, and unmonolithic (Said, 1993, p. xxix).

Abstract

The paper traces the literary legacy of postcolonial literatures, particularly many of their linguistic features, and claims that, long before any other writer from the British colonies, it was Rudyard Kipling who set the foundation of postcolonial “englishes” by using English in a bold and innovative manner. The paper not only upholds the earlier critical propositions – that Kipling’s Indian fiction has inspired a vast body of postcolonial fiction in India and Pakistan as suggested by Richard Cronin (1985), Sara Suleri (1992), Michael Gorra (1994), Feroza Jussawalla (1998) and B. J. Moore-Gilbert (2002) – but proposes further that it was Kipling whose linguistic innovations, strategies of appropriation, and stylistic deviations from the “standard English,” particularly in his Indian fiction, paved the way for the postcolonial writers and critics to appropriate English through various linguistic strategies. Those linguistic features and strategies that Kachru (1983), Ashcroft et al. (1998), and others have discovered in the postcolonial creative writings have been first employed by Kipling as this paper demonstrates. Keeping in view Kipling’s reputation as an empire man, the basic claim of this paper would sound problematic and ironic, to some Kipling critics at least.

Keywords: Kipling, postcolonial english(es), linguistic appropriation

Introduction

Since the rise of postcolonial literatures and theory, new varieties of English language began to emerge not only on the literary landscapes of the former colonies but even in the former metropolitan/colonial centers. Of course, the earliest of such ‘deviations’ was American English. This phenomenon had been studied by a number of critics such as Kachru (1983), Baumgardner, Kennedy and Shamim (1993), Fowler (1996), and more recently by Schneider (2007), Kachru and Nelson (2009), and Kachru (2009). Most of these critics trace the development of such varieties in socio-linguistic factors. However, as the present study claims, the genealogy of postcolonial “englishes” begins with the linguistic experimentation of Rudyard Kipling, a writer who is often regarded as a hardcore imperialist. By taking an original, critical departure from the existing studies, I intend to explore to what extent Kipling can be given the credit of initiating a linguistic “revolution” of sorts that resulted into the formation and evolution of varieties of English around the

NUML Journal of Critical Inquiry Vol 14, (II), Dec, 2016 ISSN 2222-5706

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world, especially in postcolonial literary texts. The paper especially emphasizes the strategies of linguistic appropriation for creative purposes by a number of postcolonial/post-Independence writers from the Subcontinent.

Kipling and the Question of Postcolonial Language

In 1998, Feroza Jussawalla proposed, “Consider the possibility that one can read Rudyard Kipling as the father of postcolonial literature, if not the father of postcolonial theory” (1998, pp. 112-30). Clara Claiborne Park made the explicit claim that Kipling’s magnum opus, Kim, can be easily read as a postcolonial/postmodern text (1997, pp. 43-62). On these lines, Moore-Gilbert explored the possibilities of a postcolonial reading of Kim (2002, pp. 39-58). In this regard, the question of Kipling’s originality as a writer with Indian themes would be central. Although a number of Anglo-Indian writers were writing on Indian themes and settings, as early as the 1860s, none of them experimented linguistically as did Kipling in his short stories published in The Civil and Military Gazzette, (later collected in Plain Tale from the Hills).1 Unlike writers prior to him, Kipling’s depiction of India is mostly free from the racial and cultural stereotypes that characterize many other nineteenth century creative writings by Anglo-Indian writers like William Browne Hockley, Philip Meadows Taylor, W. D. Arnold, and others.2 That Kipling was a novel and distinguished presence among the Anglo-Indian writers is supported by the reviewers of his work even before he reached London in September 1889. J. M. Barrie, for example, declared that Kipling “owes nothing to any other writer. No one helped to form him” (Moore-Gilbert, 1986, pp. 19-20). Similarly, Francis Mannsaker omits Kipling from his The Literature of Anglo-India 1757-1914 because his “thinking is not typical of the bulk of these Anglo-Indian writers” (Moore-Gilbert, 1986, p. ii). Not only in terms of themes and style he is different from all major Anglo-Indian writers of his time, Kipling developed a distinct idiom to capture the richness and variety of Indian life and culture.

Kipling’s contrapuntal patterns, in terms of the employment of a culturally-specific language in his Indian fiction, clamor for positioning in the postcolonial discourse. In terms of form and style, his linguistic and cultural hybridity draws on the “eastern religious epic . . . Western forms of spy thriller and Bildungsroman” (Moore-Gilbert, 2002, p. 39) that make him master of culturally hybrid texts. In particular, he has created complex, hybrid characters like Kim who are liminal figures, living on the cusp of cultures. That is why Kim, as one conspicuous example, is ambivalent about his identity and tries to recover his selfhood, in the manner of many “postcolonials” that one encounters in the fictional creations of Rushdie, Naipaul, Ghose, Kureishi, and others.

However, keeping in view the cultural politics of postcolonial theory as well as Kipling’s own politics of Empire, it would be considered controversial to give Kipling the full credit of founding postcolonial writings. What can be conceded, however, is that Kipling must be acknowledged as a source of inspiration, at least

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in terms of the employment of a “hybrid” language, for a number of writers who adopted (and adapted) English as the medium of their creative writings. The question of Kipling’s notion of “The Whiteman’s Burden” is bound to crop up in this debate. To which I would only suggest that even his idea of Empire is stalled on the verge of ambivalence, particularly his Indian fiction is an achievement in cultural syncricity.3 Kipling’s rectification of Empire, subtle and nuanced in its own right, has often been glossed over. Suleri concedes that

As a study of cultural possession and dispossession Kim remains one of the most disturbing narrations of nineteenth-century colonial astonishment . . . the text distributes cultural surprise equally between colonizer and colonized. The protagonist embodies both aspects of such surprise, in that his status as dispossessed colonizer is perpetually mediated by his intimacy with and filiation to the cultures of the colonized … the ambivalence of the narrative allows for no easy resolutions of such questions. (Suleri, 1992, pp. 117-8)

Suleri has underscored the value of Kim as a narrative of ambivalence and cultural complexity. Such suggestions as those of Suleri, Jussawalla and Moore-Gilbert underscore multiple possibilities of postcolonial re-readings of Kipling’s Indian stories.4

Evolution of Postcolonial Literary Discourse

I envisage the evolution of English in the Subcontinent in the following four stages, that is, (a) imposition of English curriculum after Macaulay’s intervention through his Minutes on Indian Education, (b) beginnings of imitative writings in English, (c) appropriation of the colonizers’ language by the native creative writers, and (d) development of a “deviant” variety of English for creative purposes. Going through these stages, the new variety of English began to acquire new forms in terms of syntax, grammar, vocabulary etc. Such new varieties of English were dubbed by the metropolitan critics as “deviant,” something lesser than the “standard” English. These “deviant” varieties have been shaped due to the incorporation of indigenous speech patterns that not only won social/cultural acceptability it also established an “interanimation of languages”5 as sources of literary consciousness and creative medium.

One of the earliest “imitative” writings produced in India was Sake Dean Mohammad’s Travels which appeared in 1794 and established the Subcontinent “as one of the first regions outside the United Kingdom and the United States of America to have used English for literary purposes” (Hashmi, 1989, p. 110).6 The style and language of Dean Mohammad’s Travels reveals that the Indian writers, before Kipling, were writing in mere imitation of the canonical writers. Kipling, in my view, within the Indian context, was the first writer whose artistic contributions provided impetus to many subsequent Indo-Pakistani writers to follow his lead and write independently of the colonizers’ original language by appropriating and

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shaping it as a new variety. Appropriation is a process which reconstitutes the language of the centre to express the “differing cultural experiences.” It seizes the language of the centre and replaces it in “a discourse fully adapted to the colonized place” (Ashcroft et al., 1989, pp. 37-38). This process results into the formation of new “dialects” that are, at times, referred to as “languages” for political reasons, as, for example, the evolution of “many englishes,” providing a scope to reject the illusion of standard and correct use of English (Ashcroft et al., 1989, p. 37). The function of such new varieties is to encompass the multiplicity of one’s own culture since it is “maltreated in an alien language” (Rao, 1938, p. 5). As Riemenschneider writes about Indian English “that Indian English can and does embody many different distinctly Indian realities; it is a more multi-cultural language medium in its many effective uses, poetic and practical, than probably any other language used in India” (2004, p. 181).

A number of Indo-Pakistani writers have developed an elaborate local idiom to write in English for artistic and creative purposes. But the question is who initiated and evolved such multi-cultural language? Kipling’s influence, in terms of the innovative use of language, is obvious on such writers as Raja Rao, Mulk Raj Anand, R. K. Narrayan, Ahmed Ali before the 1947 Partition of India and, since Independence, on Salman Rushdie, Bapsi Sidhwa, Arundathi Roy, Khushwant Singh, and others. Taufiq Rafat, the renowned Pakistani poet, has been influential in shaping a local, Pakistani idiom which is not formed merely with translations of Urdu or Punjabi words into English. In an essay, Rafat has explained the nature of such an idiom, culminating into a language, thus:

It is not by the use of Hindi or Urdu words that you can create Indian or Pakistani English. These are mere superficialities. The roots of an idiom lie much deeper. It is untranslatable. One has merely to refer to the dictionary to know what an idiom really is: a characteristic mode of expression; a vocabulary of a particular dialect or district. (Rafat, 1970, p. 66)7

However, what needs to be conceded and further explored is that such an idiom did not shape itself; it did evolve from the uses of English by Kipling in his Indian fiction. Before we illustrate this aspect of Kipling’s contribution, it would be appropriate to outline various linguistic strategies usually adopted by a number of postcolonial writers.

Appropriation and Indigenization of English

Kachru notes that the theoretical grounds of indigenization of English are almost the same in Asia and Africa, but the linguistic innovations are culturally specific. Since colonization during eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and subsequent decolonization in the twentieth, various strategies of language appropriation have been employed by the native creative writers. Both Kachru (1980) and Ashcroft et al. (2002) have pointed out those strategies.

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Kachru (1980) and Ashcroft et al. (2002) have analyzed a number of postcolonial writings8 to discuss these strategies. Drawing on those strategies, Chelliah (2006) has established that many postcolonial Indian writers use Indian English as strategies of appropriation and textual apparatus to depict “authentic topoi of Indian culture.” She has created a database of dialogue for each character by analyzing Rohinton Mistry‘s Such a Long Journey (1991) and Arundhati Roy‘s The God of Small Things (1998).

It is interesting to note that Kipling used almost all these linguistic devices: Glossing, untranslated words, syntactic fusion, code-switching, vernacular transcription, lexical innovation, translation equivalence and contextual redefinition. He negotiated the “gap between the worlds” imparting the cross-cultural sense to literature (Ashcroft et al., 2002, p. 39). To substantiate this claim, I have culled a number of examples from Kipling’s Indian fiction. Under each strategy, I first give the cluster of words, phrases, native idiomatic expressions, translations, code-switching, etc. derived from various Kipling stories and then quote the relevant sentences to show how Kipling has used them in different contexts.

1 Glossing

Telis, mata, takkus, cloaks, izzat, bhai-bund, dooli, Be-shukl, be-ukl, be-ank, Bus, dikh, dikh-dari, bunao, khitmatgar, Panee lao, Belait, gali, ghi, paharen, Dekho, Choor, bhusa.

1. … it was mata –the smallpox. (“Little Tobra”) 2. We be Telis, oil-pressers, said Little Tobrah. (ibid.) 3. Paying only once for the takkus-stamps on the papers. (ibid.) 4. Nothing but dikh, trouble, dikh. (ibid.) 5. So he went, that very night at eleven, into Amir Nath's Gully, clad in a boorka,

which cloaks a man as well as a woman. (“Beyond The Pale”)

2 Untranslated Words

Kismet, Sirkar, bundobust, Jehannum, vakils, chaprassis, bustee, dhak, kerani, Fakir, Khitmutgaar, "Kubber-kargaz-ki-yektraaa,", Sansis, ‘Huzoor!’, ‘Khodawund!’, Chubara, benowti, huqa, purdahnashin, Sais, kutcherry, Jadoo-Gher.

1. That was Kismet. (“Watches of the Night”) 2. Mark again how Kismet works! (Ibid.) 3. I am, I said, a kerani –one who writes with a pen upon paper, not being in the

Ashcroft et al. (2002) Kachru (1980)

1. Glossing 2. Untranslated Words 3. Interlanguage 4. Syntactic Fusion 5. Code Switching and Vernacular

Transcription

1. Lexical innovations 2. Translation equivalence 3. Contextual redefinition 4. Rhetorical and functional styles

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service of the Government. (“Preface to Life’s Handicap”) I am not a fool, and why should the Sirkar say I am a child? (“Tods’ Amendment”) 4. And he says: At the end of five years, by this new bundobust, I must go. If I do not

go, I must get fresh seals and takkus-stamps on the papers, perhaps in the middle of the harvest, and to go to the law-courts once is wisdom, but to go twice is Jehannum. (ibid.)

5. And Ditta Mull says:--Always fresh takkus and paying money to vakils and chaprassis… (ibid.)

6. Deep away in the heart of the City, behind Jitha Megji's bustee, lies Amir Nath's Gully. (“Beyond The Pale”)

3 Inter-language

Talk the straight talk, said the Head Groom, or I will make you clean out the stable of that large red stallion who bites like a camel [seedhi tarah baat karo]. (“Little Tobra”)

The child nodded resolutely. Yea, I DO play. PERLAYBALL OW-AT! RAN, RAN, RAN! I know it all. (“The Finances of the Gods”)

For five years I take my ground for which I have saved money, and a wife I take too, and a little son is born.

If I am a fool and do not know, after forty years, good land when I see it, let me die!

My little son is a man, and I am burnt, and he takes the ground or another ground, paying only once for the takkus-stamps on the papers, and his little son is born, and at the end of fifteen years is a man too.

When a man knows who dances the Halli-Hukk, and how, and when, and where, he knows something to be proud of.

If your mirror be broken, look into still water; but have a care that you do not fall in.

4 Syntactic Fusion

The Chubara of Dhunni Bhagat, fakirs, sadhus, sannyasis, Sansis, bairagis, nihangs, mullahs, Telis, murramutted, vakils, chaprassis, Musalmans, tazias.

1. In northern India stood a monastery called the Chubara of Dhunni Bhagat. (“Preface to Life’s Handicap”)

2. They trooped up, fakirs, sadhus, sannyasis, bairagis, nihangs, and mullahs, priests of all faiths,… (ibid.)

3. Oh, I know all about that! Has it been murramutted yet, Councillor Sahib? (“Tods’ Amendment”)

4. Murramutted--mended.--Put theek, you know--made nice to please Ditta Mull! (ibid.)

5 Vernacular Transcription

Hutt, you old beast! (“The Bronckhorst Divorce Case”)

I play ker-li-kit like the rest.

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Thou play kerlikit! PERLAYBALL OW-AT! RAN, RAN, RAN! I know it all.

te-rain’

I must fink in English

"This interferin' bit av a Benira man," said Mulvaney, "did the thrick for us himself; for, on me sowl, we hadn't a notion av what was to come afther the next minut. He was shoppin' in the bazar on fut. Twas dhrawin' dusk thin, an' we stud watchin' the little man hoppin' in an' out av the shops, thryin' to injuce the naygurs to mallum his bat. Prisintly, he sthrols up, his arrums full av thruck, an' he sez in a consiquinshal way, shticking out his little belly, 'Me good men,' sez he, 'have ye seen the Kernel's b'roosh?'--'B'roosh?' says Learoyd. 'There's no b'roosh here--nobbut a hekka.'--'Fwhat's that?' sez Thrigg. Learoyd shows him wan down the sthreet, an' he sez, 'How thruly Orientil! I will ride on a hekka.' I saw thin that our Rigimintal Saint was for givin' Thrigg over to us neck an' brisket. I purshued a hekka, an' I sez to the dhriver-divil, I sez, 'Ye black limb, there's a _Sahib_ comin' for this hekka. He wants to go jildi to the Padsahi Jhil'--'twas about tu moiles away--'to shoot snipe--chirria. You dhrive Jehannum ke marfik, mallum--like Hell? 'Tis no manner av use bukkin'_to the Sahib, bekaze he doesn't samjao your talk. Av he bolos anything, just you choop and chel. Dekker? Go arsty for the first arder mile from cantonmints. Thin chel, Shaitan ke marfik, an' the chooper you choops an' the jildier you chels the better kooshy will that Sahib be; an' here's a rupee for ye?'

6 Lexical innovations

Fakements, police-wallas.

7 Translation equivalence/Native Proverbs, idioms, songs, etc.

Talk the straight talk [a literal translation of ‘seedhi tarah baat karo’]; When Man and Woman are agreed, what can the Kazi do? [a literal translation of Mian Bevi razi to kia karay ga qazi]; Nothing at all does the Servant of the Presence know [Huzoor ka ghulam kuch nahi jaanta]; Have a care [apna khayal rakho]; From the mouths of many [kai logon ki zubani].

1. Talk the straight talk, said the Head Groom, or I will make you clean out the stable of that large red stallion who bites like a camel. (“Little Tobrah”)

Kipling is conscious that a lot of cultural specificity is lost in translation. As he writes in “Beyond the Pale”:

Directly the gongs in the City made the hour, the little voice behind the grating took up "The Love Song of Har Dyal" at the verse where the Panthan girl calls upon Har Dyal to return. The song is really pretty in the Vernacular. In English you miss the wail of it. It runs something like this:--

Alone upon the housetops, to the North I turn and watch the lightning in the sky,-- The glamour of thy footsteps in the North,

Come back to me, Beloved, or I die!

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Below my feet the still bazar is laid Far, far below the weary camels lie,-- The camels and the captives of thy raid,

Come back to me, Beloved, or I die!”

8 Contextual Redefinition 1. Amma-ji, 2. Khitmutgaar (“Bronckhoorst Divorce Case”) 3. Nay, Sahib, nay. (“The Finances of the Gods”)

In the above table, only a few examples of various strategies are taken from the eighteen selected stories. It is not possible to discuss all of them in detail. However, code-switching is discussed in detail as it encompasses other strategies such as syntactic fusion, glossing, untranslated words, etc. The choice of a non-English expression by an author is an indication that the selected code is the most appropriate for the given occasion. Kipling frequently codeswitches, employing its different types – inter-sentential, intra-sentential or intra-word and tag switching.

Intersentential Codeswitching: Some examples of intersentential codeswitching are found in Kipling’s works which occur at the boundary of a clause or sentence confirming the rules of both the languages. For instance, instead of using an English counterpart, the author prefers to codeswitch, as in “In The House of Suddhoo,” “I heard her say "Asli nahin! Fareib!" scornfully under her breath” (Kipling, 1994[1888], p. 56).

Similarly, he switches to the local vernacular on other occasions as in “William the Conqueror” (part 1):

Kubber-kargaz-ki-yektraaa," the man whined, handing down the newspaper extra - a slip printed on one side only, and damp from the press.

“Ham dekhta hai” (Kipling, 1994[1888], p. 61).

Through codeswitching Kipling demonstrate that he is quite familiar with the Indian culture and he is not writing about it as an alien/ outsider. Likewise, Kipling’s familiarity with the religio-cultural conventions, permeated in the Indian Muslim society especially, provides him the opportunity to codeswitch. As in “The Story of Muhammad Din” he greets the child as "Salaam Muhammad Din."

Intra-sentential Codeswitching: Further there are many examples of intra-sentential codeswitching that is within a clause or sentence boundary or mixing within a word boundary, as in “William the Conqueror” (part 1):

-It's declared! he cried. One, two, three - eight districts go under the operations of the Famine Code ek dum.

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-It's pukka famine, by the looks of it (Kipling, 1994[1888], p. 69). Or as in The Son of His Father.

-Father, I am a man. – I am not afraid. It is my izzat – my honour.

-There will be none of my bhai-bund [brotherhood] up there, he said disconsolately, ‘and they say that I must lie in a dooli [palanquin] for a day and a night…

-Sheer badmashi

-there has been great dikh-dari [trouble-giving]

-It was all for the sake of show that they caught people. Assuredly they all knew it was benowti (Kipling, 1994[1888], p. 87). Similarly, in “The Story of Muhammad Din,” Kipling has relied on codeswitching on a number of occasions:

-This boy, said Imam Din, judicially, "is a budmash, a big budmash. He will, without doubt, go to the jail-khana for his behavior.

-You put some juldee in it. Juldee means hurry. (Kipling, 1994[1888], p. 97)

But since “juldee” is noun, Kipling has used “put” to make it an action word.

Tag-switching: Insertion of discourse markers or tag-switching is also evident in a number of stories, as “Bus [enough] said Adam, between sucks at his mango” in “The Son of His Father” and “Hutt, you old beast!” in “Bronckhoorst Divorce Case.” In "Laid Low" (1884), the narrator gives instructions to a gardener and shows him how to prune trees and plants:

Dekho! Look here. Ye burra hai,

And this is chota, don't you see?

And Priest of that dread creed am I

Which worships Uniformity.

Iswasti, baito by the beds

And cut kurro the lumbar heads (Islam, 1969)

Kipling’s use of Hindustani (or Urdu/Hindi) is a testament to his vast knowledge of Indian customs, creeds, castes and cultures. According to A Glossary of Hindustani Urdu-Hindi Words to be found in Kipling’s Works, prepared by Michael Smith,9 there are more than 400 words and phrases that Kipling has used. Not only individual words, there is a vast number of proverbs, anecdotes, and references to folklore that Kipling has effectively incorporated in his works.

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Language of Kim

Some of those strategies listed above have been used more elaborately in Kim that transpired from his Indian experience. It is marked by a strong local idiom. He uses Arabic, Persian, Urdu, Hindi, and Panjabi words and phrases10 that has become a standard practice now for many postcolonial writers. It has been noted by Kipling critics that he uses the vernacular only in his early writings since at that time he was writing for a limited Anglo-Indian audience. However, the fact is that Kipling continued to incorporate Indian languages and dialects in his work long after he left India. Kim, published in 1901 (and written during 1899-1901), is a prominent example of such vernacular, “deviant” usages that Kipling seems to have imbibed from the oral literary tradition of the Subcontinent. David Stewart in his article, “Orality in Kipling’s Kim,” claims that in Kim Kipling makes use of at least four “languages,” each distinct from the other:

(i) Kipling’s or the narrator’s language which is his trademark.

(ii) Standard English or the voices from England (or Balait as Kim says)

(iii) Kim’s language, a mixture of the normative and the native English.

(iv) Urdu translated and at times transliterated into English (Stewart, 1987, pp. 101-02).

Shamsul Islam has also suggested that the use of the vernacular languages in Kipling's works is highly functional and artistic. He has pointed out not only Urdu/Hindi words and phrases but also a number of Punjabi expressions. Islam suggests that Indo-Pakistani words and phrases in Kipling’s work (a) contribute to a particular atmosphere; (b) add realism and conviction; (c) create a distance between the story and the reader; and (d) are instrumental in the production of a highly complex effect of involvement and detachment simultaneously (Islam, 1969).

The linguistic and cultural creolization and hybridization that Kipling achieves in Kim is one of the byproducts of colonial experience, and it has become a standard practice now in most postcolonial writings. His work is the prime example of the transformative influence of the colonized cultures and languages upon those of the colonizers and their texts. Kipling, in spite of his imperialist tendencies, was one of the earliest writers who realized that no culture, including those of the colonizers, would be in a position to claim purity after going through the colonial experience. The nature of such cultural and linguistic hybridization has been sufficiently explained by Bhabha and Bakhtin. As Bakhtin informs, it is a mixture of two social languages within the limits of a single utterance, an encounter, within the arena of an utterance, between two different linguistic consciousnesses, separated from one another by an epoch, by social differentiation, or by some other factor (Bakhtin, 1974, p. 358).

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Kipling has displayed such a complex consciousnesses in his Indian fiction that facilitated him to create linguistically and culturally hybrid texts. If pure English culture existed on one side of that cultural interstice (where Kipling could be located), on the other side of it were located a host of Indian cultures – Hindu, Muslim, Buddhist, etc – that influenced Kipling’s sensibility and made him what he turned out to be – a writer of complex cultural texts.

Some of the following examples have been culled by Stewart, though with a different thesis, that is, to study orality in Kim. I have added more examples to demonstrate how Kipling has contributed in shaping later postcolonial varieties of English. According to Stewart, Kipling has generously translated from the vernacular that “creates an unusual aural medium.” One of the characteristic features of Urdu language is that it uses an “elevated” vocabulary in order to show respect to those who are socially at a higher pedestal. Such a use, according to Stewart, would seem “inappropriate in plain English.” For example:

Kim tells Colonel Creighton, "it is inexpedient to write the names of strangers." The Jat farmer says of his sick son, "he esteemed the salt lozenges"… Such diction is incompatible with these characters' vocabularies in English, but here in "translation" it seems normal, therefore doubly suggestive. A second example: the novel is full of oral formulae—

“Let the Hand of Friendship turn aside the Whip of Calamity”—

that are unknown in English yet familiar because they conform to the structure of maxims. A speaker of Urdu can actually translate some of them back into the original, so that he may read

I am thy sacrifice

but hear

“Main tum pe qurban jaoon,” (as cited in Stewart, 1987, pp. 110- 112)

Urdu had evolved out of a long oral tradition in the multilingual, multi-racial ambience of the Indian Mughal army. Therefore, by its nature and history, it is a hybrid language that contains Arabic, Persian, Turkish and other linguistic traditions. The orality of Urdu is also reflected in Kim. Urdu/Hindi oaths, slang expressions, exclamations and imperatives abound in Kim. Dialogue is sparingly written in the “Standard English”:

“Hear and obey!—Let all listen to the Jâtakas!—The Search is sure!—Hear the most excellent Law!—It is found!—Be quiett!—“

“Ohe, Mahbub Ali!” he[Kim] whispered, “have a care” (Kipling, 1995[1901], p. 148).

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“Have a care” is the literal translation of the Urdu expression apna khayal rakho; it became a standard expression in the Victorian English.

Compare the above dialogue with the speech pattern of a character in Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children: “Come on phaelwan: a ride in my Packard, okay?” And talking at the same time is Mary Pereira, “Chocolate cake,” she is promising, “laddoos, pista-ki-lauz, meat samosas, kulfi. So thin you got, baba, the wind will blow you away” (Rushdie, 1981, p. 239).

Rushdie’s “inscription of alterity” when he switches between two codes is analyzed thus by Juliette Myers who writes, “verbal play, internal rhyme, and strange verbal conjoinings characterize the linguistics of postmodernism” (Myers, 1996). However, while exploring postmodernist features in the use of language by such writers as Rushdie, one may not ignore the historical processes and the contribution Kipling who, long before Rushdie, achieved such diversity and multiplicity of meanings through language use. Here are a few more examples from Kim:

(a) Have I not said a hundred times that the South is a good land? Here is a virtuous and high-born widow of a Hill Raja on pilgrimage… She it is sends us those dishes (p. 76).

(b) --that she must eat gali [abuse] as men eat ghi [cooking fat] (p. 80).

(c) That is a nut-cut [rogue], she said. All police constables are nut-cuts; but the police-wallas are the worse. Hai, my son, thou hast never learned all that since thou camest from Belait [Europe]. Who suckled thee? (p. 82).

(d) A paharen –a hillwoman of Dalhousie… (p. 82).

(e) [Kim] heard this sort of speculation again and again, from the mouths of many whom the English would not consider imaginative (76)11 [emphasis added].

The emphasized expressions are translations from Urdu dialogue that Kipling seems to have thought first in Urdu and then converted them into English. They confirm that Kipling has extensively employed the “vernacular formations, and ‘Indianized’ English, the occasional use of Hindi terms, and an abundance of folk-sayings, proverbs, and parables. Kipling here carefully differentiates between the cultural idioms of various speakers, highlighting the Islamic-rooted expressions of Mahbub Ali and the Lama’s Buddhist ones” (Adam, 1997, pp. 66-78).

Such words as “te-rain” for train in Kim are reminiscent of the language that Zulfikar Ghose, the Pakistani-American novelist and poet, uses in his novel The Murder of Aziz Khan; it underlines the idiosyncratic speech patterns of various characters. Tariq Rehman has characterized this feature as “rhotic” (1990, p. 67) since it gives double stress to certain letters, particularly words ending on the letter ‘r’. This feature is due to the influence of Urdu and Arabic in which certain

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letters get double stress in pronunciation. The following dialogue between Akram Shah’s wife, Faridah, and a cloth merchant, is a typical example of such stress patterns. When Faridah asks whether pink color is available, the shopkeeper says: “Begum Sahiba, I have each and every culler for your sootability, pink, saalmun red turkwise, emmaruld green, purrpel… the cumpleet range, Begum Sahiba, the cumpleet range” (Ghose, 1998, p. 76) [emphasis added].

Similarly, in Kim, Babu Hurree Chander’s dialogues are marked by certain linguistic features that one may call as characteristic of “Indian English” now. Kipling “seems … to recognize that British English is not fully adequate to describe India: his own narrative language implies that the development of a special Indian literary variety of English will be necessary” (Tulloch, 1992, pp. 35-46). Not only the natives of India, even the British characters speak in their regional dialects of English. For example, the Drummer-boy from Liverpool, Colonel Creighton and the Irish priest, all speak in their native, regional accents. There is no question of one “standard” monolithic language for cultural expression in the multicultural settings of this novel.

Due to such innovative linguistic strategies, Kipling, I believe, may easily be regarded as the first English writer who has paved the way for generations of postcolonial writers, especially those writing in India and Pakistan, to devise new phrases, employ local idioms and thus create new varieties of English like “Singlish,” “Paklish,” “Inglish”12 etc. Since the end of colonial rule in India, many Indo-Pakistani writers like Ahmed Ali, Rushdie, Bapsi Sidhwa, Taufiq Rafat, Sara Suleri, Vikram Seth, Arundathi Roy, and others, taking their cue from Kipling’s multi-lingual experiences and experiments, were encouraged to employ various linguistic strategies of appropriation to give a distinctive cultural flavor to their writings. In Ice-Candy-Man (1988) Sidhwa sounds like Kipling when she uses words like “Churrail,”13 and idioms like “Hassi tay Phassi,” or “to paint their hands yellow” (referring to the tradition of henna-decorated hands of Punjabi brides).14 She also uses verses from many Urdu poets such as Iqbal and Faiz, empowering her narrative with the local cultural crossings. The postcolonial Indo-Pakistani writers have emulated Kipling’s linguistic and stylistic experiments, though often without acknowledging their debt to Kipling. Some of them have definitely admired his work, as Rushdie, Nirad C. Chaudhuri, Sara Suleri and others but few of them as unambiguously as Kipling deserves.

Thus language in Kipling’s Indian fiction is fashioned out of his hybrid vision about the Indian social and cultural life. From my own experience of reading Kipling and comparing his use of English with that of a number of postcolonial Indo-Pakistani writers, I have realized that Kipling is the first master of the Subcontinental creole. Kipling might not be the father of postcolonial literatures, as Jussawala proposed, but is most certainly the father of postcolonial english(es) in the Subcontinent and even beyond.

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Notes

1. It was only in the 1930s that the Indian writers began to experiment creatively with the lexical expressions and syntax of the English language to give an indigenous look to their creative writings, long after Kipling became known both in India, the US and Europe. For details please see, for example, Meenakshi Mukherjee, Twice Born Fiction, pp. 170-203; William Walsh, The Big Three, pp. 26-36; Leela Gandhi, Novelists of the 1930s and 1940s, pp. 168-192.

2. For details please see Udayon Misra’s The Raj in Fiction. Delhi: B. R. Publishing, 1987. 3. Kipling is generally perceived as a hidebound imperialist and calibrated as a canonical

construct. Since Said’s contrapuntal critique of Kim, the postcolonial critics have consistently bracketed Kipling with other 19th century white canonical writers like Lord Macaulay, John Ruskin and others (Please see Edward Said’s Culture and Imperialism, New York: Vintage, 1993, particularly the section “The Pleasures of Imperialism,” pp.159-196). However, in his exploding the socio-cultural stereotypes (in Kim especially) about the East (particularly India) paddling in the West, Kipling transcends the Raj mantra.

4. It is further supported by the fact that Kipling adopted an anti-colonial stance vis-à-vis colonial educational system in India. In one of his articles, “A Little Morality,” published in the Pioneer in January 1888, he strongly takes exception to the radical Evangelical agenda that succeeded in imposing English literary education on the Indians and treated culture as a “deus ex machine” to transform the ‘natives’ into the servants of Empire. It means Kipling was conscious of the dangers of such cultural impositions. Such an astute observation, from a writer like Kipling who was otherwise regarded as the spokesperson of the British Empire, is highly significant. It means his politics of Empire is too complex to be reduced to any simple postcolonial critique. It is also ironic that the curriculum of English literary education, devised by Lord Macaulay, and implemented in most former colonies, is almost the same even now. In his article, Kipling mentioned Milton, Shakespeare, Chaucer, Pope, Macaulay and others who are imposed upon the Indians as canonical writers. These writers are still part of the curriculum in English studies in most Pakistani universities that produce the culturally hybrid monsters that Kipling abhorred so much. For details of this article, please see Angus Wilson’s biography of Kipling, The Strange Ride of Rudyard Kipling, pp. 115-16.

5. Mikhail Bakhtin. The Dialogic Imagination Four Essays, (trans.) Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1974, p. 358). This concept of interanimation of languages is also valid to explain the development of Urdu literature in India and American literature in the USA. Similar is the case of South Asian novelistic discourse as the Indian, Pakistani, Bengali and Sri Lankan novelists incorporate their respective local languages for cultural expression, thus paving the way for what Bakhtin terms as polyglossic writing. However, the evolution of such writings went through different stages as suggested above.

6. Alamgir Hashmi, “Prolegomena to the Study of Pakistani English and Pakistani Literature in English,” in Radhika Mohanram and Gita Rajan, English Postcoloniality: Literatures from Around the World. London: Greenwood Press, 1996. P.110. Hashmi’s paper was originally presented at the first International Conference on English in South Asia, held at Islamabad, Pakistan, January 4-9, 1989.

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7. Rafat’s observation is reminiscent of Bakhtin’s notion of “intentional hybrid,” commonly found in South Asian fiction. God of Small Things by Arandhati Roy, Train to Pakistan by Khushwant Singh, The Untouchable by Mulk Raj Anand, The World of Nagaraj by R. K. Narayan, Family Matters by Rohinton Mistry, and Émigré Journeys by Abdullah Hussain all abound in the use of a hybrid and syncretic language appropriated by the novelists for specific characters to orchestrate various themes.

8. For example, Furphy’s Such is Life, 1903; Lisser’s Jane’s Career, 1913; Reid’s New Day, 1949; Lamming’s The Emigrants, 1954: Naipaul’s The Mystic Masseur,1957; Achebe’s No Longer at Ease,1963, Okara’s The Voice 1964, Ngugi’s A Grain of Wheat 1967, Harris’ Ascent To Omai 1970, Eri’s Crocodile 1970; Naipaul’s One out of many,1971; Selvon Moses Ascending, 1975; Stow’s Visitants, 1979; Maniam’s The Cord, 1984; Twain’s Huckleberry Finn,1885; etc.)

9. Available at the official site of Kipling Society: http://www.kipling.org.uk/facts_glossintro.htm. visited on 1/11/2005. From my own readings of various Kipling stories, I have gathered that Smith’s glossary is by no means exhaustive. There are still many words and phrases which are not included in that list. Also, Margaret Pelley mentions in her excellent study of the manuscript of Kim, “Kim that Nobody Reads,” that Kipling reduced the number of Hindustani words in order perhaps to make it more palatable to his European and American readers. It implies Kipling was much more rooted in the Indian cultures and languages than one may realize from the reading of Kim.

10. It does not mean that he knew all these languages. The fact is that Urdu is a language that emerged and evolved mainly as a result of interactions among the soldiers in the Mughal Indian army consisting of various linguistic and ethnic groups from Persia, Afghanistan, Central Asia, North and South India etc.

11. The novel is full of such constructions and expression. In fact, most of the book is written in this English in which vernacular plays the dominant part. An Urdu reader can perfectly translate it into Urdu while reading it. Here are a few more examples:

(i) he is very holy (p. 93) (ii) They call me Kim Rishti ke. That is Kim of the Rishti.'

What is that—"Rishti"?' Eye-rishti—that was the regiment—my father's.' Irish, oh I see. Yess. That was how my father told me. (p. 92)

(iii) He is a chabuk sawai [a sharp chap]. (p.116) (iv) But what is to pay me for this coming and re-coming? (p. 129) (v) chup! [be still or be silent]. (p.161)

12. See for example, Yamuna Kachru and Cecil L. Nelson. World Englishes in Asian Contexts. Hong Kong University Press, 2006; Rajend Mesthrie and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge University Press, 2008; Braj B. Kachru, Yamuna Kachru, Cecil L. Nelson (eds). The handbook of world Englishes. Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2006; and Yamuna Kachru, Larry E. Smith. Cultures, contexts, and world Englishes. Taylor & Francis, 2008.

13. In fact, Kipling too has used this very word in Kim (p.148), though with a different spelling.

14. See Bapsi Siddhwa’s Ice-Candy-Man (1988) for such numerous examples. Also see Ahmed Ali’s Twilight in Delhi (1941), and his short stories, particularly “Our Lane”in

http://www.kipling.org.uk/facts_glossintro.htm.%20visited%20on%201/11/2005

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Ahmed Ali (ed.) Selected Short Stories from Pakistan. Islamabad: Pakistan Academy of Letters, 1983. Sara Suleri in her Meatless Days and Boys Will Be Boys extensively uses Urdu words without bothering to translate them into English as those are culturally-specific words and their parallels in English are often not available.

References

Adam, I. (1997). Oral/Literate/Transcendent: The Politics of Language Modes in ‘Kim’. The Yearbook of English Studies, 27, 66-78.

Ashcroft et. al. (1989/2002). The empire writes back: Theory and practice in postcolonial literatures. London: Routledge.

Bakhtin, M. (1974). The dialogic imagination four essays. (C. Emerson & M. Holquist, Trans.). Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.

Baumgardner, R. J., Kennedy, A. E. H., & Shamim, F. (1993). The Urduization of English in Pakistan. In R. J. Baumgardner (Ed.), The English language in Pakistan (pp. 83-203). Karachi: Oxford University Press.

Chelliah, S. L. (Dec, 2006). The Representation of Indian English in Indian novels in English. South Asian Language Analysis Roundtable Conference (SALA) 26. Mysore, India.

Ghose, Z. (1967/1998). The murder of Aziz Khan. Karachi: Oxford University Press.

Harrex & S. Hosking (Eds.), Raj Nostalgia: Some Literary and Critical Implications. Adelaide: Centre for Research in the New Literatures in English.

Hashmi, A. (1996). Prolegomena to the study of Pakistani English and Pakistani literature in English. In R. Mohanram & G. Rajan (Eds.), English Postcoloniality: Literatures from around the World. London: Greenwood Press.

Islam, S. (1996). Kipling's use of Indo-Pakistani languages. The Kipling Journal, 36, 15-19).

Kachru, B. (1983). The indianization of English: The English language in India. Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Jussawalla, F. (Fall, 1998). Re-reading Kim: Defining Kipling’s masterpiece as Postcolonial. Journal of Commonwealth and Postcolonial Studies, 5(2).

Kipling, R. (1901/1995). Kim. London: Everyman’s Library.

Kipling, R. (1888/1994). Plain tales from the hills. New Delhi: Penguin.

Moore-Gilbert, B. J. (1986). Kipling and “Orientalism.” London: Croom Helm. Moore-Gilbert, B. J. (2002). “I am going to rewrite Kipling’s Kim”: Kipling and

Postcolonialism. The Journal of Commonwealth Literature, 37(2).

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Myers, J. (Spring, 1996). Postmodernism in Salman Rushdie's Midnight's Children and The Moor's Last Sigh. Retrieved from <http://www.art.man.ac.uk/ENGLISH/MS/rushdie.htm>

Park, C. C. (1997). The River and the road: Fashions in forgiveness. American Scholar, 66(1).

Rafat, T. (1969). Towards a Pakistani Idiom. Venture: A Bi-Annual Review of English Language and Literature, 6(1), 60-73.

Rafat, T. (1985). Arrival of the Monsoon: Collected poems 1947-78. Lahore: Vanguard.

Rao, R. (1938/1970). Kanthapura. New Delhi: Oriental Paperbacks.

Rehman, T. (1990). Linguistic deviation as a stylistic device in Pakistani English fiction. The Journal of Commonwealth Literature, 25(1). Retrieved from http://www.sagepuclications.com

Riemenschneider, D. (2004). Marginalizing the centre – centering the periphery: The reception of Indian literature in English. In Rajan, P. K. (Ed.), Indian Literary Criticism in English (Critics,Texts and Issues). New Delhi: Rawat Publication.

Rushdie, S. (1982). Midnight's children. London: Picador.

Said, E. (1993). Culture and Imperialism, New York: Vintage. Schneider, E. W. (2007). Postcolonial English: Varieties around the world. New

York: Cambridge University Press. Suleri, S. (1992). The rhetoric of English India. New Delhi: Penguin Books. Stewart, D. H. (1987). Orality in Kipling’s Kim. In H. Bloom (Ed.), Rudyard Kipling’s

Kim. New York: Chelsea House.

Tulloch, G. (1992). Voices of the Raj: Linguistic diversity in Kim. In A. Greet, Syd

http://www.sagepuclications.com/

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Motivation and Willingness to Communicate in English (WTCE): Synthesizing Socio-Educational and WTCE Models

Zawar Hussain Shah Hashmi

Abstract

This study explores the relationship between factors of language motivation and Willingness to Communicate in English (WTCE). The aim was to test motivation as a causative factor of WTCE by confirming a path from motivation to WTCE through Structural Equation Modeling. It follows an existing tradition whereby both Willingness to Communicate and motivation were studied as causes of each other in exclusive studies (see for example MacIntyre & Charos 1996 and Yashima 2002). The participants of this study consisted of the teachers who were expected to employ English as Medium of Instruction (EMI) while teaching content subjects at secondary school level in Punjab (a province of Pakistan). It was conducted in the wake of a state order issued to make the use of EMI compulsory regardless of the fact that 94% of the teachers were not proficient enough at all. Hybridization of Socio-educational model and WTC model was used as a framework for this study. A questionnaire designed after adaptation from AMTB (Attitude Motivation Test Battery) and WTC (Willingness to Communicate) scales was used for survey. For statistical analysis of data SPSS version 21.0 and Amos version 21.0 were used. A significant path from motivation (as an aggregate of factors selected from socio-educational model) to WTC was found existent while the individual motivational factors from Socio-educational model showed varying trends. The additionally introduced factor i.e. ELLE (English Language Learning Experience) was found not to be a direct cause of WTCE. However, it proved to be a highly significant direct cause of motivation.

Keywords: motivation, willingness to communicate, anxiety

1. Introduction The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between factors

of language motivation used by Gardner in his Socio-educational model (1985) and Willingness to Communicate (WTC) as a construct used in WTC model by MacIntyre (1998). The study was conducted on teachers of Secondary School Level in the rural areas of Punjab (a province of Pakistan). These teachers used vernacular (Punjabi – a language spoken in Punjab province of Pakistan) as medium of instruction or Urdu (Pakistan’s national language) before the imposition of EMI through a state order issued by Government of Punjab. It created an adverse situation for the teachers as 94% of them were not proficient enough (PEELI 2013). The importance of the motivation of teachers to use EMI became unquestionably very important in such a situation. The study of motivation became even more important in view of its significance for the success or failure of this policy.

NUML Journal of Critical Inquiry Vol 14 (II), Dec, 2016 ISSN 2222-5706

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Affective response of the teachers in terms of motivation and willingness to use English as Medium of Instruction (EMI) was elicited on a scale (questionnaire) designed through the combination of AMTB (Attitude Motivation Test Battery) and WTC after necessary adaptation. The aim was to confirm the existence of a direct path from motivation (measured on the scales of Socio-educational model) to Willingness to Communicate following a study by Yashima (2002). Both the models were synthesized for the purpose of this study following an existing tradition (see e.g. MacIntyre & Charos 1996; Yashima, 2002; Hashimoto, 2002 etc).

Language motivation, in Socio-educational model, is typically subdivided into 6 constructs (see Gardner, 2010) each of which is designed to cover a distinct dimension of motivation. These constructs are used in a standardized scale named Attitude Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) developed and evolved in the research conducted using this framework for more than last fifty years. Following were the constructs selected for this study from the socio-educational model;

1. Interest in Foreign Languages (IFL) 2. Desire to Learn English Language (DLEL) 3. Attitude towards English as Medium of Instruction (ATEMI) 4. Anxiety (ANX)

In WTC model the construct WTC is used as an outcome or effect of Language Apprehension (that equals Gardner’s anxiety in its conceptualization) and Self-Perceived Communicative Competence. In this study anxiety to use EMI has been taken as a construct common between both the models while Linguistic Self-Confidence (LSC) has been used as a replacement for Self-Perceived Communicative Competence in view of its suitability to the context of the study. It is because the participants of the study go through the experience of learning English language with the focus solely on literacy skills while the Oracy skills are completely ignored. Therefore, asking about their Self-Perceived Communicative Competence would make no sense which is considered to be the measure of the evaluation of one’s own ability to communicate (orally) in a given situation using target language. Linguistic Self-Confidence, on the other hand, stands distinct by involving just confidence in one’s ability to be a successful language learner (Gardner 2010) rather than ability to communicate in the given language. English Language Learning Experience (ELLE) was included as an extra construct to see how far it could possibly fit in the adapted model. It was done in response to the proclaimed adaptability of the Socio-educational model (see e.g. Gardner, 2010).

The context of this study differs from the preceding ones in the following respects: 1. The participants of this study were under-proficient or non-proficient

teachers who were made to use English language as medium of instruction while teaching English as a school subject or other content subjects. Earlier

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studies, on the other hand, were typically conducted on language learners undergoing a formal language learning process.

2. This study measured affective response of the participants towards English in its particular status as medium of instruction in contrast to the earlier studies which dealt with the affective response towards English as a language in general.

1.1. Objectives of the Study Following were the objectives of this study; 1. To identify the relationship between the constructs selected for this study. 2. To know the extent to which the selected motivational constructs predict WTC. 3. To determine a gross-causative effect of the motivational factors from Socio-

educational model on WTC 4. To see significance of the causative effect of ELLE as an extra variable on

motivation and WTC.

1.2. Research Questions Q. 1. To what degree do the motivational constructs taken from socio-educational model i.e. Interest in Foreign Languages, Desire to Learn English Language, Instrumentality and Attitude towards English as Medium of Instruction cause Willingness to Communicate?

Q. 2. How does English Language Learning Experience (ELLE) relate to Motivational constructs taken from socio-educational model and to Willingness to Communicate in English (WTCE) adapted from WTC model?

Q. 3. To what extent can a path from motivation (as an aggregate of the variables adapted from Gardner’s socio-educational model) to WTC, as hypothesized by Yashima (2002) - in distinction to the one hypothesized by MacIntyre and Charos (1994) as well as Hashimoto (2002) i.e. from WTC to motivation - be established/confirmed through empirical data?

2. Literature Review Motivation is seen as one of the core predictors of achievement in L2

learning. It is given importance at par with the most important factors of individual difference in L2 learning. It is considered as significant a factor as language aptitude or intelligence in predicting achievement in L2 as well as its actual use in a given situation (Gardner, 2010). Over the last fifty years a whole plethora of studies in the area of motivation was unleashed. It was found to be one of the most elusive and complex constructs to deal with in research. The field was doomed not due to the lack of theories but due to their abundance instead (Dornyei, 1998). Despite profuse controversies existent in the literature regarding nature, formation, causation and measurement of motivation the significance of its role in language learning remains almost completely uncontroversial.

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The outcome of such development and its attendant complexity was seen in the appearance of mutually contending theories, approaches and models. The pioneering and almost the most influential among these being the Socio-educational model (1985) which emerged as a product of almost 25 years of consistent research by Gardner and his colleagues. On the other hand, Willingness to Communicate (WTC) as a construct was first studied in the context of L1. Later on, it was transported to SL and FL situations which yielded WTC model founded by MacIntyre (1996). Later, hybridization of these models was used by a number of studies. The first attempt in this regard was made by the founder of WTC model himself while working together with his colleague. In the following literature related to the selected models has been reviewed.

2.1. Socio-educational Model It is based on extensive studies conducted by Garner and his associates. Socio-educational model conceived integrativeness and instrumentality as two major reasons of motivation for second language learning while anxiety was seen as a construct having negative effect on motivation (Gardner, 1985). Integrativeness was identified as learner’s purpose to learn language as being the desire to be able to have contact with the native speakers of target language while instrumental purpose was conceived as linked with the utility of learning target language in material terms. Attitudes were considered as predispositions towards motivated behavior.

This model went through many phases of its development and contribution, in this regard, was made by a lot many researchers but it maintained its core idea that a complex of cognitive, affective and social factors which define integrative motive predict success in second language learning (Gardner, 1985; Gardner & MacIntyre, 1992; Gardner & Lambert, 1972; Gardner, Tremblay & Masgoret, 1997). After a series of studies Gardner and Smythe (1975) were able to put forth a prototype of this model. This model included four possible categories of the characteristics related to motivated behavior inducing learning effort by the L2 learners, i.e. Motivational indices, attitudes specific to a group, characteristics related to the course and general attitudes.

However, it was modified later by Gardner (1979) where he made a distinction between different components essential to the study of L2 learning motivation. These included Individual differences, the context of second language acquisition, Social milieu and outcomes. In this version of the model he showed attitudes affecting motivation level which in turn had an effect on language learning achievement. He also asserted that success of the learners can be manifested both in linguistic as well as non-linguistic consequences which would affect attitudes and attitudes again would bear on motivation thus giving a cyclical relationship between attitudes, motivation and achievement. The model has gone through a number of revisions and explanations (Gardner, 1985; Gardner, 2001; Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993; Gardner, 2006; Gardner, 2010).

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In spite of the fact that the findings of Gardner and his colleagues corresponded to the experiences of language learners in most of the cases many researchers (Crookes & Schmidt, 1991; Dornyei, 1994; Oxford & Shearin, 1994) showed their interest to include variables from educational psychology in the framework of second language learning research. In order to respond to this demand Tremblay and Gardner (1995) added some new variables related to motivation like self-efficacy, expectancy, valence, goal setting and causal attribution in the consideration of the construct of motivation. After this the relationship among these variables was examined through Gardner’s socio-educational model developed in 1985. How the measures in psychology developed through other models fit into the studies conducted through socio-educational model became a focus of investigation and it was found that many of these variables coming from other models mediated the relationship between attitudes and motivational behavior established in socio-educational model. The most important mediators among these were found to be valence, goal salience and self-efficacy. It was shown that specification of goals and then frequent references to the goals had a positive effect on motivation. Self-efficacy was found to be influenced by language attitudes and then influenced motivational behavior in its turn.

2.2. Willingness to Communicate (WTC) It is believed that the origin of the construct of Willingness to Communicate (WTC) can be traced to the literature on interpersonal communication more specifically from the work of Burgoon (1976) giving idea of unwillingness to communicate. The idea was followed by McCroskey and Richmond (1987, 1991) later who assumed a regular pattern existing in the avoidance of communication and other tactics through which an individual devalued the act of communication. They traced the causes of avoidance of communication to both the social and individual factors. However, the major contribution was yet to be made by MacIntyre (1998) who conceptualized WTC in his famous heuristic model more typically known as pyramid model. In this model, he organized the diversity of factors influencing second language WTC. The model captures a wide range of intrapersonal, intergroup, communication, linguistic and situational factors which contribute in the ultimate decision to either communicate in second language or desist doing so.

After entering into the arena of language related studies WTC was primarily used as a construct related to communication in L1. It was seen as the tendency of individuals to involve or keep from communicating in L1 when they were free for both the choices (McCroskey & Baer, 1985). It was believed that people generally differ in their communication behavior regardless of the language. Some are very talkative while others reticent and people vary in their communication behavior while talking to different people, an individual feels free and talks much with some while to others s/he is reserved. It was conceived that WTC is a construct based on personality which happens to be very consistent with

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an individual so far as their communication behavior is concerned (McCroskey & Baer, 1985; McCroskey & Richmond, 1987, 1991).

MacIntyre (1994) discovered perceived communicative competence and communication apprehension as the two most important antecedents of WTC. Then it was found through other researches that L1 WTC could incorporate both trait (stable) and state (transient) properties of WTC (MacIntyre, Babin, & Clément, 1999). MacIntyre and Charos (1996) used a combination of both the socio-educational model by Gardner (1985) and the path model by MacIntyre (1994) in order to study the influence of personality variables, attitudes and motivational variables on L2 communication and it was justified that WTC construct is applicable to SLA contexts. It was proposed that L2 communication was dependent both on situational as well as enduring influences which means that WTC encompasses both trait-like as well as situation-based influences. WTC was conceptualized as “a readiness to enter into discourse at a particular time with a specific person or persons, using a L2” (MacIntyre et al. 1998, p. 547).

2.3. Synthesizing Socio-Educational and WTC Models It can be easily seen from the literature reviewed in the previous sections that the field of language motivation has been fertile so far as studies in this area are concerned. A number of theories have developed over time through a lot of research conducted in the field. Many studies have been conducted by combining socio-educational model of Gardner and WTC model of MacIntyre. In this case, the first step was taken by MacIntyre and Charos (1996) who combined Gardner’s model with MacIntyre’s (1994) path model to see whether the factors of attitudinal motivation used in socio-educational model bear any effect on L2 communication or not and it was found that WTC model applies to the situations of SLA as well as to the situations of L2 communication.

Yashima (2002) combined both of these models in a research on Japanese students with the aim to examine the relationship between L2 learning motivation and its use for communication. It was found in this study through structural equation modeling that motivation, as conceived in socio-educational model, influences self-confidence of communication in L2 which in turn affects willingness to communicate in the target language. Kim (2005) conducted a study with a similar framework to examine the effect of other affective variables on willingness to communicate among Korean students. The study was conducted on university students and it was found that the measure of these students on WTC scale was a strong predictor of the performance of these students in English.

The link of language learning motivation with WTC has been confirmed through many researches. Some researchers find that it plays a role in merely extending the construct of motivation (Dörnyei & Skehan 2003). It was seen as only a new angle provided to look at language motivation study by MacIntyre, MacMaster and Baker (2004). They found in a study based on factor analysis that

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L2 learning motivation was strongly correlated to L2 WTC. Dornyei and his associates (Dörnyei & Kormos, 2000; Kormos & Dörnyei, 2004) used WTC as a background variable in their research on language motivation.

Socio-educational model has been applied to many WTC researches but the results have not been uniform in all the cases. The paths postulated by MacIntyre and Charos (1996) in their study based on Clament’s contextual model were not statistically supported. Similarly in the study by Yashima (2002) which was conducted following MacIntyre et al.’s (1998) model the hypothesized direct path from language learning motivation to L2 WTC was found missing in the model developed through structural equation modeling. This relationship was not confirmed in some of the qualitative studies as well (Kang, 2005).

However, the studies conducted by Hashimoto (2002) show converse results. In a study in Japan on 56 students a significant path was confirmed leading from L2 WTC to language learning motivation or motivation as conceived in Gardner’s model. Structural equation modeling was used in this study to identify the existing path. Some studies by MacIntyre and associates (MacIntyre et al., 2002, 2003), which are very important in providing ground to the current study dealt with motivation and L2 WTC in immersion programs. A significant correlation was found between integrative motivation and WTC in these researches. The inconsistent findings may be attributed to varying contexts of the studies and different socio-cultural as well as academic backgrounds involved in the studies conducted in different environments.

Gardner’s model must be given credit in terms of its accommodative capability and expandability. Many researches, over time, have been conducted which introduced different variables to see their impact on other constructs within the model (see Gardner 2010). In various ways researchers conducted their studies using this model. The constructs and variables used in this model were tested for their correlations in different frameworks guided by socio-educational model. New variables were also included and the resulting models were put to tests for their structural validity through Amos in structural equation modeling which proved the adaptability and viability of this model see (for example Hashimoto, 2002; MacIntyre & Charos, 1996; Yashima, 2002).

3. Research Method The study was based on survey design involving quantitative methods. The

survey was conducted across the Punjab province. Six districts were selected purposively from the list provided in a report published by SPDC (Social Policy and Development Center) wherein all the districts were ordered on the basis of their HDI (Human Development Index) ranking. For the purpose of selection, the list was divided into three groups i.e. the top 11, the middle 11 and the bottom 12. Then, two districts were selected from each of the groups following the convenience technique to conduct the survey.

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3.1. Sampling and Population Multi-stage sampling technique was followed in this study. At the first stage districts were divided into three groups on the basis of their HDI ranking systematically. Then following convenience technique two districts were selected from each of the groups. After that, schools were selected from the rural areas of these districts again on convenience basis. In the last stage, purposive sampling technique was followed in selecting those teachers who were either teaching through EMI at the time or had had the experience of teaching through EMI. One hundred questionnaires were distributed among teachers from each of the selected districts. A total of 600 questionnaires were distributed out of which 407 were returned by the participants. Thus, size of the sample for this study was 407. All the teachers of secondary school level in the rural areas of Punjab who were teaching or had taught through EMI were considered the population of this study.

3.2. Instrumentation AMTB and WTC measurement scales were adapted to suite this study. It was done through selection of relevant constructs and selection - as well as adaptation - of the items used to operationalize the constructs in these scales by modifying wording of the items so as to suit the participants in the particular situation involved in this study. It was also done by introducing new items where necessary. The questionnaire thus designed had 57 close-ended items with seven point likert scale (as suggested by Gardner 2010) which ranged from strongly agree to strongly disagree. WTC scale was adapted by converting anticipated frequency of using English to communicate from percentage scale to 7-point likert scale. The percentage scale ranged between 0% chances to 100% chances of using English while the scale constructed for the study ranged between chances of using English always to that of using it never. The reliability coefficient of the designed questionnaire was determined as 0.81 on Cronbach Alpha scale. Cronbach alpha value of the individual subscales on the questionnaire is as under:

Table 1: Cronbach Alpha values of subscales of the questionnaire

Constructs Cronbach’s Alpha

IFL (Interest in Foreign Languages) .76

DLEL (Desire to Learn English Language) .70

INST (Instrumentality) .75

ELLE (English Language Learning Experience) .72

ATEMI (Attitude Towards English as Medium of Instruction) .46

ANX (Anxiety) .75

LSC (Linguistic Self-Confidence) .44

WTCE (Willingness to Communicate in English) .85

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3.3. Data Analysis

SPSS version 21.0 was used for statistical analysis of the survey data. Similarly, Amos version 21.0 was used for analysis through Structural Equation Modeling (SEM).

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Correlation and Regression Analysis The equation in the following represents the model that was initially tested for fitness.

𝑌 = 𝛽0 + 𝛽1𝑋1 + 𝛽2𝑋2 + 𝛽3𝑋3 + 𝛽4𝑋4 + 𝛽5𝑋5 + 𝛽6𝑋6 + 𝛽7𝑋7 + 𝜖

Where:

𝑌 = WTCE (Willingness to Communicate in English)

𝑋1 = IFL (Interest in Foreign Languages)

𝑋2= DLEL (Desire to Learn English Language)

𝑋3 = INST (Instrumentality)

𝑋4 = ELLE (English Language Learning Experience)

𝑋5= ATEMI (Attitude towards English as Medium of Instruction)

𝑋6 =ANX (Anxiety)

𝑋7 = LSC (Linguistic Self-Confidence)

So the above equation can be stated as;

Willingness to Communicate in English = 𝛽0 + 𝛽1Interest in Foreign Languages + 𝛽2Desire to Learn English Language + 𝛽3Instrumentality + 𝛽4English Language Learning Experience + 𝛽5Attitude towards English as Medium of Instruction + 𝛽6Anxiety + 𝛽7Linguistic Self − Confidence + 𝜖

Correlation Structure

Table 2: Correlation Statistics

WTCE IFL DLEL INST ELLE ATEMI ANX LSC

WTCE 1 .102 .037 .283 .217 .316 .190 .238

IFL .102 1 .551 .308 .295 .089 -.219 .292

DLEL .037 .551* 1 .386 .428 .018 -.282 .363

INST .283* .308* .368* 1 .367 .170 .088 .276

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ELLE .217* .295* .428* .367* 1 .088 .054 .426

ATEMI .316* .089 .018 .170 .088 1 -.126 .126

ANX .190 -.219 -.282* .088 .054 -.126 1 .031

LSC .238* .292* .363* .276* .426* .126 .031 1

The above table shows the correlation structure of the model. A phenomenon of weak multicolinearity can be observed here. Both the regression and correlation analysis are related as both describe the relationship among the variables. Coefficient of correlation indicates the linear association found between two variables while regression, on the other hand, shows how and to what extent one variable influences the other. Correlation coefficient has value between -1 to +1 where the former indicates a perfectly negative linear association between two variables whereas the later indicates a perfectly positive linear association. However, in case of zero value a complete absence of correlation is concluded. Both, regression and correlation are not used to indicate and measure cause and effect relationship. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) is used for this purpose.

It can be seen that there are seven correlations which are insignificant. The first among these is between WTCE and DLEL (.037), the second is between IFL and ATEMI (.089), the third between DLEL and ATEMI (.018), the fourth between ELLE and ATEMI (.088), the fifth between INST and ANX (.088), the sixth between ELLE and ANX (.054) and the seventh between LSC and ANX (.031). Here again tendency consolidates the findings whereby a gap was identified as the distinction between English language in general and English as medium of instruction. People have positive attitude towards English in general and have motivation to learn and develop it. They are even wishful of using it but to grapple with it as medium of instruction is seen to be problematic by them and they have shown a low level of motivation and attitudinal positivity. As it is evident from the table that all the weak correlations are between the constructs where one presents English as language in general while the other presents it as medium of instruction.

The first insignificant correlation can be identified between Desire to Learn English Language (DLEL) and Willingness to Communicate in English (WTCE). It is because the situations identified in WTCE naturally involve English as medium of instruction in most of the items while desire to learn English includes items which measure the desire to learn English as a language in general and not as medium of instruction. Similarly, Interest in Foreign Languages (IFL) as a construct has insignificant correlation with WTCE for the same reason as well as all the rest of the measures (variables) mentioned in the preceding paragraph.

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Co-linearity Diagnostics

Table 3: Co-linearity Diagnostics

Variable VIF Tolerance

IFL 1.7 .59

DLEL 2.0 .51

INST 1.4 .70

ELLE 1.6 .64

ATEMI 1.1 .92

ANX 1.3 .77

LSC 1.3 .74

The table above shows variance inflation factor (VIF) and tolerance statistics which are used to check the strength of multicolinearity. As all the VIF values are below 5, and above 1 it can be concluded that there exists weak multicolinearity. It indicates that the variables used in this study, though related to each other, are, at the same time, sufficiently distinguished from each other. It means that all the variables used in this study measure same phenomenon from distinguished points of reference or various dimensions.

Coefficient of Regression

Table 4: Regression statistics

Variable Coefficient Standard Error T Statistic P-Value

IFL .159 .075 2.119 .035

DLEL -.173 .093 -1.868 .063

INST .444 .103 4.304 0.000

ELLE .172 .105 1.628 .1

ATEMI .707 .102 6.967 0.000

ANX .347 .079 4.401 0.000

LSC .667 .190 3.507 0.001

Constant 3.594 4.908 .732 .464

Using the table above, regression equation can be stated as under:

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�̂� = 3.594 + .159𝐼𝐹𝐿 − .173𝐷𝐿𝐸𝐿 + .444𝐼𝑁𝑆𝑇 + .172𝐹𝐿𝐿𝐸 + .707𝐴𝑇𝐸𝑀𝐼+ .347𝐴𝑁𝑋 + .667𝐿𝑆𝐶

Regression coefficient shows the extent to which a dependent variable changes/varies in response to the change in independent variable/s. P-Value of the given variable shows the level of the significance of any independent variable. Using P-values, it can be concluded that one constant term is not affecting WTCE significantly while all the other variables have a highly significant influence on the dependent variable except ELLE which is significant up to only 10%. It means that in response to a complete change in ELLE, only 1/10th of the WTCE will be changed. DLEL is another variable with its P-Value above .05. The possible reason of it can be the orientation of DLEL which covers desire to learn English from a general perspective and not specifically as medium of instruction. However, all the other variables have their value < .05 which shows that they significantly influence the dependent variable i.e. WTCE.

Diagnostics

Table 5: Regression Coefficient

Indicator Statistic P-value (if any)

𝑹𝟐 .318 -

Adjusted 𝑹𝟐 .306 -

Durbin Watson 1.9 -

Regression Mean Square 2834.298 .000

As P-value of regression mean square is less than 0.05, the model is best fit.

However, 𝑹𝟐and Adjusted 𝑹𝟐are very low explaining only 31 to 32 percent of variation. It means that independent variables have been found to explain only 31 to 32 percent of the variation in the dependent variable while the remaining variation is explained by other factors. It is due to the variables/constructs dealing with English language in general. As regression is best fit and coefficients are significant also correlations among independent variables are very low, variance inflation factor is near 1 in most cases. We can interpret our regression coefficient as under.

Interpretation of Regression Coefficient

1) When IFL increases by one score, WTCE will increase by .159 scores on

average.

2) When DLEL increases by one score, WTCE will decrease by .173 scores on

average.

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3) When INST increases by one score, WTCE will increase by .444 scores on

average.

4) When ELLE increases by one score, WTCE will increase by .172 scores on

average.

5) When ATEMI increases by one score, WTCE will increase by .707 scores on

average.

6) When ANX increases by one score, WTCE will increase by .347 scores on

average.

7) When LSC increases by one score, WTCE will increase by .667 scores on

average.

The interpretation of coefficients above shows that IFL, DLEL and ELLE group together in having low regression value for the dependent variable i.e. WTCE. It is interesting to note that all these three variables measure the affective response of the participants towards English as a language in general and not English as medium of instruction. On the other hand it can be found that the other four variables eliciting response towards English as Medium of Instruction show a high regression value on WTCE. These variables explain above 50% of the variation in dependent factor (WTCE) which is highly significant.

4.2. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)

Structural equation modeling (SEM) is also known as analysis of covariance structures, or causal modeling (Arbuckle & Wothke, 1999). It is a statistical methodology through which conceptualized models are verified and/or paths confirmed. It is tested through this how far the hypothesized paths – of cause-effect relationship are coinciding with the data driven paths. Analysis through structural equation modeling have, been given in the following.

Model Fit No 1

Table 6: Analysis through Structural Equating Model

Indicator Statistic ( P- Value)

Chi- SQ 2.245 (.325)

CMIN 2.245 (.325)

GFI .998

AGFI .983

CFI .999

PCFI .200

RMSEA 0.017 (.620)

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Above table shows some indicator relating model fit.

P – Value for chi-square and CMIN indicates that our model is best fit.

GFI, AGFI, CFI and PCFI also indicating good fitting

RMSEA = 0.017 with p – value greater than 0.05 also shows best model fit.

Following is the diagram of fitted model. All the estimates are significant. * shows significance at 10% level, ** for 5% and *** for 1%

Figure 1: Structural Equation Modeling; Path Analysis 1

The figure above shows the following:

1) Motivation (an aggregate/sum of the variables selected from Gardner’s socio-

educational model i.e. IFL, DLEL, INST, ATEMI) is a highly significant and positively

related causal factor to WTCE

2) Motivation is a highly significant causal factor to Linguistic Self-Confidence (LSC)

3) LSC is a highly significant and positively related causal factor to WTCE

4) English Language Learning Experience (ELLE) is a highly significant and positively

related causal factor to Motivation

5) ELLE is a significant and positively related Causal factor to LSC

6) Anxiety shows an insignificant value as a causal factor to LSC

7) Anxiety is a highly significant and negatively related causal factor to motivation

MOTV

ELLE ANX

WTCE

LSC

.48***

.652***

-.792***

.143*

.038

.664***

.198**

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Motivation has been found to be significant cause of WTCE (as can be seen in the figure). However, it can be noted that motivation exercises greater influence on WTCE indirectly through LSC. ELLE is found to have its highest influence indirectly through motivation as in the other figure it can be found that ELLE remains completely insignificant in its direct influence on WTCE. This trend shown by ELLE serves as answer to research question no 5. Anxiety also shows its indirect relationship with WTCE as found in earlier studies by MacIntyre and Charos (1996) and Hashimoto (2002). However, the path followed by Anxiety in this study is not through LSC as was expected if it were in line with earlier studies. Instead, it is through motivation which shows that higher the anxiety lower will be the attitudinal motivation (as MacIntyre 2001, would call it) which will lead to lower level of WTCE. This part provides answer to the research question no 6.

However, English Language Learning Experience has proved to be a very important factor in defining motivation on the scales introduced by Gardner (1979, 1985, 2006 & 2010). Nakata (2006) through empirical studies proved Language Learning Experience as an important construct in defining or measuring language motivation which has been confirmed through this research. ELLE has shown a highly significant influence in causing motivation.

Thus it can be concluded that those having good learning experience in any language (English in this case) are expected to show a relatively higher level of motivation to move further in learning that language. However, ELLE has not shown to be a direct cause of WTCE. These findings with regard to ELLE provide answer to research question no 5. Thus, the path hypothesized by Yashima (2002) (from motivation to WTC) that was found not confirmed; has been confirmed in this study as an answer to research question no 4 in this study.

Model Fit No 2

Table 7:

Indicator Statistic ( P- Value)

Chi- SQ 1.358 (.244)

CMIN 1.358 (.244)

GFI .999

AGFI .977

CFI .999

PCFI .067

RMSEA 0.030 (.452)

Above table shows some indicator relating model fit.

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P – Value for chi-square and CMIN indicates that our model is best fit.

GFI, AGFI, CFI and PCFI also indicate good fit.

RMSEA = 0.030 with P – value greater than 0.05 also shows best model fit.

Following is the diagram of fitted model. All the estimates are significant accept ELLE to WTCE. * shows significance at 10% level, ** for 5% and *** for 1% level of significance.

Figure 2: Structural Equation Modeling; Path Analysis 2

The figure above shows that;

1. The value of significance level of motivation in causing WTC has increased to

.377*** after exclusion of DLEL in which case it was .198**.

2. DLEL is a highly significant (with the value .753***) causal factor of motivation.

3. DLEL is a completely insignificant causal factor of LSC.

4. ELLE is a completely insignificant causal factor of WTCE.

5. Anxiety has a significantly negative causal relationship with motivation but an

insignificant but positive one with LSC.

6. LSC is a highly significant positively related causal factor of WTCE.

The decrease in the value of motivation as causal factor of WTCE is due to the fact that DLEL deals with English as a language in general. It has been noted in this study that such factors(treating English as a language in general and not as MOI) are weakly correlated to the variables which focus English as MOI (medium of

LSC MOTV ELLE

DLEL

WTCE

ANX

.034

. 603 *** -.001

.377***

.655****

-.161**

.753*

**

.097***

.097**

*

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instruction), have low or insignificant regression value with them and have proved to be poor/insignificant causes of WTCE - that also focuses English as MOI. However, DLEL has been found to have a highly significant causal value for other motivational factors from socio-educational model. ELLE has emerged as having no value as direct cause of WTCE; however, it proves to be highly significant indirect factor of influence.

ELLE has shown a highly significant causal relationship with motivational factors taken from socio-educational model. It has also shown highly significant correlation and regression value with the factors from socio-educational model dealing English as a language in general. In view of all this, ELLE can be grouped, in the first place, with the variables dealing English in general in this study while, in the second place, with all the variables of socio-educational model as an expansion of this model for further enquiries which can produce valuable literature as an extension on the existing debate. Such researches would confirm theoretical importance of Nakata’s (2006) contribution on one hand while the tenacity of socio-educational model owing to its flexibility on the other. This last point in the preceding discussion adds to the idea of expandability of socio-educational model which was empirically proved by many researches over the time in this field.

Anxiety, in contrast to the study by MacIntyre and Charos (1994) and its replication by Hashimoto (2002) does not emerge as a negatively related direct cause of LSC which has been used as an alternative of Perceived Communicative Competence in the already mentioned studies. However, it has been found to be a significantly related negative cause of motivation (refer to research question no 6). The possible reason for it can be that LSC is not an appropriate replacement of Perceived Communicative Competence. However, such a conclusion without further empirical evidences after necessary modifications will be too careless a jump towards this end.

5. Findings of the Study

The results on ELLE confirm Nakata’s (2006) findings for it being a significant construct for language motivation. However, it has been found not to be a direct cause of willingness to communicate. ELLE can successfully be incorporated in Socio-educational model as an expansion of it.

6. Conclusion

Motivation as a sum-total of the constructs used by Gardner in his Socio-educational model has proved to be a significant cause of WTC. It has been found in path analysis through Structural Equation Modeling. However, regression and correlation analysis has provided intriguing insights into the relationship of individual constructs to WTC. All the items designed for WTC scale treated English as Medium of Instruction (EMI). It is interesting to note that those constructs for which the items used in the questionnaire treated English as Medium of Instruction proved to be far more significant causes of WTC than those where it

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was treated as a language in general. The systematic trend in the segregation of constructs into two groups i.e. English as a language in general and EMI proves that language motivation is strictly specific to the situation which defines the status and role of the language in question. Finally, the successful introduction of English Language Learning Experience (ELLE) and other adaptations to contextualize the study speak positively about the accommodative capacity of the selected models.

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Gardner, R. C., Tremblay, P. F., & Masgoret, A. (1997). Towards a full model of second language learning: An empirical investigation. The Modern Language Journal, 81(3), 344-362.

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Humor, Satire and Verbal Parody in The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy: A Relevance Theoretic Approach

Zohra Fatima

Abstract

Linguistic studies of jokes and other humorous texts provide varied perspectives on how humor is elicited through language. As opposed to the predominantly semantic approaches adopted by many linguistic theories of humor, studies conducted on humor within a Relevance Theoretic framework entail that comprehension of humor – as any other instance of communication – depends on the context as well as the cognitive abilities of the reader or hearer. This context and the background information that the reader/hearer possesses determines the relevance of the message, which in turn determines whether the reader/hearer is able to arrive at the intended humorous interpretation of the text/instance. Correspondingly, this paper aims to analyze the structural and pragmatic elements of satire and parody in Douglas Adams’ humorous science fiction series The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy according to the tenets of Relevance Theory. The main focus of the analysis is to elucidate how the writer draws on various cultural stereotypes and particular genre styles for satirical and parodical purposes, and how this creates a cognitive background for the reader which is a necessary perquisite to understand the intended humor.

Keywords: humor, Relevance Theory, satire, parody

1. Introduction

Humor draws largely on linguistic resources like puns, wordplay and metaphors. Verbal humour has presented itself as a complicated phenomenon to linguists over the years because of its inherently dissociative properties: sometimes the very essence of humour lies in defying the rules of language usage. However, when it comes to a larger humorous text like a novel or a series, humor is not limited to and bound by linguistic resources. Writers use many devices like satire and parody for humorous purposes that extend to the narrative level. The socio-cultural background with which the writer plays and which s/he manipulates contributes significantly in making a literary text humorous. Secondly, there is also the question of style that constitutes the cultural/social elements as well as the genre specific linguistic features of different discourses.

In this context, this study aims to elucidate how humour is created in literary texts through parody and satire. The main concern of the analysis is the explication of the linguistic resources the author draws on, using a relevance theoretic framework. Relevance theory is taken as a framework because it provides an overarching account of how linguistic communication is comprehended, and more importantly its focus on the underlying cognitive

NUML Journal of Critical Inquiry Vol 14, (II), Dec, 2016 ISSN 2222-5706

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mechanisms. Although relevance theory was initially proposed to explicate real life, everyday instances of communication, it has been extended to analyze metaphors, irony, parody and literary texts (see section 2 for details on relevance theory and literary interpretation).

Where there is an array of literature available on linguistic studies of jokes, studies on humorous fiction still remain scarce. Humorous fiction doesn’t receive as much critical attention as other genres of literature because mostly it is taken to be second or third degree literature (especially when it comes to literary criticism). However, when considered from a linguistic perspective works of humorous fiction, like that of Lewis Carroll’s, Joseph Heller’s and Douglas Adams’ present interesting instances of communication – where more is implied than said and more often than not easily understood as well. Humour, then, is not only a device of entertainment, it is also an act of communication.

In the last half of the twentieth century, many models of communication have emerged including the code as well as the inferential model of communication. Following the same line of theoretical development in Pragmatics, relevance theory was proposed in the late 80s by Sperber and Wilson to extend the inferential model of communication – putting forward an overarching account of the human comprehension process. While relevance theoretic framework has been applied to a multitude of aspects including language usage and text interpretation, when it comes to humour, relevance theory proposes that the understanding of humour requires more effort on the part of readers as compared to other forms of communication. But, in this case the cognitive effects are also maximized which account for the humorousness of the utterance or text. The major propositions of relevance theoretic approach to humour entail that humorous effects arise when a listener or reader is able to resolve a conflict between what is said and what is implied – the incongruity resolution. While taking a cognitive stance to communication in general, relevance theory also pays an excessive attention to the context that guides the interpretative process whether it is the immediate context of the utterance/text or the broader socio-cultural context. Additionally, it can also give a substantial explanation of how humour is construed in broader ‘narrative texts’, where the comic elements encompass a variety of aspects apart from the exploitation of linguistic resources.

Under a relevance-theoretic framework, relevance in case of humorous fiction is derived from the encyclopaedic knowledge and more importantly from the reader’s ability to co-relate it to the exploitation of the narrative structure. The term Encyclopaedic knowledge is recurrently used by Sperber and Wilson (1995) and many other relevance theorists to refer to everything that is known about a certain object, entity or phenomena and thus varies from speaker to speaker – in short the knowledge that goes beyond the semantic (dictionary/lexical/logical) meaning. However, there is a common core of knowledge related to any particular

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referent that communities usually share (Cruse, 2006). Owing to this, people have varied responses to any humorous instance and in many cases humor is culture bound as well.

In their reductionist account of Grice’s inferential model of communication, Sperber and Wilson have put forth a cognitive framework for explicating the process of communication and comprehension. Relevance theory (and the Neo-Gricean approach in general) is reductionist in the sense that instead of Grice’s conversational maxims, they argue for an ‘all-purpose cognitive processing’ guided by the search for ‘relevance’ (Lycan, 2008). Thus, relevance here must be taken as the central and single most important requirement for successful comprehension of any communicative act as proposed by Sperber and Wilson (1995). The human cognitive faculty inherently draws inferences from any relevant input (even in case of specifically linguistic communicative acts, the significance of co-text and context cannot be over-emphasized) and the encyclopaedic knowledge of the hearer/reader as well as the speaker/writer. Due to this inherent ability to search for relevance, the recipient of a communicative act keeps on looking for a plausible interpretation until s/he reaches the most relevant one (Wilson & Sperber, 2006).

Where at the outset ‘Relevance Theory’ does present problems of over-generalization, it provides an adequate account of the comprehension process for instances of communication where Grice’s Cooperative Principle fails (Wilson & Sperber, 2006). Grice’s account becomes inadequate especially in case of humorous fiction that transgresses not only the boundaries of linguistic norms but also the setting, as well as the sequence of events, in the fictional world of a novel/series. Getting humor, hence, in this case requires an active imagination on the part of the reader. This also demands an excessively creative process from the writer to make it comprehensible for the readers.

One of the central propositions that can be gleaned from relevance theoretic studies of humor (Galiñanes, 2000, 2005; Higashimori, 2011; Hu, 2012; Jin & Wang, 2012; Yus, 2003, 2008) is that the processing of humorous instances requires more cognitive effort as compared to -non-humorous acts due to their contradictory nature (in most if not all cases). This presents a contradiction to one of the two main principles of Relevance Theory – the cognitive principle of relevance – according to which the most relevant stimulus is the one that requires least effort and produces the most positive cognitive effects. Correspondingly, relevance theorists like Yus (2003, 2008) argue that in the case of humor the participants are aware of the humorous intentions of the speaker, or in some cases made aware of these intentions by certain humor markers like specific linguistic markers, questions like “have you heard that one?”, and so forth. This awareness leads the hearer/reader to indulge in a process of resolving the cognitive dissonance associated with humor in return for increased cognitive effects.

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1.1 Aims and Objectives of the Study

Where a number of studies have been conducted on humor under the relevance-theoretic framework and a few address literary texts including Trotter (1992), Furlong (1996) and Galiñanes (2000, 2005), satire and parody still remains a rarely discussed object of inquiry for relevance studies. The impetus for this study was Rossen-Knill and Henry’s (1997) study of verbal parody. As opposed to literary critics who regard parody as a mode of criticism, Rossen-Knill and Henry take a different stance on parody as a linguistic phenomenon and extend the analysis to explicate the pragmatics of parodic instances in everyday conversations ranging from writing to gesturing, to literature and family conversations. They regard parody as a human behaviour and extend the propositions of literary critics to explain the structural and pragmatic aspects of parody.

This study aims to extend Rossen-Knill and Henry’s (1997) analysis in order to both highlight the pragmatic aspects of parody and satire, and elucidate the related processes of humor elicitation and comprehension under the main tenets of Relevance Theory. While applying their main propositions, this study also illustrates the satirical elements of the selected text and relates it to the elicitation of humorous effects. The main research questions that the analysis answers are:

1. What are the structural and pragmatic aspects related to parody in the selected series?

2. How do parodic and satirical instances in the selected series create humor?

1.2 Why The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy?

Analysis in this paper is based on several excerpts from Douglas Adams’ science fiction series The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy. This series combines both the features of a satire and a parody with a story line distinctive of a science fiction (sci-fi here after) novel/series. Where a satire is aimed at exposing the faults of society, institutions and individuals, ‘parody’ mocks the style associated with a person, discipline or genre (Baldick, 2001). In more specific terms, satire is more dependent on the content and parody on the style but both are distinguished by a characteristic mocking attitude. Like most of the sci-fi novels The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy satirizes a futuristic albeit technology dominated world (or universe to be precise) and draws on the conventional styles of many institutions and fields for parodical purposes. Correspondingly, for humorous purposes, sci-fi presents an ideal genre allowing ridiculous notions and situations like time travel available to be exploited. Further, the extensive readership of the novel makes it possible to identify a specific and distinct style that characterizes parody and satire and can be attributed as a “humor marker” for the readers – guiding the whole comprehension process.

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2. Extending the Relevance Principle: Echoic Utterances, Parodic Re-presentation and Literary Interpretation

Instances of figurative language, like irony that flouts the maxim of truthfulness, can be regarded as special cases where relevance plays an important part in the comprehension process. According to Relevance Theory irony entails a specific use of echoic utterances. Echoic utterance is an utterance which “achieves most of it relevance by expressing the speakers’ attitude to views she [or he] tacitly attributes to someone else” (Wilson & Sperber, 2006, p. 621). Verbal irony entails an expression of dissociation on the speaker’s part from the views being expressed and echoed. Consider, for example, the following exchange:

A: It was a wonderful movie.

B: yeh! wonderful! (scornfully)

On one side the second utterance echoes the thought communicated in the first one and on the other it also entails dissociation from it. Wilson and Sperber (2006) contend that B’s utterance is ironic because it is “echoic” as “verbal irony consists in echoing a tacitly attributed thought or utterance with a tacitly dissociative attitude” (p. 622).

While elaborating on the comprehension of irony within the relevance theoretic framework, Zhao (2011) also asserts that when it comes to the comprehension of irony, relevance lies in the various incongruities that exist in an ironic utterance. Ironic utterances gain attention because there is an incompatibility between the information being provided through the contextual elements and what is being explicated by the utterance. The receiver, then, has to access some underlying contextual assumptions to recover the intended interpretation. This “contextual selection” is guided by the relevance principle:

After the addressee perceives incompatibilities between the contextual assumptions and the propositional content of the utterance, it is again relevance that guides him/her towards the conclusion that the mismatch is not gratuitous but deliberate, that the utterance should not be understood as an assertion, exclamation, directive, question or imperative, etc. in the normal sense, but should be understood as a critical commentary or evaluation, and that the utterance should not be taken as the surface value but as conveying dissociative attitudes such as satire, sarcasm, ridicule and banter. (Zhao, 2011, p. 177)

Wilson and Sperber (2006) further contend that irony is associated with a higher order of metarepresentations which are also involved in the comprehension of ‘illocutionary acts’. According to Wilson (2000) a “metarepresentation is a representation of a representation: a higher-order representation with a lower-order representation embedded within it” (p. 411). Grice had entailed that the communication process relies largely on metarepresentations: beginning from

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metarepresentation of “an attributed utterance” and ultimately ending at a metarepresentation of “attributed thought” (Wilson, 2000). Metarepresentations gain particular importance in case of “echoic utterances”, like irony, which attain relevance mostly by representing the speaker’s attitude to an utterance or thought that he/she attributes to someone else. In Wilson’s contention, echoic utterances also include an additional layer of metarepresentation; as the utterance has not only to represent the attribution of thoughts to someone but also the speaker’s attitude towards it.

One of the key aspects of parody is the act of intentional re-presentation – any parodic instance recalls and alludes to its object. Like irony, the intentional re-presentation can target objects ranging from a linguistic form to individuals, to thoughts and beliefs. However, where the relevance theoretic account of echoic utterances does provide an explanation for the element of allusion in parodic instances, Rossen-Knill and Henry (1997) contend that parody requires two codes instead of one required for irony. Each of these two codes relates to specific speech events. When a parodic instance makes the hearer/reader recall the object of parody, it goes beyond merely referring or mentioning of the object as irony does. The speaker or the writer needs also to reconstruct the mental representation of the object that is being parodied. Thus, where echo is part of the re-presentation of the target object in any parodic instance, it is not enough to make the instance parodic unless the reproduction of the target object is made explicit. The re-presentation requires to be clearly identifiable as the hearer/reader needs to be aware of the original object in order to be directed towards it. Without this identification, the hearer/reader cannot reconstruct the original object of parody in order to compare it to the parodied version.

Additionally, these two codes are significant in order to understand parody because the hearer/reader’s recognition of the similarity between the parody and object is central to the process of parody comprehension and, secondly the speaker/writer has to make the resemblance apparent enough for the hearer/reader while simultaneously making it distinct from the other objects that might bear any similarity to the target (Rossen-Knill & Henry, 1997). This can be further elaborated if the concept of demonstration is incorporated in the act of re-presentation. While a demonstration does takes its meaning from the object it demonstrates (that could be a process or a person’s action or beliefs), the meanings transform as they are used in a new context by a new speaker – thus presenting a new rendition of the object of demonstration.

Apart from the comprehension of figurative devices, Relevance Theory provides an ample account for literary interpretation. Literary interpretations are, more often than not, vague and different readers can come with different interpretations of the same work. Relevance Theory also accounts for such interpretations as every receiver decodes a message on the basis of contextual assumptions s/he deems appropriate. In relation to the propositions of Relevance

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Theory, literature presents a totally different case of communication and comprehension as instead of making the texts as relevant as possible, mostly the writers tend to do the opposite, thus, complicating the relevance principle. Trotter (1992) asserts that literary works entail totally different levels of relevance as opposed to everyday communication as “literature might be defined as a form of communication more grossly underdetermined than most by linguistic structure... literature tests to the limit not our powers of encoding and decoding, but our powers of inference” (p. 12). The uniqueness of literary texts can be accounted for by examining the relation between the various linguistic forms and their pragmatic interpretations. The interpretation process is based on contextual assumptions which include the propositions that are recently processed, an extended relation to previous discourse and the encyclopedic knowledge. This, in turn helps to extend the context and optimize the relevance process.

Similarly, Furlong (1996) argues that literary interpretation can be defined as a search of “intended relevance” because while reading a text a reader looks for the meaning the writer intended to make by drawing on the available (and intended) contextual assumptions. As Relevance Theory entails that utterances that carry more relevance are more likely to gain the hearer’s attention, literary works present an opposite case where most of the readers are unable to find appropriate contextual factors to infer the meaning and hence literary works enjoy a comparatively less readership – James Joyce’s stream-of-consciousness novels, for example. Both conditions of relevance: minimum effort and maximum contextual support are usually not fully met in literary works. In Furlong’s contention the process of literary interpretation follows the same path of inference predicted by Relevance Theory. As interpretation of any literary work is a response to it, Relevance Theory entails that people read literary works because they believe that they are somehow relevant to them and will make sense in a specific way. Readers expect that the writer provides evidence for his/her intended thoughts to be communicated. Furlong (1996) argues that what a reader interprets from a literary work is aimed at seeking this relevance and recovering the intended effects instead of just being a description of that work. Moreover, as Pilkington (2000) asserts Relevance Theory allows literary texts to be understood not in terms of the properties of the text but in terms of the cognitive properties that can account for the effect literary texts have on their readers.

3. The Pragmatics of Verbal Parody and Satire in The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy

Parody and satire are perhaps the two most frequently used comic techniques in literature. Even in serious literary works like Shakespearean comedies or Dickens’ novels, the comic element derives from either the parodical rendering of some aspect of real life or through a satirical tone. The use of parody in literature is as old as the tradition of writing itself whether it be Aristophanes

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Frogs or a contemporary work like Douglas Adams Hitchhiker series in the present case. Parody and satire, however, are distinguished in the sense that they are not characterized by the content but represent an attitude towards the phenomenon being parodied or satirized. Some critics of literature and other performing arts regard parody as a “high art form”. Parody also highlights the “inter-textual” nature of language: how our language usage draws on previous texts and styles to build new texts and styles. On the same lines, Dentith (2000) defines parody as a cultural phenomenon chiefly, while alluding to a range of linguistic as well as social norms that can be termed as a cultural practice “which provides a relatively polemical allusive imitation of another cultural production or practice” (p. 9). According to Dentith (2000), parody is ‘polemical’ because of its attacking nature – a characteristic feature of parody – which is referred to as ‘critical attitude’ in this section.

Moreover, parody can encompass words (verbal parody), action (used in theatre comedies) and even style. Rossen-Knill and Henry (1997) regard parody as a communicative act “which is enacted in various ways, through gesturing, writing or speaking; and in various contexts – e.g., on street corners, in family conversations, and in literature” (p. 720). For Rossen-Knill and Henry, verbal parody involves a re-presentation (not to be confused with ‘representation’ as a ‘simple depiction’ but signifying a ‘re-enactment’) that can utilize any linguistic form and targets individuals, actions, events and even thoughts and beliefs. Verbal parody in this sense refers to any expression that conveys some parodic meaning which may refer to a particular thing or person in the world.

The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy is an extended satire on the modern world and highlights the insignificance of worldly concerns in comparison to the vastness of the universe. The series present a number of parodical descriptions of various entities and personas like politicians, philosophers, linguists and especially bureaucrats that are represented through Vogons. The Vogons make up for the Galactic bureaucracy and are characterized by their inefficiency, lengthy official processes and their insistence on thwarting any real progress in the galaxy. Consider, for example, the following extract from the series:

(1) ‘Vogon Constructor Fleets. Here is what to do if you want to get a lift from a Vogon: forget it. They are one of the most unpleasant races in the Galaxy—not actually evil, but bad-tempered, bureaucratic, officious and callous. They wouldn’t even lift a finger to save their own grandmothers from the Ravenous Bugblatter Beast of Traal without orders signed in triplicate, sent in, sent back, queried, lost, found, subjected to public inquiry, lost again, and finally buried in soft peat for three months and recycled as firelighters. . . On no account allow a Vogon to read poetry at you.’[Italics and single quotation marks in original]. (p. 50)

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As it has been mentioned before, in order to be parodical any particular expression has to re-present some object or process which in this case is conveyed through the staggering official processes. It must also be noted that the instances of stereotypes and character frames discussed in the preceding section also embody an implicit parodical rendering of different personas – Zaphod re-presenting the ‘spendthrift politicians’ and Arthur a ‘self-obsessed narrow minded middle class man’ (which is one of the many interpretations of his character). Some other important instances of parody from the series are reproduced here (larger excerpts are quoted to clarify the parodical rendering implicit in the text):

(2) ‘Oh yes,’ said Arthur, ‘I thought that some of the metaphysical imagery was really particularly effective. . . counterpoint the surrealism of the underlying metaphor of the . . . er . . . of the poet’s compassionate soul . . . which contrives through the medium of the verse structure to sublimate this, transcend that, and come to terms with the fundamental dichotomies of the other . . . and one is left with a profound and vivid insight into . . . into . . . er. . .Into whatever it was the poem was about!’ he yelled. (p. 62)

(3) The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy defines the marketing division of the

Sirius Cybernetics Corporation as ‘a bunch of mindless jerks who’ll be the first against the wall when the revolution comes’, . . . Curiously enough, an edition of The Encyclopedia Galactica that had the good fortune to fall through a time warp from a thousand years in the future defined the marketing division of the Sirius Cybernetics Corporation as ‘a bunch of mindless jerks who were the first against the wall when the revolution came’.[Italics and single quotation marks in original]. (pp. 83-84)

(2) is an extract from the part where Arthur is trying to comment on the poetry of the Vogon Captian which according to the ‘Guide’ (the fictional Hitchhikers’ Guideto the Galaxy after which the series in named, from which excerpts are quoted in the series) is the worst thing that can happen to you when it comes to Vogons. But Arthur’s struggle to save himself and Ford by complementing the torturous poetry is humorous because of the two reason: one arises from the situation irony of the incident and secondly through the implicit parody of literary critics which is made apparent to the readers by the used of terms specific to literary criticism like ‘verse structure’, ‘fundamental dichotomies’ and ‘vivid insight’. Similarly, (3) is also an extract from the Hitchhiker’s Guide and parodies the antagonistic discourse of socialists versus capitalists – where the capitalists (or commercialists) are signified by the “marketing division of the Sirius Cybernetics Corporation” and the socialists by the claim that the marketing division “will be the first against the wall when revolution came”.

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Re-enactment and re-presentation in these cases is possible only because the implicit allusions are made conspicuous by specific markers like the jargon of literary criticism in (2) and the emphasis on “revolution” in (3). In terms of relevance this is the most distinguishing characteristic of verbal parody that facilitates the humorous interpretation of these instances. It is also evident that parodical rendering in essence entails a critical attitude and accounts for most of the satirical undertones in the series. Parody, then, is less expressive of information and indicates largely the author’s take on the subject being parodied.

Rossen-Knill and Henry (1997) contend that within the relevance theoretic framework four essential features are necessary for parody including: a) conspicuous verbal re-presentation of the object, b) flaunting of this re-presentation, c) critical attitude and, d) comic tone (act). Where the role of verbal re-presentation is mostly in maximizing the relevance of the verbal expression and making it more accessible for the reader, the comics effects depend largely on how this expression is flouted. This requires both creativity and subtlety on the part of the writer, failing which the critical as well as comic effects wouldn’t be produced and Douglas Adams manages to do both in the The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy.

Furthermore, in the present case most of the parodical elements are concentrated in the excerpts given from The Guide which can also be termed as “formulates”. The term ‘formulates’ was introduced by Nash in his model of comic narratives (Ermida, 2008, pp. 102-105) that accounts for different reflections, comments and asides indicating the writer’s attitude towards an event or situation. In the case of The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy they are distinct from localized jokes because they constitute small stretches of narrative within the series – commenting on the central conflict in many situations and setting a background in others: (1), for instance sets a background for the torturous poetry read by the Vogon Captain to Arthur and Ford as a punishment. See another two examples from the series:

(4) ‘We,’ said Majikthise, ‘are Philosophers.’ . . . ‘We are quite definitely here as representatives of the Amalgamated Union of Philosophers, Sages, Luminaries and Other Thinking Persons, and we want this machine off’ . . . ‘You just let the machines get on with the adding up,’ warned Majikthise, ‘and we’ll take care of the eternal verities, thank you very much. You want to check your legal position, you do, mate. Under law the Quest for Ultimate Truth is quite clearly the inalienable prerogative of your working thinkers. Any bloody machine goes and actually finds it and we’re straight out of a job, aren’t we? I mean, what’s the use of our sitting up half the night arguing that there may or may not be a God if this machine only goes and gives you his bleeding phone number the next morning?’ (pp. 148-149)

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This extract depicts the intervention of two philosophers Majikthise and Vroomfondel who are protesting the commissioning of Deep Thought, the most powerful super-computer ever designed in the galaxy, to find answer to the ultimate question of “life, universe and everything”. Embodying a satirical representation of philosophers in general this extract conforms to certain widely held stereotypes about thinkers – pointing to a deliberate creation of ambiguity and complexity on their part. But, in terms of relevance, this embedded stereotype helps the readers to get the ‘intended joke’ in this instance.

Apart from the aspects of ‘re-enactment’ and flouting which occurs by the phrase pointing to possibility of Deep Though finding God’s phone number, voice shifting can also be observed in this example. Voice shifting over here refers to shifts in narrative voices: from characters to an omnipresent narrator. Despite the fact that (4) is also another excerpt from ‘The Guide’, voice shifting serves two purposes: i. It distances the narrator from the person speaking – implying a critical attitude towards the subject of parody and; ii. allows a more direct expression (which is closer to reality) from the speaker facilitating the readers to identify the person/profession being parodied.

Similarly, Palmer (2005) asserts that parody constitutes two acts: the successful repetition of a ‘discursive entity’ and a simultaneous transformation of it. However, this transformation is not limited to discourse only and also entails a significant alternation in our perception of the parodied entity. From a relevance theoretic approach (as entailed by Rossen-Knill & Henry (1997) the following model for parody can be outlined for extract (4) :

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Fig 1: A relevance-theoretic model of Parody in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy

Moreover, Simpson (2003) in his discussion on the ‘discourse of satire’, contends that a satirical text draws on two “discourses”, underscored by two distinct features, as evident in the above example and in the extracts quoted before: one echoes the discourse of the philosophers/intellectuals (re-presentation) and the other counteracts it (the act of flaunting). Simpson terms the later feature as the ‘dialectic’ referring to the phenomena of opposition (dialectic here must be understood as signifying the terms literal meaning as a ‘conflict’) found in parodical texts. Here it must be noticed that not every instance of parodical texts is satirical and vice versa. However, this distinction is not applicable in the present case because most of the extracts quoted in this section are parodical as well as satirical – stemming from the general satirical tone of the novel. Nonetheless, it is evident that the comic properties of these parodical texts originate from both the re-presentational and ‘dialectical’ features and excluding any of the two, from any particular instance, would render them non-comical. In

Verbal Re-presentation

(Accentuation of a philosophical register) Signified by the use of

terms like ‘Amalgamated Union

of Philosophers, Sages, Luminaries and Other Thinking Persons’ and

‘eternal verities’.

Flaunting of Re-presentation

The serious style of conversation

associated with intellectuals parodied

by using informal/derogatory style illustrated by

words like ‘mate’ and ‘bleeding phone

number’.

Critical Act Satire on the deliberate complications

propounded about life by philosophers (which is signified in the present case by their attempt to thwart Deep Thought’s program to find answer

to the ultimate question... program to find answer to the ultimate question of Life,

Universe and Everything.

Comic Act The parodying

of philosophers/ intellectuals

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the case of (4) for instance, the discipline specific register is not enough to make this extract comical, the flaunting plays an equal part. Similarly see the following excerpt from the series:

(5) One of the major problems encountered in time travel is not that of accidentally becoming your own father or mother. There is no problem involved in becoming your own father or mother that a broad-minded and well-adjusted family can’t cope with... The major problem is quite simply one of grammar, and the main work to consult in this matter is Dr. Dan Streetmentioner’s Time Traveller’s Handbook of 1001 Tense Formations. It will tell you, for instance, how to describe something that was about to happen to you in the past before you avoided it by time-jumping forward two days in order to avoid it. The event will be described differently according to whether you are talking about it from the standpoint of your own natural time, from a time in the further future, or a time in the further past and is further complicated by the possibility of conducting conversations while you are actually travelling from one time to another with the intention of becoming your own mother or father... Most readers get as far as the Future Semiconditionally Modified Subinverted Plagal Past Subjunctive Intentional before giving up; and in fact in later editions of the book all the pages beyond this point have been left blank to save on printing costs. (pp. 269-270)

Extract (5) is taken from the Restaurant at the End of the Universe (the second novel in the Hitchhiker series) and sets a background for subsequent events before Zaphod and others embark on a time travel to dine at the restaurant that is located in a time instead of a space continuum (in a time just before the end of the world). But Douglas Adams eloquently manipulates this situation to criticise various rules of grammar which are made apparent by such terms as “Future Semiconditionally Modified Subinverted Plagal Past” and “Subjunctive Intentional”. The comic impact is further increased by a comparison with far serious problems as becoming “your own mother”. But on the other side, this extract also satirizes the difficulty of understanding language rules to effectively communicate one’s message according to the standards.

In addition, like the previous examples, (5) is ironic or to be precise an instance of “irony within irony”; a term used by Simpson (2003) who contends that satire is a particular case of “irony within irony” – with the implications defying the semantics of the text on two levels: representing a negative attitude to not only what is said but also how it is said and in relation to whom (the target). However, the echoic qualities of this text come not from echoing someone from the novel itself but arise from the reference to broader genre of linguistics and grammar within it.

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In short, it can be concluded that parody relies largely on the manipulation of a ‘discourse style’ of the “target” – the entity/person/institution being parodied. However, for a critical attitude and for making a parodical text “satirical” as well, the text has to illuminate the shortcomings of the ‘target’ being parodied: in (1) for example, this is done by highlighting the hectic official procedures related to the bureaucracy but the comical element come from the hyperbolic rendition of this shortcoming on one side and the flaunting of style on the other as in apparent in (4) and (5). Furthermore, from a relevance theoretic approach to be specific and Pragmatics in general, the success of parody comes not only from the text itself but from the “opposition” embedded in the text.

4. Conclusion

The Relevance Principle entails that the process of comprehending any instance of communication, whether it be of any kind, is guided by the relevance of the input. In case of written communication and humorous literary texts, as is the present case, the reader has to rely largely on his/her encyclopedic knowledge to fully understand the content on one hand and the identification of writer’s intention of humor on the other. Keeping these assumptions in regard, this study aimed to elucidate the structural and pragmatic aspects of parody and satire and how they render the text humorous. The analysis illustrates that Douglas Adams adopts a particular parodical style in the series: using it to implicitly comment on different institutions and social norms. By mimicking the genre specific styles (including the register) the parodical instances are made apparent and understandable for the readers. As The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy can also be interpreted as a satire, the critical attitude is conveyed through a dual stream of discourses found in different instances of parody, one imbibing the discourse of the target and the other flaunting it. Where the former serves the purpose of making the text conspicuous for the readers in terms of identifying the “target”, the latter lays bare its shortcomings.

Hence, it can be argued that both parody and satire also serve the purpose of social critique – their function is not only to make the readers laugh but they also point to the flaws of different institutions. Style, in humorous fiction, is distinguished by a parodical style adopted by the writer that serves to foreground different events as well as opinions expressed by the characters. As it was elaborated in the analysis, parody draws much of its relevance from its inter-textual features that are highlighted by the re-presentation of the specific discourse style associated with the entity being parodied. However, like most of other features of verbal humor, parody also embodies opposition of ideas in that it defies the norms of the ‘target’ discourse, that is, flaunts it.

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References

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Yus, F. (2008). A relevance-theoretic classification of jokes. Lodz Papers in Pragmatics, 4(1), 131-157. doi: 10.2478/v10016-008-0004-4

Zhao, H. (2011). A relevance-theoretic approach to verbal irony: A case study of ironic utterances in Pride and Prejudice. Journal of Pragmatics, 43, 175–182. doi: 10.1016/j.pragma.2010.07.028

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Marked Cultural Cues, Folk Traditions and Social Representations Embedded within Schimmel’s As through a

Veil

Muhammad Ilyas Chishti1

Muhammad Aslam2

Abstract

The study encompasses diverse cultural cues, folk traditions and social representations embedded within Schimmel’s analytical work As through a Veil. The rich Sufi interpretive discourse becomes an appropriate source and an exclusive matter of enquiry for the Critical Discourse Analysis as the investigation of social and cultural constructions and ideological dimensions acquires greater prominence with CDA. Application of a set of linguistic tools employed by CDA to Schimmel’s interpretive discourse is indeed a matter worth enquiry. In this connection, Fairclough’s three-dimensional model with textual, discursive and social perspectives was employed as a research model to a selected text from Schimmel’s As through a Veil. The study revealed diverse discursive, social and cultural constructions evident through ideologies and social representations within Sufi norms, practices and folk traditions. Schimmel’s tactful maneuvering through interplay of intertextual and various other linguistic tools comprising genre, social events, assumptions, modality, exchanges, speech functions, grammatical mood, distinctive vocabulary, metaphorical representation, discourses and representation of social events were found quite effective. The study provides evident answers to the research questions established within the study. Various discursive, social and cultural constructions comprising the depiction of women as ‘the best transmitters of religious poetry, songs and proverbs and the depositaries of mystical lore’; the powerful discourses of ‘grinding of grain’ and ‘spinning woman’ and their significance within Sufi discourse; the discourse of Prophetic tradition mixed with the discourses of ‘sowing and reaping’ and diverse analogies taken from agriculture for human life were witnessed. Application of a research-based method of enquiry in pursuit of Sufi interpretive discourse is indeed a significant dimension. Instead of investigating the historical evolutionary stages of Sufism, the research study is entirely focused on textual and discursive dimensions. The study has wider socio-political implications for understanding the universal values of Islamic culture from the lenses of a European scholar. Its significance becomes manifold when seen in the current perspective of a lopsided view of Islam and Muslims being developed, especially by the international media for the vested interests. Another significant implication is the understanding of the ways, linguistic and other semiotic resources are employed to construct and communicate ideological and cultural meanings through discourse. The study has


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also implications for discourse researchers to extend the toolkit of CDA to the rarely researched areas like Sufi discourse through linguistic perspective.

Keywords: CDA, discursive construction of culture, semiosis of Sufism

1. Introduction

Sufism blesses the devotees with an extreme state of contentment which they seek through self-realization. However the stage of self-realization is achieved after a long and repeated spiritual practice. After this stage is achieved, the Sufis show their disregard and spare themselves from the outward form of religion. Higher religious order of any faith aims at Sufism as its top most obligations and keeps itself away from any form of discord and contention resulting in conflict. Sufism may well be graded as a practical spiritual discipline which is entirely dependent on the insight of enlightened seekers after truth. The basic philosophy of Sufism is therefore, to guard the believers against the superficial doctrines of the religion and direct all their energies towards the spiritual dimensions of Islam (Upadhyay, 2004).

The process of propagation of the great Sufi message was initiated through a medium of Sufi poetry. Sufi poets exploited this medium by innovative use of the native languages and through the discourse of this influential medium, played a key role in bringing people of different religions and ethnic backgrounds close together. The impacts of Sufi poetry can be traced in the soils of Indus Valley to a great extent. Indus Valley was bestowed with cultural diversity because of the invasions and migrations of Aryans, Mongols, Greeks, Turks, Afghans, Arabs and Persians. Great scholars and Sufis who spent their lives in contemplation were allured and fascinated towards the culturally rich soil of the valley during the middle ages of Islam. This valley, indeed, strengthened the endeavors of Sufi poets for setting the rich tradition of Sufi poetry which later proved valuable in unifying the diversified cultural heritage of the valley. The message conveyed through this very effective medium is quite obvious that one cannot identify oneself or the reality of this universe without the strongest and purest element of love. ‘Love’ and ‘Peace’ become the core themes of the entire Sufi poetry. It not only gives the true essence of the social values but also suggests remedies for the human beings who have got themselves secluded from their own ‘self’ and also from their surroundings. Though the universe witnessed the astonishing wonders in the fields of science and technology in the modern age, the insightful Sufi poets conveyed the recent modernized picture of the universe through their intuitive and contemplative Sufi poetry centuries ago (Gardezi, n.d.).

It is pertinent to mention that Sufi poetry entails a huge reservoir of discursive, social and cultural constructions. Though a bulk of work is available on Sufi beliefs, Schimmel’s interpretive discourse on Sufism and Sufi poetry comprises a reasonable scope and diverse dimensions of inquiry for linguistic purposes. The

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study is exclusively specified for linguistic dimensions whereas investigation of the complex Sufi notions is beyond its scope.

Phillips and Hardy (2002) opine that reality is formed, composed or constructed through language. Wood and Kroger (as cited in Phillips & Hardy, 2002) are of the view that language is considered as constitutive and constructive, rather than reflective and representative. Phillips and Hardy (2002), state that social reality cannot be thought of without discourse. They go as far as stating that no one is able to perceive his/her own reality and experience without getting familiar with discourse. It is obvious that discourses form individuals’ experience and reality, but at the same time these discourses also confine them because the individuals have to behave within the boundaries of discourses. Wodak (2001), de Cillia et al. (1999) and Fairclough (1989) believe that a dialectical association gets established between discourses and society in which they function.

Social researches aim at comprehending and analyzing socially produced meanings. Phillips and Hardy (2002) relate that the emphasis of discourse analysis is on the processes where the social world is created and maintained. Phillips and Hardy (2002), and Fairclough (1992) further add that discourse analysis investigates the associations between texts, discourse and context. Phillips and Hardy (2002) maintain that world cannot be viewed independently from discourse as the discourse aims at investigating the way the social reality is produced. Social life is a prominent factor in the methodology of discourse analysis. So discourse is not independent. It is conditioned by the texts and contexts.

This study also traces the interplay of the discourse and diverse social realities constructed through Schimmel’s Sufi interpretive discourse.

The word ‘discourse’ gained currency in linguistics but at times obscure and vague treatment of this term created stumbling blocks for the researchers. Van Dijk (1997) opines that discourse should be seen as language in use or talk and text in context. It clearly signifies context in the process of construction and reception of language. Fairclough (2003) views discourse to depict a specific way of demonstrating aspects of the world, i.e. to describe processes, relations, structures of the material world as well as thoughts, feelings, beliefs and so on. Woodilla (as cited in Phillips & Hardy, 2002) remarks that discourse can be considered as the real practice of talking and writing while Parker (as cited in Phillips & Hardy, 2002) is of the view that discourse is also an interconnected set of texts and the practices of their production, propagation, and reception that brings an object into being. Fairclough (1989) explicates discourse by adding that it should be viewed as a component of social practice which has its input to the reproduction of social practice. Phillips and Hardy (2002) opine that it is constructed through time by the interconnection between texts, changes and new forms in texts, and new systems of distributing texts. Fairclough (1989) employs the term discourse to refer to the entire phenomenon of social communication. He further relates that ‘process’ is

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actually the production of text (where text is the product) and the interpretation of text (where the text is the resource).

Fairclough (1992a) presents a three dimensional model in CDA for analyzing discourse. He views:

i) discourse as text ii) discourse as discursive practice iii) discourse as social practice

The very first point refers to the linguistic aspects where the selection and pattern of words in vocabulary, grammar, cohesion and text structure should be systematically analyzed. Discourse as discursive practice implies discourse as an entity that is produced, spread, disseminated and consumed in society, in the form of tangible particular texts. Vocabulary, grammar, cohesion and text structure are also analyzed here. Discourse as social practice examines the dogmatic influences and power processes in which discourse is one of the aspects.

Fairclough (1995) is of the view that the relationship between language and social structure is dialectic. Texts are socio-culturally shaped as well as socio-culturally constitutive. Fairclough’s stance directly pertains to the nature of the study as the study in itself tends to explore the social constructions through discourse.

Schimmel’s work As through a Veil is the book from which representative sample text was selected. The book comprises brief sections which give the reader an ample opportunity to have a brief encounter of the mystical traditions and the poetical expression. These chapters include: Flowers of the Desert: The Development of Arabic Mystical Poetry; Tiny Mirrors of Divine Beauty: Classical Persian Mystical Poetry; Sun Triumphal-Love Triumphant: Maulana Rumi and the Metaphors of Love; The Voice of Love: Mystical Poetry in the Vernaculars; God's Beloved and Intercessor for Man: Poetry in Honor of the Prophet. The book encapsulates five lectures delivered by Schimmel in which multitude of verses of poetry are cited which serve as a guideline for further investigation. Vernaculars dealt in by the Sufi poets like Sindhi, Pashto, Saraiki, and Punjabi gained special significance for Schimmel. Being a Western scholar, her interest in these vernaculars is indeed a remarkable aspect.

The major objective which the book encompasses is the elemental pursuits about mysticism and its poetical expression. Propagation of Sufi poetry into Turkish and the vernaculars of the Indian subcontinent were touched upon. Sufi traditions, poetical metaphors and symbols were deciphered and explicated which can be witnessed in Schimmel's translations. Only the doctrinal and devotional facets of Sufi poetry were presented while the complex critical commentary was deliberately avoided within the book. As through a Veil may be viewed as a true demonstration of Schimmel’s deep reverence for Sufism and Sufi poetry.

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Thus building on all the literature and many other relevant works, the researchers tried to probe into the analytical work of Schimmel on Sufi poetry to further investigate how various social realities and folk traditions were constructed through her analysis of Sufi poetry (text as discourse).

Based on all the above mentioned theoretical insights, research enquiries the study tries to investigate are as under:

1. What social realities, folk traditions and cultural cues seem to be constructed within Schimmel’s Sufi interpretive discourse?

2. How does Schimmel exploit diverse linguistic tools to effectively maneuver her discourse?

2. Methodology

Fairclough’s three-dimensional model was selected (Fairclough, 2003) for this particular research study keeping into perspective its suitability for the specific enquiry. The analysis investigates:

a) The linguistic features of the selected Sufi text from Schimmel’s As through a Veil

b) Processes pertaining to the production and consumption of the selected text (referring to discursive practice/genres of Sufi poetry)

c) The wider social practice which the selected text represents (social practice/aspects of cultural cues/folk traditions).

The research study explores how culture, folk traditions and diverse social realities constitute discourse i.e., Schimmel’s interpretive discourse, and similarly how discourse constructs social practices. The three-dimensional model was further categorized into sub-categories. The investigation tries to explore certain features postulated by Fairclough (2003). Subcategories of the three-dimensional model include:

i) Social Events ii) Genre iii) Intertextuality iv) Modality v) Assumptions vi) Specific Vocabulary vii) Metaphor viii) Exchanges, Speech Functions and Grammatical Mood ix) Discourses x) Representation of Social Events

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Schimmel’s stature as a distinguished writer on Sufism, Sufi thought, beliefs and practices is credible. Out of Schimmel’s many books, the following representative text was selected (see appendix) from As through a Veil. The selected text for the study is as under:

“One enjoys these poems best when . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to quicken the dead hearts.”

As through a Veil (Schimmel, 1982, P.145-146, see appendix)

3. Results

3.1 Social Events

The text under study was extracted from ‘Mystical poetry in the Vernaculars’ chapters of As through a Veil. This volume is based on five lectures delivered by Schimmel within the auspices of American Council of Learned Societies in 1980 which were later published. The very objective behind selection of the text lies within the cultural traces embedded within it in a reasonable proportion. The discourse represented here is a ‘Sufi Discourse’ as it is an investigative study of the mystical poetry in Islam. Texts appeared to be the part of ‘chain of social events’ where Schimmel’s pen probed into the social events explicated in the mystical poetry of the vernaculars. The overall tone of the text is analytical and investigative while it is descriptive in nature. The roots of the text were found within the book while no connection in terms of ‘chain or network of text’ could be traced other than this book. The text was seen as an extension in terms of the theoretical construction already established within various chapters of the book.

3.2 Genre

The genre within which the text was placed is ‘Sufi Discourse’ which is marked by its peculiar tone. However, descriptive and analytical spirit prevails within the text as it is an analytical work of a writer who has been inclined towards Sufi discourse since long. Her pursuits towards Sufi and cultural dimensions of discourse were found worth investigating for the researchers. No evident ‘genre nixing’ was witnessed as the text belongs to the same type of discourse. Schimmel went deeper into various dimensions of Sufism well incorporated in Rumi’s Sufi poetry which is replete with many of the cultural aspects worth noticing for the researchers especially mystical poetry in the vernaculars is such an area which becomes quite significant for the researchers who intend to explore the Sufi and cultural dimensions at the same time. The researchers traced and further investigated all these pursuits within the research study under various aspects of Fairclough’s three-dimensional model.

3.3 Intertextuality

The text under investigation commences with the powerful intertextual reference of Bijapuri Sufis of late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries who really adored the

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concept of spinning and the charkhi nama. This very theme can also be traced in Sufis of Bijapur by Richard M. Eaton. Intertextual reference of allusion to Sura 9/112 explicating the concept of refinement of heart through dhikr is also significant here. Indirect quoting from Bhitai’s Risalo (Sur Kapaiti) also signifies the theme of spinning. Another intertextual reference in poetic form was extracted from Eaton, Sufis of Bijapur where theme of spinning associated with various types of dhikr: dhikr-i jali, dhikr-i qalbi, dhikr-i aini have been presented in a poetic form. Intertextual reference in poetic form extracted from an anonymous Punjabi poet translated by Dr. Athar Ahsan is also a powerful reference which carries deeper meanings in cultural settings. Reference to chakki nama also presented in poetic form extracted from Sufis of Bijapur, (p.163) by Eaton also enriches the text in terms of cultural perspective. The reference of Koranic verses about the resurrection associated with analogy from agriculture gives more validity to the text. ‘Paradise in its green robes’ is also an extension of the theme associated with agriculture which has been extracted from A Spring Day in Konya by Schimmel. Another very powerful intertextual reference Rahmatul lil aalamin Prophet (PBUH) is associated with the beliefs of people and has been extracted from Sura 21/107 where theme of rain is connected with the praise of Prophet (PBUH) as mercy for the worlds. The love of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) is a central aspect deeply embedded within the beliefs and culture of the masses.

The author’s skill in merging these intertextual references was noticed. Despite the frequency of direct quotations is greater and they have been specifically attributed to the specific writers, but still Schimmel’s subjectivity can also be witnessed as she seems to know well where to place these references to make her message stronger.

3.4 Modality

As many as four instances of Deontic Modalities were traced within the text.

i) “By such an act, the heart will, like yarn, become the more precious the more finely . . .”

ii) “. . . . and finally God will buy it for a high price . . .” iii) “And the woman-soul who neglects this duty will find herself naked at

the day of the Feast when everyone else is wearing fine new garments.”

iv) “They may have thought thus of the Prophetic tradition: “This world is the seedbed for the other world.”

The author’s commitment to obligation was investigated from the first three examples where ‘will’ was employed as the modal verb whereas author’s commitment to necessity is also obvious in example iv) where ‘may’ was used as a modal verb. However in all the four examples no modal adverb is used.

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3.5 Assumptions

The text contains following two instances of Value Assumptions.

i) “. . . many of them taken from the world of women, who were even less educated than men but were, and still are in rural areas, the best transmitters of religious poetry, songs and proverbs . . .”

ii) “Similar are the chakki nama, which take inspiration from the most important occupation of the Indian housewife, the grinding of the grain.”

The first instance was taken from the world of women, who have been declared through the value assumptions as ‘the best transmitters of religious poetry, songs and proverbs. The author’s perception about the women folk was well comprehended through this value assumption with the attachment of her ideologies. In the second instance also, the grinding of the grain was considered through a value assumption as the most important occupation of the Indian housewife. Many of the cultural underpinnings are attached with this theme of grinding of the grain which takes us to the rural settings.

3.6 Distinctive Vocabulary

The text is distinct with the employment of specific vocabulary which has a significant status within rural cultural settings. ‘Trousseau’ has a meaningful contribution within the lives of the village woman who has fascinated the Sufi poets to a great deal and has been the center of focus within the folktales. The laborious characters of the village folk work diligently preparing their trousseau, which acquires a special status in their lives. Despite the fact, Schimmel was a Western scholar, her special intimacy with local cultural aspects was quite significant. Another employment of specific vocabulary was taken from agriculture which offered analogies to human life. ‘Seemingly dead earth’ was attributed to the concept of fana and the arrival of spring characterizes baqa which are two significant themes embedded within Sufi settings establishing a special intimacy with the common folk. Schimmel’s style and subjective stance were traced through the instances of specific vocabulary.

3.7 Metaphorical Representation

The text is also rich in terms of metaphorical representations which are deeply embedded within local cultural settings. The metaphor of the ‘act of spinning’ was employed for dhikr which acquires great acclaim within Sufi settings and through Sufi poetic discourse reaches the common masses. Further, the extension of the same theme was witnessed within ‘humming sound of the wheel’ that was also presented as a metaphor employed for dhikr. ‘The grinding of the grain’ is another metaphor pointing toward the refinement of the soul before it is presented before the divine Beloved. ‘Handle of the grain mill’ was also presented

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as a metaphor pointing towards alif of Allah. All these metaphors were deeply embedded within local culture, therefore developed special intimacy with the common folk.

3.8 Exchanges, Speech Functions and Grammatical Mood

Keeping into consideration the descriptive nature of Sufi interpretive discourse of As through a Veil, the researchers witnessed that the prominent type of ‘exchange’ employed within the text was ‘knowledge exchange’ while ‘statement’ was observed as the prevalent ‘speech function’. ‘Types of statement’ were found to be mostly ‘statement of fact’ and ‘evaluation’. The reason is that in Schimmel’s interpretive Sufi discourse, factual and evaluative stances were employed. As the nature of the study does not require any predictive and hypothetical statements, therefore, ‘prediction’ and ‘hypothetical statements’ were not traced. In terms of investigating ‘grammatical mood’, the researcher observed that ‘declarative’ stance was employed with absence of ‘interrogative’ and ‘imperative’ clues as such clues are frequent in interactional and conversational analysis.

3.9 Discourses

Discourses ‘from the world of women’ set the tone of the text. They were further described as ‘the best transmitters of religious poetry, songs and proverbs and the depositaries of mystical lore’. Rural woman was the central theme in most of the Sufi works. Her simplicity and the way the housewives keep themselves engaged the entire day grabs the attention of the folk-writers. The discourse of ‘grinding of grain’ evolves significance as it is considered to be the ‘most important occupation of Indian housewife’ and this very theme has deeper cultural connotations. This discourse was incorporated within text with the title chakki nama. Further, the discourse of ‘spinning woman’, and the association of the theme of dhikr and spinning were incorporated within the text. In poetic discourse, the mention of the types of dhikr: dhikr-i jali, dhikr-i qalbi, dhikr-i aini are the instances of ‘mixing of discourse’. The discourse of Prophetic tradition was mixed with the discourses of ‘sowing and reaping’ by interrelating these themes. Koranic references were also mixed within various other discourses giving them strength. It is important that Schimmel incorporated these religious discourses at the appropriate places to make her message more convincing. Analogies taken from agriculture for human life were also few of the significant instances of incorporation of a powerful discourse as the themes associated with agriculture gain more prominence in rural and local cultural settings.

3.10 Representation of Social Events

The most significant social representation was that of the images taken from the world of women. The rural woman has attracted the attention of the Sufi mystic poets and they have given this theme a significant space within their poetical works. Her simplicity, laboriousness and loyalty to the cultural norms have been

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the most discussed aspects. Extending the same concept, woman was considered to be ‘the best transmitter of religious poetry, songs, proverbs and depositaries of mystical lore’. ‘Act of spinning’ was another social representation which made the piece of text culturally loaded. This very theme contained plenty of the cultural underpinnings as this act was attributed to the rural women. Sufis related this theme to dhikr, known to be the most prestigious theme with Sufis. As Sufi practices are very close to the common folk, therefore, the significant Sufi themes became a part and parcel of the culture. ‘Humming sound’ of the wheel while spinning were associated with ‘regular breathing’ within the process of dhikr. Again, this very social representation was quite prominent and contained deeper meanings. This theme not only acquires significance in folklores, rather evident references can be traced in mystic poetry as well. Another social representation pertains to different kinds of dhikr: dhikr-i-jali, dhikr-i-qalbi and dhikr-i-aini which have been given proper place in Sufi discourse where social representation of dhikr may be witnessed within the disciples (mureedain) of Sufis which is significant aspect of local cultural settings. It is important that impacts of Sufi practices were so prominent on the common masses that deep imprints of these practices can be observed in local culture. ‘Grinding of grain’ was another social representation whose associations could be traced with various themes in Sufi discourse especially the poetic discourse of chakki nama by Bijapuri Sufis acquired greater acclaim within the masses and, therefore, it became an integral part of the local cultural settings. Social representation of various analogies from agriculture referring to human life was also traced within the text; especially the theme of ‘sowing and reaping’ was associated with the Prophetic tradition: ‘This world is the seedbed for the other world’. This particular religious belief has a significant value within cultural settings as the common masses are fascinated to such analogies and comprehend the message easily as these analogies are drawn upon from their surroundings. Then the description of rain as rahma ‘mercy’ was associated with the praise of the Prophet of Mercy (PBUH) who was declared as ‘the mercy for the worlds’ in Qura’n. The rain of Rahma has a healing effect and it quickens the dead hearts. The love and praise of the Prophet of Mercy (PBUH) is not only the most prominent religious aspect rather it has a considerable value in the cultural settings as well. Muslims organize special gatherings Mahafil-e-Na’at in which special poetic discourse mostly written by great Sufi saints is recited in melodious voices showing reverence to the Prophet (PBUH). These mahafil have a considerable value within local cultural settings. A bulk of Sufi discourse has been written showing special veneration to the Holy Prophet Muhammad (PBUH).

It is important here that though many concrete elements were presented within the text but all these concrete aspects were abstractly represented and therefore the social representation was considered as an abstract one.

i) Participants Major participants mentioned within the text are as under:

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Allah, Muhammad (PBUH), Bijapuri Sufis, poets, Richard M. Eaton, heart, girl, woman-soul, Panjabi folk poet, Indian Housewife, Rumi etc.

All the Participants employed within the social representations were indicative of their close link with Sufi and cultural themes.

ii) Processes Some of the processes found within the text are as under:

enjoy, know, realize, occur, see, show, remind, become, buy, prepare, neglect, find, call, use, offer, connect, wear, mention etc.

The Processes employed within the text established their intimacy and special link with the context they were extracted from.

The number of activated processes was greater than the passivated ones within the text under study.

iii) Circumstances Some of the circumstances noticed within the text include:

for a high price, by constant spinning, at the day of the Feast

Again the Circumstances seemed to add more details to the Processes already presented within the text and at the same time developed their special link with the local cultural perspectives.

4. Discussions

The construction of culture, social realities and folk traditions was witnessed through the images taken from the world of women where the rural woman finds ample space within Schimmel’s discourse. Schimmel constructs her image as ‘the best transmitter of religious poetry, songs, proverbs and depositaries of mystical lore’ which contains sufficient local cultural underpinnings. Further, culturally loaded theme of ‘act of spinning’ was attributed to the rural woman. Dhikr, the most prestigious theme with Sufis was associated with the act of spinning. This theme acquires great significance within local cultural settings. ‘Humming sound’ of the wheel while spinning was attached to ‘regular breathing’ within the process of dhikr. Different kinds of dhikr: ‘dhikr-i-jali’, ‘dhikr-i-qalbi’ and ‘dhikr-i-aini’ were constructed which are common practices within Sufi settings embedded with cultural meanings. Another construction of local culture was traced through the concept of ‘grinding of grain’ highlighted in the poetic discourse of chakki nama by Bijapuri Sufis acquired greater acclaim within the masses becoming a prominent reference in local cultural settings. Various analogies from agriculture referring to human life could also be visibly noticed within Schimmel’s discourse. For instance ‘sowing and reaping’ was linked with the Prophetic tradition: ‘This world is the seedbed for the other world’. Though it has religious connotation, its relevance in local cultural settings is also significant as the common folk develops a special

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acclaim because of their closeness to their surroundings. Construction of theme of rain as rahma ‘mercy’ linked with the praise of the Prophet of Mercy (PBUH) as ‘the mercy for the worlds’ in Qura’n contains significant relevance with the masses as it not only has a religious relevance rather it comprises considerable significance within local culture. Special gatherings in the form of Mahafil-e-Na’at are organized by the Muslims in which special reverence is shown to the Prophet (PBUH) in melodious voices. A considerable value is attached with this concept within local cultural settings

Schimmel’s ideological stance attached with the world of women was presented through a value assumption in which the women were declared as ‘the best transmitters of religious poetry, songs and proverbs’. The author’s stance towards the womenfolk could also be accessed through this value assumption. At another stage, the value assumption regarding the ‘grinding of the grain’ brought into limelight the ‘most important occupation of the Indian housewife’ reflective of Schimmel’s complete grasp over the themes of rural local cultural settings.

5. Conclusion

After an encompassing analysis conducted in pursuit of social realities, folk traditions and cultural cues constructed within Schimmel’s Sufi interpretive discourse, the researcher was able reach the following conclusive insights:

Investigation of Schimmel’s text through critical discourse perspective revealed that the construction of diverse cultural cues, folk traditions and social representation within her interpretive discourse were evident through various indicators which were merged in her analysis of Sufi poetry. These local cultural indicators comprise various analogies taken from agriculture, Sufi beliefs, practices, esteemed figures, rural cultural norms and the images taken from womenfolk. Diverse discursive, social and cultural constructions comprising the portrayal of women as ‘the best transmitters of religious poetry, songs and proverbs and the depositaries of mystical lore’; the powerful discourses of ‘grinding of grain’ and ‘spinning woman’ and their deep roots within Sufi discourse; the discourse of Prophetic tradition embedded with the discourses of ‘sowing and reaping’ and diverse analogies taken from agriculture for human life were noticed which sufficiently substantiated the researcher argument in meeting the objectives of the study. It is significant that Schimmel’s interpretive discourse constructed social realities and vice versa. This very phenomenon is attributive of Critical Discourse Perspective

Responding to the second inquiry pertaining to Schimmel’s exploitation of diverse linguistic tools in effectively maneuvering her discourse, the researcher observed that despite the fact she was a Western scholar, Schimmel’s profound comprehensibility within Sufi themes and her reasonably effective maneuvering, while employing intertextual references and linguistic tools were quite prominently evident. The reconstructions in her interpretive discourse within As

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through a Veil are reflective of her reasonably sound comprehension of diverse cultural cues and folk traditions. Through metaphorical representation, intertextual references and employment of specific vocabulary Schimmel remained successful in effectively reconstructing diverse cultural cues and folk traditions with her marked subjectivity.

The research study may have various implications. To begin with the most striking aspect, it is imperative to bring into limelight the research based methods of enquiry in pursuit of Sufi interpretive discourse. Most of the work which is available on Sufi discourse is tilted towards investigating Sufi beliefs and is focused on historical revelations and inquiries of miracles associated with great Sufi saints. But textual dimensions have not been the supreme priority within writers of Sufi discourse. Though translations and somewhat critical aspects are available, urgency was observed in research-based inquiries of the textual and discourse dimensions of Sufi works. Further, most of the studies are confined to impressionistic analysis and research-based textual inquiries have been compromised. So, this research study acquires a unique stature that it has not only probed into the textual dimensions of Sufi discourse rather a distinct method of critical enquiry was conducted to reach the conclusions instead of relying only on impressionistic analysis. Employment of CDA as theory and research method was indeed a unique dimension of enquiry in terms of Sufi discourse.

The study has wider socio-political implications to better comprehend universal values of Islamic culture through a European scholar’s perspective. The study has all the potential to acquire a significant stature especially within the current scenario when a lopsided view of Islam and Muslims is being propagated, especially by the international media for the vested interests. Further, the understanding of the ways, linguistic and other semiotic resources are employed to construct and communicate ideological and cultural meanings through discourse has diverse implications. The study has a great potential for discourse researchers to open new avenues in extending the diverse methods employed within CDA to the rarely researched areas like Sufi discourse through linguistic perspective.

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References

De Cillia, R., Reisigl, M. & Wodak, R. (1999). The discursive construction of national identities. Discourse and Society, 10 (1), 149–73. London: Sage.

Fairclough, N. (1989). Language and power. New York: Longman.

Fairclough, N. (1992a). Discourse and social change. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.

Fairclough, N. (1995b). Media discourse. London: Edward Arnold.

Fairclough, N. (2003). Analysing discourse. London: Routledge.

Gardezi, H. N. (n.d.). Sufi mysticism of the Indus valley. Retrieved on December 7, 2016, from http://www.apnaorg.com/articles/sufi.html

Phillips, N., & Hardy, C. (2002). Discourse analysis. Investigating processes of social construction. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Schimmel, A. (2001). As through a veil. Oxford: Oneworld Publications.

Upadhyay, R. (2004). Sufism in India: Its origin, history and politics. Retrieved on December 7, 2016, from http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/paper924

van Dijk, T. A. (1997). The Study of Discourse. In van Dijk, T. A. (Ed.). Discourse as Structure and Process (pp. 1-34). London: Sage.

Wodak, R. (2001). The discourse-historical approach. In Wodak, R. and Meyer, M. (Eds.). Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis (pp. 63-94). London: Sage.

http://www.apnaorg.com/articles/sufi.html

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APPENDIX

As through a Veil (Schimmel, 1982, 2001. P. 145-146)

One enjoys these poems best when one knows the country and realizes how true to life their imagery is. There occur other images in folk poetry as well, many of them taken from the world of women, who were even less educated than men but were, and still are in rural areas, the best transmitters of religious poetry, songs, and proverbs, and the depositaries of mystical lore. The poets saw the women spinning, and some of the earliest Urdu poems for mystical instruction are charkhi nama, spinning songs, which were popular, as Richard M. Eaton has shown, among the Bijapuri Sufis of the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The act of spinning could be easily compared to the dhikr, for regular breathing is similar to spinning, and the humming sound of the wheel reminded the poets of the sound of the dhikr, repeated thousands of times with low voice. By such an act the heart will, like yarn, become the more precious the more finely and regularly it is “spun” and finally God will buy it for a high price (allusion to Sura 9/112). Is not every girl called to prepare her trousseau by constant spinning? And the woman-soul who neglects this duty will find herself naked at the day of the Feast when everyone else is wearing fine new garments.

As you take the cotton, you should do dhikr-i jali,

As you separate the cotton, you should do dhikr-i qalbi,

As you spool the thread you should do dhikr-i ‘aini’:

The threads of breath should be counted one by one, O sister,

sings a Bijapuri Sufi in a style typical of women’s song while the Panjabi folk poet calls the woman soul:

Quit playing, and spin the spinning wheel, young girl!

Hurry and make the bridal gear ready, young girl!

The droning spindle moans God, O God!

The trembling and shaking in fear of the Lord,

The spindle wind breathes like the sighs—

Seems, there is a heavy load ahead, young girl!

Similar are the chakki nama, which take inspiration from the most important occupation of the Indian housewife, the grinding of grain. Does not the straight handle of the grain mill look like an alif, the symbol of God?

The chakki’s handle resembles alif, which means Allah,

and the axle is Muhammad and is fixed there,

in this way the true seeker sees the relationship,

Ah bismillah hu hu Allah!

We put the grains in the chakki,

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to which our hands are witnesses;

the chakki of the body is in order

when you follow the Divine Law . . .

That is how the Bijapuri Sufis used the image.

Agriculture offered fine analogies to human life. The Koranic verses about resurrection as prefigured in the awakening of the seemingly dead earth in spring when the soil all of a sudden becomes alive again (and, as Rumi would add, looks like Paradise in its green robes) were certainly in the poet’s minds when they mentioned sowing and reaping. They may have thought thus of the Prophetic tradition: “This world is the seedbed for the Otherworld.” But there are also realistic descriptions of fields and animals that thirst for rain, of clouds gathering and finally distributing rahma, mercy, to the world.

Such descriptions are then ingeniously connected with praise of the Prophet who too was sent rahmatan lil’alamin, “as mercy for the worlds” (Sura 21/107), to quicken the dead hearts.

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Syeda Saira Hamid

Abstract

The study entitled “Transforming teacher education for the globalization of education” spotlighted the matter of required advancements and modifications in teacher education (TE) to cope with the globalization in education. It envisioned the professional needs-assessment and rationally planned to bridge the gaps in deficient areas of teacher education and addressed the global demands by proposing a research based factual framework focusing the education planning commission’s vision 2030. The objectives were: i) to collect need analysis data for global advancements adaptation from the GCET machinery. ii) to critically analyze the educational policy (2009), budget allocation with the reference of globalization of education iii) to inspect the National Professional Standards for Teachers and the new curriculum outlines of B.Ed. (Honors) within the context of globalization. Research questions were also answered. Three types of questionnaires for principals, teacher educators and prospective teachers were finalized through pilot testing after the validation. The data analysis, both aspects, i.e. quantitative (in %) and qualitative were considered, the latter being analyzed via recording video clips of interviews, focused groups’ discussions and classroom observations. The critical analysis of documents, education policy 2009,’ ‘National professional standers for teachers (NPST),’ ‘new curriculum’ and ‘budget allocation for TE’ through cost benefit ratio analysis was followed by data triangulation and then content analysis. It was concluded that an overall vital transformation mechanism is required for the global adaptations at the grass root level in TE. So the research recommended an advanced trainings for the principals and teacher-educators along a dynamic factual framework for the future.

Keywords: globalization, transforming, teacher education, factual framework

Introduction

We have currently stepped in the second decade of the twenty first century; the revolutionary era of science and information technology with swift advancements in every walk of life. The concept of the world as a global village is now transformed into a global table. The blast of electronic media along with mobile gadgets has also altered the way of social living, modifying the pattern of acquiring knowledge and learning skills. Facing the advancements of the twenty first century, governments and industries are seeking to grow their economies by identifying alternate sources of energy, improved products, creating new business


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and technological solutions, and finding quicker and more efficient way to communicate.

Schools, as well, should respond to such advanced societal needs. And to do so, schools must re-think and re-emphasize the development and implementation of a new curricula; such a one that follows Shah's (2010) perspective who mentioned that schools should develop and reform their curricula in a way that produce necessary human capital capable of holding up to the government's growing economy and growing population, along with identifying viable solutions.

Rationale

The core of the education system, the Teacher Education (TE) is the most neglected and ignored area in our country Pakistan. It does not even receive sympathetic attention for the sake of country’s growth through quality education. This explains why our teacher training institutes are not well equipped to prepare quality prospective-teachers, encounter the global demands, and participate in the progress of the country.

The challenges of global advancements in the educational system are keeping us far behind other nations and is one of the main root causes stopping us from sustainable development. Considering the modern day advancements, there is supreme need for transforming teacher education by revising curricula, improving academic programs and qualifications, updating administrative and managerial skills of principals, upgrading professional and pedagogical skills of teacher educators and collaborative learning techniques in future.

In both private and public sectors, limited teacher training institutes (TTIs) face the challenges of preparing the prospective-teachers for new generations and utilizing the advance learning theories and learning styles effectively in their classrooms with acquired modern pedagogy. Both sectors need a curriculum revision and wise planning with budgetary proficiency for adapting global advancements through professional development trainings. There is a need for various approaches with comprehensive, integrated, and diverse methodology, innovative methods of instructions along with various teaching tactics and techniques and proficient use of IT in learning.

Literature Review

In present scenario of Pakistan, there are more than thirty six percent (36%) children, out of school at primary level. That figure is increasing day by day, putting Pakistan among the uppermost countries in the ranking based on out-of-school children. Numerous funding agencies and foreign aids have worked on the enhancement of a quality education system through increased enrollment, high literacy rate, improving school infrastructure, and carrying out significant teacher

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training sessions, to provide a suitable learning environment. But only short term benefits and momentary improvements were achieved through such make ups.

The truly required efforts are not made because the root causes of such problems are ignored. Ultimately the problems reappear with high intensity, like a disease that required surgery, but was treated with a pain killer instead. These deep rooted problems may last forever if not addressed with proper planning. In an education system if the solutions are temporary and superficial instead of the ones that address the in-depth causes and understand the ground realities, then such shallow solutions will eventually evolve into unresolved issues. And sometimes the institution, itself, is connected with the root causes of the problem as Chubb and Moe argued (1990) that institution being a part of the problem cannot solve the problem alone.

Such a situation exists in our Pakistani educational system as well, where the schools and colleges in the public sector are not self-sufficient and self- sustained to deal with all sorts of issues, particularly advanced continuous professional development trainings and their finances. So in the field of education, there is enough space for new researches to pin point the hidden causes and to provide a long-lasting way-outs to resolve the issues for quality enhancement.

The first and most important thing is that no education system can be better without the quality of its teachers. The most successful countries, from the Far East to Far West are those, where teaching has the highest status as a profession. All the evidences from different education systems around the world show that the most important factor in determining how well children do is the quality of the teachers and the teaching.

Pre-Service Teacher Education: Present Scenario in Punjab

There are forty teachers training institutes (TTIs) working in universities and thirty five Government Colleges for Elementary Teachers (GCETs) for pre-service teacher education in Punjab. Thirty three among them are working under the directorate of staff development (DSD) and two as sub campus attached with the University of Education Lahore. Nearly 8,000 graduate teachers are trained through B.Ed. One year program in the 33 GCETs annually, whereas just seven institutes are present in the private whereas 40 are working within the universities of Punjab (AEPAM 2012). With reference to SAPS report,

For Teacher Training Institutions (TTIs) and for the trainings of elementary school teachers across Pakistan under the CIDA debt swap program, about Rs. 1.50 billion rupees were allocated for the four provinces of Pakistan. The major share of this allocation, i.e., Rs. 705.09 million rupees was kept for Punjab, the amount was Rs. 351.87 million for Sind. For Khyber Pakhtunkhwa the amount was about Rs 260.59 million and for Baluchistan Rs. 181.84 million rupees were kept. So part of a wider initiative that aims to generate

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demand and stimulate policy response for enhancing effectiveness of public spending on education. (Public financing of education in Pakistan, 2013-2014)

According to the SAP report 1995, in two separate researches, “the quality and quantity of content taught in pre-service and in-service teacher education programs is poor and low." Warwick and Reimers (1991) reported that the teachers with or without pre-service certification showed almost the same results in content knowledge. It specifies that pre-service certification adds a little importance in teachers’ professional competency. Most of the teacher education programs have old-dated curriculum with poor level of instruction for example PTC or CT (Khan 2004).

There is a common perception about the pre- service teacher education that it is an additional certificate or degree required for getting into the teaching profession but the degree holders do not stand a chance to enhance and boost the professional competencies along latest pedagogical skills with in-depth knowledge and comprehension in a specific subject-matter to teach in future. According to a local survey finding report, pre-service teacher education in GCETs Punjab has become a center of experimentation, where new and futile experiments or tests are always practiced by the authorities without any consideration about the future of the students. There should be some policy and legislation regarding such new programs in terms of degree validation and job security (Hamid, 2008).

Keeping in view, the feedback of national surveys along international intervention, the quality insurance criterion was announced by HEC in 2009.As a result, an Accreditation Council for Teachers Education programs at national level called (NACTE) was developed. It is an autonomous body to accredit teachers education programs present in all types of institutions constituted by the HEC. The NACTE established National standards for accreditation of pre-service teacher education programs offered in the country by defining the essential components and aligned the standard framework. The consultants were hired and the consultancy was done through meetings, workshops and other forum. Finally the consensus on provincial and national level was developed in June 2009 and in July 2009 the standards were approved by the NACTE (Dr. Munawar S. Mirza Chairperson NACTE, 2009).

Accreditation, Teacher Licensing, (NPST) Initiatives: New Global Trend

In teacher education the process of program accreditation, teachers licensing and certification in advanced countries like U.K, Australia, America and Canada is done by the government. Considering the teacher's competency for quality education and realizing it as a new global demand, national professional standards for teachers (NPST) and national accreditation council for teacher education (NACTE) were developed by higher education commission (HEC) in 2009 as mentioned earlier.” But when we see the NPST and NACTE referring to

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implementation purposes then the terms exist only in documents. There is no valid system under practice for the implementation process.

The process of the teacher licensing and function of NACTE is still under consideration at the upper level and who should be involved, is still undecided which is another reason for the nonexistence of advanced pedagogical skills necessary for active learning, revised curricula, quality books and active teaching learning processes.

Upgrading Pre-service Education with the Good Governance: Another Global Demand

There is an educational emergency in Punjab since the literacy rate is about 40% -50%. There is urgency for good governance, effective management and a control mechanism that includes innovatively reforming the education system through teacher education institutions (TTIs), making them eligible to compete globally (Planning commission, 2011-2012). And the expenditure on education should clearly be more than 2.5% because of the existing constraints on the ever growing cost of debt-servicing i.e. about 54%-60%. At present, the new Education policy 2009, NACTE and NPST along new programs, like ADE, and B.Ed. (Honor) launched by USAID under the STEP- project have opened up a new avenue for further debates and researches.

Statement of the Problem

Now is the time to focus on teacher education that is a multidimensional task and demands the development of prospective-teachers as global teachers, efforts to transform education, to follow the global vision to think globally, act locally and to expand quality education in the country. The study “Transforming Teacher Education for the Globalization of education” has envisioned the professional need assessment of the pre-service teacher education and critically analyzed the key documents in the context of globalization of education.

Objectives of the Study

The objectives were to:

1. Collect need assessment data for global advancements adaptation from the GCETs machinery.

2. Analyze critically, educational policy-2009 and budget allocation with reference of globalization.

3. Inspect the National professional standards for teachers (NPST) and new curriculum outlines of B.Ed. (Honors) in the context of globalization.

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The Research Questions

Q1: How global advancements have challenged the teacher education?

Q2: To what extent has the machinery adapted and what is it that they have to adapt global advancements?

Q3: What are the future demands of prospective-teachers, teachers- educators and principals for globalization?

Q4: How aligned are the education policy, national professional standards for teachers, the new curriculum and budget allocation with the global demands?

Q5: How and where to bridge gaps in the local level, with advanced global interventions?

Significance of the Study

The study is of high value and great importance in transforming the pre-service teacher education in Punjab by proposing a realistic need based factual framework through the suggested “Pakistan Future Academies for Leadership, Teacher Education and Research.” The genuine and realistic need- assessment data is helpful for proposing a factual framework and professional training outlines by addressing global advancements at local level for the policy makers, educational administration and academics in future. The proposed factual framework leads a way forward for transformation through adaptation and implementation of advancements for globalization by refreshing the general and in-service teacher education for the quality education. The suggested factual framework is also supportive for decision making for utilization of the scarce resources and effective future planning. The merging of GCETS at divisional level will help to produce “excellent teachers force” to tackle globalization.

Methodology of the Study

The study employed mixed research methods, including quantitative & qualitative aspects.

Population: Population of the study comprised of the pre–service teacher education institutes (TEIs) of both public and private sectors of Punjab. In total, there are eighty two pre-service teacher education institutes (TEIs), divided further into three strata given as:

• First stratum - Forty government teachers training institutes (TTIs)

• Second stratum - Thirty five Govt. Colleges for Elementary Teachers (GCETs)

• Third stratum - Seven private institutes

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Sampling: The study focused on the pre-service teacher education in public sector of Punjab, so the purposive sampling was done. The second stratum consisting of thirty five GCETS was selected through purposive sampling. Among thirty five (35) only thirty three (33) GCETs, working under DSD Lahore, were selected. Both The genders i.e. male and female were selected as subsamples from the stratified purposive sampling: i) Principal (100%), ii) Teacher educators (82%), iii) Prospective teachers (35.79%) as described in the table:

Table 1.1: Purposive Samples

Stratified Purposive Sample Sub-sample Per Institute Received Responses

Principals in GCETs 33 01 33

Teachers-educators 33 10 330

Prospective –teachers 20

enrolled in ADE Program

10 200

Total 21 563

Note: ADE program was initially offered in twenty GCETS only.

Justification for Purposive Sampling

The reasons behind the option to go for purposive sampling, were to include the people of interest in research, i.e., Teacher education in the public sector of Punjab. And to concentrate on people with particular characteristics. ‘’We can use stratified purposive sampling when purposive subsample is selected within the purposive sample, to limit it to the population of interest” (Belcher et al., 2006). Key informants can be used to find purposive sample (Barany, 2006). Both random and purposive sampling can be combined to produce a powerful way of sampling (Albertin & Nair, 2004; Godambe, 1982).

Instruments of the Study

Various types of instruments were utilized and researcher adapted the following steps:

I. Went through extensive readings and literature review on globalization in education. Got certificates in “Education for Global citizenship skills” and “Inter cultural and global awareness” through online courses offered by the British Council Islamabad, Pakistan.

II. Documents on Pakistan Education policy 2009 and the national professional standards for teachers, the new curriculum outlines for ADE/ B.Ed. Honors draft by HEC were analyzed critically to see their alignment with global advancements.

III. Primary and secondary sources were utilized in the form of documents, questionnaire patterns.

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IV. Three types of questionnaires (principals, teacher educators, prospective teachers) on a five point scale with experts’ opinion in the field of educational research were developed.

V. Pilot testing was done and amendments were made accordingly and then data was collected.

Other Instruments of the Study

Considering the qualitative aspects more deeply, other instruments were also considered as:

I. Focused group discussions under specific topics with teachers- educators and prospective- teachers were arranged.

II. Confidential semi structured interview session with all the Principals from 33 GCET were also arranged in GCET Islamabad during ELM training.

III. Classrooms in GCET Islamabad were also observed for collaborative learning.

Validity and Reliability

Three types of questionnaires were developed; each and every item was revised accordingly to get consistent responses after pilot testing. Furthermore, interviews, focused group discussion, classroom observations and documents analysis questions were refined. The triangulation of data for cross checking was done for further confirmation and accuracy. The responses and opinion were obtained about the format, language and the difficulty level of the questions. Then the changes were incorporated in the final approved draft.

Delimitation of the Study

Accommodating the financial and time constraints, the study was delimited to thirty three GCETs for Pre-service TE Institutions in public sector Punjab only. And the vast theme of globalization was also restricted to the advancements required in teaching learning process and good governance in TE.

Data Collection and Analysis

The questionnaires were distributed to the respondents with the covering letter from DSD via e-mail/post services. The collected data was tabulated and analyzed with the help of frequencies and percentages. Triangulation of data along the two major aspects: the quantitative and qualitative were deeply considered in the study.

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Quantitative Aspects of the Study

The frequencies and percentages were calculated for each statement to check the training needs as future demands of globalization. The document's critical analysis was done along cost benefit analysis ratio (CBR) in budget allocation.

Qualitative Aspects of the Study

The qualitative aspects of the study were also covered as i) Focused Group discussions, ii) Classroom observations, iii) Semi-Structured Interviews with administration, iv) Content Analysis of three types of questionnaires through content analysis matrix.

The researcher probed in the documents and found the answers of the focal questions:

Q1: Is the analyzed document updated for the demands of globalization advancements?

Q2: Is there any identified implementing authority existing or not?

Q3: What are the practical aspects of the document regarding local and global considerations?

Focused group discussion with teachers-educators and prospective-teachers from the two GCETs were organized. Confidential semi structured interviews and focused group discussion with principals were also arranged. According to Holsti (1969), “Content analysis is any technique for making inferences by objectively and systematically identifying specified characteristics of messages” (p. 14).

Table 1.2: Documents Analysis an Overview

Documents Analyzed

Existing Situation Adaptations/Interventions Required

I National Education Policy 2009

Excellent policy actions are given but missing powers

Filled the implementation gaps and missing authorities

Ii Curriculum Revised by HEC under the USAID project for 4 year B.Ed. (Honors)

Need subjects to address local issues, e.g. Multigrade teaching techniques and strategies, etc.

Iii NPST Newly introduced for teachers licensing

Need a proper system for the evaluation and licensing.

Iv Budget Allocation

Less than 2.4 % on documents but actual utilization is less than 2%

Allocation of high budget or merging policy of all GCETS into PFALTE & R at regional level.

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Triangulation of the Data

Data triangulation is a method of cross checking the data from multiple sources to search for regularities in the research data (Donoghue & Punch, 2003). The triangulation as an attempt to map out and explain fully the richness and complexity of human behavior by studying it from more than one stand points (Cohen & Manion, 2000).

Triangulation is the best method, to get detailed information and balanced picture of the situation. (Altrichter et al., 2008). Therefore, the data of the three variables: the Principals, the teacher educators, and the prospective teachers along with focused group discussion and interviews was finally triangulated to get an in-depth situation analysis through cross checking.

Table 1.3: Triangulation of Data

Teacher Education

Principals Teacher Educators Prospective Teachers

Demands

High respect & status, Good governance, more funds, own fund generating Projects. Intellectual growth and development through CPD.

GCETS should work as autonomous bodies, DSD involvement should be stopped.

Secretary Education must be educationist, principals should be promoted to DPI & secretary education in education department and be part of policy makers.

Need based tailored trainings instead of imitation are required for the intellectual growth and development of all teachers.

Revised curriculum. HEC recognized TE programs, High social status with incentives and benefits, Diagnosed training in science, social studies and mathematics on a cyclic basis designed on misconceptions and interactive pedagogy.

Trained teachers educators with subject specialization should be provided, Interactive pedagogy should be followed in all subjects.

Up-dated and approved interactive curriculum by HEC, well equipped science and computer labs with internet, SILT and SBT are excellent and be continued.

Excellent infrastructure. With neat clean wash rooms and hostel

Required Advancements

for the globalization adaptation

at local level

Ownership, respect, high status, foreign tailored trainings, international and local level with the feed-back and follow up.

Maximum fundings,

Notification of High status, pay equal to ministers, Special field in researches by prospective teachers supervised by teacher

On merit selection of future teachers should be made compulsory.

Conducive and secure learning environment with all required

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special benefits and allowances and pay package.

A dynamic autonomous system, interlinked with the provincial and the national level is required for TE. The suggested future academies at international standard are indispensable for quality education.

educators as in (SBT) and (SILT) to know the ground realities in school education.

School improvement plans.

Strictly follow the NPST for expertise in subject, quality education and teacher licensing.

facilities and infrastructure.

Adding new subjects like Multigrade teaching is required in the field.

Teacher education should be residential with latest living facilities to produce future force in suggested academies.

FINDINGS

Principals play a very important role in the policy implementation process at grass root level so they demanded for latest trainings to adapt globalization advancements, sufficient budget allocation, academic staff (subject-specialist) in IT, Sciences and languages, improved infrastructure and other resources in GCETs.

Teachers-educators should be involved initially in developing the curriculum for the new programs offered. For teaching the new curriculum, all the trainings should be diagnostic to match the required professional needs and policy actions, covering the curriculum and national professional standards.

The exposure in foreign countries can enhance the horizon of experience in deep understanding of different cultures and customs. It gives tolerance and open mindedness through the mutual exchange of Principals and teachers within the provinces and other countries. But the selection criteria for such sort of required trainings should strictly follow the set merit policy. DSD strictly follows the merit policy. Online courses are the other options for inculcating and sharing the global citizenship skills which resemble the teachings of Islam to lead the world for peace and harmony.

There is a need for democratic, open-minded, expert educators and supportive administrators to produce global teachers in our country. All the money and material resources should be utilized for the goodwill of teacher training institutes. All principals should know the significance of global advancements so that they can support the activities running inside and outside of their colleges.

Positive and constructive criticism should be given to the prospective teachers as a part for constructivism. Administration should be more advanced in both academic and administrative services to interact with the upcoming social demands from the community for school improvement and quality education.

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Conclusion

The main aim of teacher education is to promote the intellectual growth and inculcate moral dispositions in the future-teachers through innovative pedagogy and field trainings. There is a need for adaptation-trainings that should nurture the intellectual growth - the teacher educators’ ability to continually update and share his or her knowledge and wisdom through reflections, readings, writings, discussions and active engagement in the critique of existing knowledge and practices. The intellectual growth is also the construction of new ideas and knowledge that could implement educational policies and practices in their workplaces and in actual classrooms. And to develop their intellectual capacity all teachers, either prospective-teachers or teacher-educators or school teachers, including the principals, must engage in systematic reflections, research (action research) and scholarly work. It is therefore important to adapt the required advancements through the recommended factual framework and trainings with considerable emphasis on the futuristic trends.

Recommendations

In future a versatile system for the true leadership and motivational teacher training with a true spirit of innovation in fields of administration, management, supervision and pedagogy is required. There is a need to keep all the machinery of teacher education including principals, teacher-educators and the prospective-teachers on the same page for the sake of quality education. There is an urgent need for a dynamic framework to adapt the global advancements for the future growth and development of the country. Adapting global advancements at local level the demand of the day for maximum growth within the available resources.

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Ahmad, R.H.; Marimuthu, T.; Ismail, Noryannah. 1987. Interface of Education with Employment and Leisure in the Context of Alternative Futures. APEID.UNESCO PROAP.

Barany, M.E. 2006. Non-timber forest products in the livelihood and coping strategies of households and communities afflicted by HIV/AIDS. Master’s thesis. Virginia Poly- technic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA.

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Welch, A. R. (2001). "Globalization, Postmodernity and the State: Comparative Education Facing the Third Millennium." Comparative Education 37:475–492.

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Appendix I

FACTUAL FRAME WORK FOR TRANSFORMING TEACHER EDUCATION

Transforming Pre –Service teacher Education system in Punjab for good

Governance, sustainable development & Global Market

Merging of all (33 GCETs) from District to Regional level into

Autonomous Bodies named as (PFATEL&R)

PAKISTAN FUTURE ACADEMIES FOR TEACHER EDUCATION,

LEADERSHIP & RESEARCH (PFATEL&R)

A genius Amalgamation of Pre-Service and In-Service Teacher Trainings

by the devolution of DSD and DTSC

under the umbrella of

Pakistan Future Academies for Teacher

Education, Leadership and Research

(PFATEL&R)

Follow the pattern in Armed Force Academies with own curriculum, maximum

budget provision, Required trainings Plans & Practices

Pakistan Future Academies for Teacher Education Leadership And Research

PFATEL&R

attached with DTSC+LU+FS

District Training & Support Center Family Schools (Practicum)

(DTSC ) + Licensing Unit for

In- service Trainings & Teacher licensing School Based Task & Practicum

85

Field Activities in DTSC Cluster & Family Schools

On campus activities for Principals Educators & In-Service

Alterations/Amendments can be made on any Global Agenda at local level to align with our Islamic philosophy, Cultural and Social Values, Learner’s Psychology, Financial Capacity, Society’s

demands a NPST tailored by the Qualified and Expert Teams deputed in Proposed (PFATEL&R) with prescribed activities

Monthly In-House /on Skype Trainings /Seminars/professional

development day (PD) with PFATEL&R, and attached Cluster& Family School Heads, Teachers and

Students

Monthly-In-House/On Skype Trainings/Seminars /Debates and

conferences with the foreign/provincial/regional

academies/fellow teachers Educators as supervisors and with Prospective Teachers

Annually Foreign& In–country online tailored Academic Training/ Modules,

Certification by British Council/Others for Academies Heads, Educators and Teachers Exchange at international /national level from PFATEL&R

Annually Foreign & In- country online tailored Administrative

Training/Seminars/Action plans/etc. Certification by British Council/Others

For School Heads

Dissemination of the trainings by family school Heads/ Teachers with cluster school Heads for good governance and learning along

community involvement with follow up/ feedback leading towards required

field invention at great root level

Campus to field Propagation through Trica- Prospective teachers as reflective practitioners, Family school teacher as

cooperating teachers in the Family schools, the supervisors as guide in developing the

professional portfolios in Practicum

Finally attain a Dynamic Transforming Process Sustainable for any Global Advancements and Adaptations at Local level through Teacher education for

Quality Education system

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Exploring Variation across Pakistani Academic Writing: A Multidimensional Analysis

Musarrat Azher1

Muhammad Asim Mehmood2

Abstract

Pakistani English as an indigenous variety exhibits variation at different levels of language. Previous quantitative studies on Pakistani English have identified its distinct characteristics on the basis of the occurrence of individual linguistic items and have played a pioneering role in the recognition of Pakistani English as an independent variety. However, these studies are limited in their scope as they depend on individual linguistic features and unrepresentative data. Biber (1988) developed multidimensional (MD) approach for register variation studies based on the co-occurrence of lexio-grammatical features. Biber (1988) disregarded the reliability of individual linguistic features for being subjective and misleading in exploring variation among registers and emphasized the importance of co-occurrence of linguistic features to distinguish among registers. The idea of co-occurrence structures the basis of multidimensional approach which proves to be the most suitable quantitative and comparative approach for register variation studies. The present research as one of the pioneer studies on register variation aims to explore Pakistani academic writing register through multidimensional analysis. A special purpose corpus of 8.385000 million words of Pakistani academic writing has been constructed for the present research. The corpus consists of 235 research dissertations of MPhil and PhD graduates and is further divided into categories of research sections. To explore the distinct identity of Pakistani academic writing as a register, the current research aims to explore linguistic variation among research sections on five textual dimensions of Biber’s 1988 study. The findings of the study reveal Pakistani academic writing as highly informational, non-narrative, exceedingly explicit, non-persuasive and impersonal in style.

Keywords: Pakistani English, MD Analysis, register variation, academic writing

Introduction

Certain cultural and linguistic features have spawned distinct varieties of English across the globe. In this scenario Pakistani English (PE) has emerged as a non-native variety which exhibits variation at different levels of language. Researchers have shown escalating and burgeoning interest in its exclusive and unique features over the last two decades. Most of the studies have been conducted on lexical, phonological, morphological and syntactic aspects of Pakistani English where individual linguistic items from different texts have been


87

the focal point (e.g. Baumgardener, 1987, 1993, 1998; Mehboob, 2004; Mehmood 2009; Rehman, 2010; Talaat, 1993, 2002). These researches have contributed in the process of codification and recognition of Pakistani English as a legitimate variety. However, these studies prove to be of limited worth and scope as they rely on individual linguistic features and ignore the co-occurring patterns of linguistic features.

Pakistani English entails to be studied at the level of register for the further exploration of its unique features and to strengthen its distinct linguistic identity. A register is said to be a situationally defined variety of language and is characterized by particular situation, topic and purpose. With the concept of language variation, it has become utmost important to analyze linguistic patterns across registers in Pakistani English. So far only two register based studies (Shakir, 2013 and Ahmed & Mehmood, 2015) on the language of Pakistani print advertisements and press reportage respectively have been conducted through Multidimensional Analysis of Biber (1988). There is a need to study other registers of Pakistani English to strengthen its identity as a distinct variety.

Biber et al. (1999), Biber (2006), and Biber & Conrad (2009) consider academic prose "a very general register, characterized as written language that has been carefully produced and edited, addressed to a large number of readers who are separated in time and space from the author, and with the primary communicative purpose of presenting information about some topic" (Biber & Conrad 2009, p. 32). Academic writing like other registers in Pakistan is an area that still seeks the attention of the researchers and linguists. As for the learners, academic writing is the most important register on which their academic career depends. This target register needs to be fully described in terms of linguistic characteristics to develop appropriate teaching materials and methods.

Biber (1988) proposed Multidimensional (MD) analysis to explore variation among registers on the basis of co-occurrence of linguistic features. Biber established the fact that register variation studies based upon individual linguistic features instead of co-occurring features are subjective and can be misleading in nature. He regards multi-dimensional analysis as the most suitable alternative approach to investigating the linguistic variation which is corpus-based, quantitative, empirical and comparative in nature. So far, no register based study has been done on co-occurring linguistic features of Pakistani academic writing as a register. Therefore, the present research aims to explore linguistic variation across research sections, Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, Results, and Conclusion of Pakistani academic writing register and investigates the following research question:

Q. How far is the language of Pakistani academic writing different across research sections on five textual dimensions of Biber’s 1988 study?

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Literature Review

As a distinct variety, Pakistani English has been studied from lexical, grammatical and phonological perspectives over the last many years. These studies have been mainly conducted from two different perspectives: occurrence of individual linguistic items in multiple texts and register based studies in terms of co-occurrence of linguistic features. Studies on the occurrence of individual linguistic items are divided into two types: manual and corpus based. Most of the studies concerned with the manual analysis of individual linguistic features, are mainly associated with lexical (e.g. Baumgardner, 1993a, 1993b, 1998; Mahboob, 2004; Rahman, 1990b, 1991; Talaat, 1993, 2002; Y. Kachru & Nelson, 2006) and phonological features of Pakistani English (Mahboob 2004; Rahman, 1990b). Taalat’s (1993) study of lexical variation in PE, for example, looks at the semantic shift in certain lexical items as a shift from their original Standard British English usage to a so-called Urduised meaning. “Pakistani English is a non-native variety of English which uses all words available in Standard British English (StBrE) in a relational pattern” (Taalat, 2002).

The other studies on Pakistani English follow corpus based methodology. Mehmood, A. and Mehmood, R. (2009) are among the pioneers who conducted corpus based research on Pakistani English by comparing its distinctive features with British and American Englishes. Mahmood, R. (2009) studied the ‘Lexico-Grammatical’ aspects of the nouns and noun phrases in Pakistani English. Whereas, Mahmood, A. (2009) worked on multiple trends in Pakistani English through a corpus- based study and verified the legitimacy of previous claims made by the researchers working on Pakistani English. The researchers have tried to strengthen the distinct identity of Pakistani English through their work by highlighting the distinguishing features of Pakistani English. However, there is a need to study the distinguishing features of Pakistani English as an independent language beyond individual occurrences of lexical, phonological and grammatical features. Pakistani English so far is a less researched area and it needs to be studied at the level of register to further validate its distinct identity.

Only two register variation studies based on multidimensional analysis have been conducted on Pakistani English so far. These studies include: linguistic variation across advertisement in print media (Shakir, 2013) and linguistic variation across press reportage of Pakistani print media (Ahmed & Mehmood, 2015). Both studies employ multidimensional analysis to explore internal as well external variation. They stress the need for further register based studies on Pakistani English by disregarding the previous studies which relied on the frequency of individual linguistic features.

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Need for More Register Based Studies in Pakistani English

The above mentioned brief review of Pakistani English reveals that there is a greater vacuum in the area of register based studies. This space calls for further investigations of co-occurring linguistic features at the lever of register. Thus the present research strives to add into the validation of Pakistani English as a legitimate variety by studying register based analysis of linguistic variation across Pakistani Academic writing.

Register Variation

Variation in language can be identified with reference to speakers, geographical areas, and situations. Variation in language in terms of situation of use refers to register variation. While differentiating the term ‘register’ from ‘genre’ Biber (2006) associates the term ‘with a domain of use’, whereas the other with cultural and conventional patterns. As being noted by Biber (2006), register studies focus on lexico-grammatical features in accordance with the situation of use; whereas, genre studies focus on socio-cultural and conventional aspects as how things are done. Biber refers to this situation as:

A communication situation that recurs regularly in a society (in terms of participants, setting, communicative functions, and so forth) will tend to develop identifying markers of language structure and language use, different from the language of other communication situations. (1994, p. 43)

Language used in different registers belongs to different situations, different purposes, and different participants. Register variation is widely considered to be intrinsic to all cultures. Ferguson (1983, p. 154) emphasized the fact that “register variation in which language structure varies in accordance with the occasions of use, is all-pervasive in human language.” Hymes argues that the analysis of register variation i.e. “Verbal repertoire” in his terms - should become the major focus of research within linguistics: “The abilities of individuals and the composite abilities of communities cannot be understood except by making Verbal repertoire, not language, the central scientific notion” (1984, p. 44).

Registers are different from dialects because they specifically serve different purposes, topics, and situations. They are different in both contents as well as form. Dialects are varieties according to geographical boundaries, whereas, registers are varieties according to situations. People use different contents and forms in different situations. Speakers do not typically "say the same thing" in conversation as in formal speeches, research articles, and class room lectures. The most important feature in a study of register variation is “a communication situation that recurs regularly in a society (in terms of participants, setting, communicative functions, and so forth) will tend over time to develop identifying

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markers of language structure and language use, different from the language of other communication situations” (Biber, 1994, p. 48).

Register analysis involves three basic elements: the situational background, the linguistic features and the functional association between the two. Registers are characterized by particular lexico-grammatical features and are linked with the specific situational contexts and perform particular function. “Linguistic features are always functional when considered from a register perspective. That is, linguistic features tend to occur in a register because they are particularly well-suited to the purposes and situational context of the register” (Biber & Conrad, 2009). The figure given below illustrates the basic features of register analysis.

The Situational Context

of use

(including communicative

purposes)

Linguistic Analysis of the

words and structures that

commonly occur

˂------------------------Function---------------------------˃

Figure1: Components in Register Analysis (adopted from Biber & Conrad 2009, p.6)

Multi-Dimensional Analysis and Register Variation Studies

Biber (1988) presented Multidimensional analysis for register variation studies in his influential work Variation across Speech and Writing in which he compared 23 spoken and written registers based on the co-occurrence patterns of prominent linguistic features in an empirical way. The importance of linguistic co-occurrence was recognized early on by linguists. For example, Brown and Fraser (1979, pp. 38–39) observe that it can be “misleading to concentrate on specific, isolated [linguistic] markers without taking into account systematic variations which involve the co-occurrence of sets of markers.” Ervin-Tripp (1972) and Hymes (1984) identify “speech styles” as varieties that are defined by a shared set of co-occurring linguistic features.

By using computational techniques, multidimensional analysis focuses on the linguistic analysis of texts and text types and it undermines the analysis of individual linguistic features. Biber proposes that in carrying out linguistic analysis of a register, the extent to which linguistic features are used must be considered to identify the linguistic features that are pervasive and especially common in the target register. On the basis of this idea, MD approach focuses the fact that individual linguistic features cannot distinguish among registers; rather, sets of co-occurring features work together towards getting a shared a communicative goal.

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On the basis of the functional interpretation of sets of co-occurring linguistic features with significant frequencies in texts, dimensions are identified and labeled. Biber (1988) made it clear that no single dimension can differentiate between spoken and written form of texts, rather multiple parameters of variation will be operative in any discourse domain. It is important to mention here that the co-occurring patterns underlying dimensions are identified quantitatively through statistical factor analysis. “When applied to linguistic data, factor analysis can therefore be used to identify sets of linguistic features that tend to co-occur across the texts of a corpus” (Grieve, 2010, p. 5).

Multi-dimensional approach of register variation synthesizes quantitative and qualitative functional methodological techniques. Qualitative analysis is required to interpret the functional bases underlying each set of co-occurring linguistic features; whereas, Quantitative analysis is concerned with the linguistic content of a dimension comprising a group of linguistic features to explain the quantitative linguistic patterns in functional terms.

The clusters of co-occurring linguistic features, derived through statistical factor analysis, can have both positive and negative loading. The positive and negative loading indicates the complimentary distribution of linguistic features which means the presence of one cluster marks the absence of other. However, on the basis of the shared communicative functions of the linguistic features on both positive and negative polarity, dimensions are formed and labeled. Biber (1988) explored five textual dimensions in his study on linguistic variation across speech and writing which are discussed below.

Dimension 1: Informational vs. Involved Production

The first dimension contains maximum number of linguistic features occurring on both positive and negative poles. The two poles on this dimension represent interactive and involved discourse (verbal) on positive side and highly informational discourse (carefully planned and edited) on negative side. Nouns, prepositional phrases, and, attributive adjectives are some of the features which occur on negative pole and mark density of information. The features with positive weight on this dimension are associated with ‘highly constrained production circumstances’ and include e.g. private verbs, first and second person pronoun, emphatics, hedges, modals of possibility, causative and conditional clauses as markers of involved and interactive text. Due to the shared function of the linguistic features on both positive and negative polarity, the dimension is labeled as ‘Involved vs. Informational Production’.

Dimension 2: Narrative vs. Non Narrative Concerns

This dimension distinguishes between narrative and other types of discourse. The features with positive weight include past tense verbs, third person pronouns, and perfect aspect verbs as indicators of narrative action. The narrative discourse is

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described to be “event oriented” whereas the non-narrative discourse is characterized as “expository, descriptive or other, marked by immediate time and attributive nominal elaboration” (Biber, 1988, p.109).

Dimension 3: Explicit vs. Situation Dependent Reference

The dimension 3 differentiates between explicit and situation dependent type of text. The features with positive loading on this dimension include 3 forms of relative clauses (Wh relative clauses on object and subject positions and pied piping constructions), phrasal coordination and nominalizations to exemplify explicit informational discourse. The time and place adverbials along with other adverbs are specific to situation dependent text.

Dimension 4: Overt Expression of Persuasion

The dimension 4 also labeled as Overt Expression of Argumentation has features with positive loading only. Infinitives, modals of prediction, persuasive verbs, conditional subordination, modals of necessity, split auxiliaries and modals of possibility work together to mark persuasion. Biber remarks: “this dimension marks the degree to which persuasion is marked overtly, whether overt making of the speaker’s own point of view or an assessment of the advisability or likelihood of an event presented to persuade an event”( 1988, P.111).

Dimension 5: Abstract vs. non Abstract Information

The dimension 5 is labeled as Abstract vs. non Abstract Information and represents informational discourse that is abstract and formal. The features with positive weight include conjuncts, agentless passives, adverbial past participial clauses, by-passives, past participial WHIS deletions, other adverbial subordinators and predicative adjectives. All these features indicate complex logical relations among the clauses. This dimension has also been labeled as ‘impersonal vs. non-impersonal style’ in later works.

Two types of Multidimensional analysis can be conducted: Old MD analysis based on the exploration of variation across texts on five textual dimensions (discussed above) of Biber’s 1988 study and new MD analysis based on the new factor analysis of the data and formation of new dimensions. The present research employs old MD analysis and explores linguistic variation across Pakistani academic writing on five textual dimensions of Biber’s 1988 study

Previous Studies on Pakistani Academic Writing

Pakistani academic writing is the least explored area so far. For example, the research work which represents Pakistani academic writing as a small part of general purpose corpora of Pakistani Written English (PWE) comes from Mehmoodians (2009). In PWE, Pakistani academic writing is represented by three sub-registers of text books, research articles and thesis and forms a part of general

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purpose corpus. No distinct features of Pakistani academic writing have been studied in this research.

A recent research has been conducted by Asghar (2015) on the features of metadiscourse and contrastive rhetoric in Pakistani academic writing. The research is based on a small corpus consisted of 11 written texts, each comprising of 450 words at average. The research is an attempt to develop awareness about meta-discourse features in students’ writings.

So far no register based study has been conducted on Pakistani academic writing. Therefore, the present research aims at exploring distinct features of Pakistani academic writing as a register.

Previous Studies on Research Sections in Academic Writing Researchers have found significant differences among research sections of

academic writing in the use of multiple linguistic features and that each section represents distinct co-occurring patterns. For example, Conrad (1996) investigated variation across research sections on five textual dimensions explored in Biber’s 1988 study and found dimensional variation among all research sections. Getkham (2011) investigated co-occurring patterns of linguistic features of research articles of applied linguistics across sections by employing multidimensional analysis and explored new dimensions. Dimensional differences were found among research sections. Biber and Finegan (1994) also worked on the research sections of articles and compared the multidimensional profiles of the Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion sections in medical research articles

Some other studies have examined the functions and types of hedges in different sections of research articles, in various languages and disciplines and in both soft and hard sciences (Crompton, 1997; Falahati, 2007; Getkham, 2010; Lin & Liou, 2006; Vassileva, 2001).Many other studies have identified the distribution of linguistic features across research sections. For example, Adam-Smith, 1984, on medicine; Butler, 1990 on Biology and physics; Hanania and Akhtar, (1985) on biology, chemistry and physics master’s theses discovered more frequent use of modals in introduction and discussion sections as compared to other sections of research theses.

Materials and Methods

Collection of Data and Corpus Compilation

The first step in building a representative Corpus of Pakistani Academic Writing (COPAW) was to select disciplines that may represent a wide range of academic areas. Three major disciplines, Humanities, Sciences, and Social Sciences due to their importance in academics were then selected to study. The information was collected about the universities, where the selected disciplines were being offered. Initially, four universities, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan University of Sargodha, Govt. College University Faisalabad, and Fatima Jinnah

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Women University were selected for the collection of research theses of MPhil and PhD graduates for corpus compilation. Due to the apprehensive behavior of chairs of different departments and librarians, controller examinations in the selected disciplines, the researchers decided to download theses from Higher Education Commission (HEC) Research Repository. After getting 135 theses of MPhil graduates from the above cited universities, the researchers downloaded 100 PhD theses in the selected disciplines from Higher Education Commission (HEC) Research Repository. The other universities include Government College University, Faisalabad, International Islamic University, Islamabad, Lahore College for Women University, National University of Modern Languages, Quaid-i-Azam University, Shah Abdul Latif University of Khairpur, University of Agriculture, University of Karachi, University of Peshawar, and University of Punjab. The research theses represent a wide array of subjects in Humanities, Social Sciences, and Sciences. 235 theses in total were finally collected to build up a corpus of Pakistani academic writings. Each thesis was further divided into research sections as sub-categories and was duly coded. Finally, a corpus of 8.385000 million words compiled of 1175 text files was ready for further data analysis process. Following table describes the categories of Pakistani Academic writing to be studied in the present research.

Table 1: Sub-Categories of Pakistani Academic Writing

Sr. No

Sub-Categories of Pakistani Academic Writing

Codes

1 Introduction Int

2 Literature Review Lit

3 Research Methodology Met

4 Results Res

5 Conclusion Con

The table shows Pakistani academic writing was divided into five major categories to build up a special purpose corpus and to explore linguistic variation across these categories. As far the situational characteristics of the research sections, Introduction is concerned with introducing the rationale and objectives of the study. Literature Review presents a detailed account of previous related studies, whereas, research Methodology focuses on the account of materials and methods taken in the research study. The section on Results is concerned with the findings of the study, while Conclusion reports summary and suggests future implications.

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Data Analysis

Data analysis in the present research is carried out through three important steps which include: tagging of data for linguistic features, attaining counts of linguistic features, turning raw frequencies into normalized scores and calculation of dimensions scores. All these steps are discussed below in detail.

Tagging of the Corpus The corpus of Pakistani academic writing was tagged by Jesse Egbert by employing Biber’s tagger for all the linguistic features used in 88 MD Analysis on five textual dimensions. The list of linguistic features relevant in 1988 study is given in (Appendix II).

Computing Raw Counts of Linguistic Features and converting into Normalized Frequencies Biber’s tag count program was used for the raw counts of the frequencies of different linguistic features and normalized frequencies. The raw frequencies of linguistic features were obtained from all texts (1175) and computed out of 1000 words. “A comparison of non-normalized counts will give an inaccurate assessment of the frequency distribution in texts” (Biber, 1988, p.75). This standard was set by Biber in his 1988 study on the basis of the formula: actual frequency divided by total number of words, multiplied by 1000.

Calculation of Dimension Scores The dimension score of each text of Pakistani academic writing was calculated by subtracting the standardized scores of negative features from the sum of standardized scores of positive features. The dimensions with no negative features include only sum of positive scores of linguistic features. In this way, dimension score of each text in 1988 MD analysis of Pakistani academic writing was calculated.

Results

The table given below presents an analysis of variance (ANOVA) results to indicate the statistically significant differences among research sections of Pakistani academic writing.

Table: 2 Analysis of Variance Table for Variation among Research Sections on Five Textual Dimensions of 1988 MD Analysis

Dimension x Research Sections interaction mean±SE

Dimension

Categories

Introduction Literature Review

Methodology Results Conclusion Mean

D1 -22.01±0.28E -23.23±0.28E -24.33±0.30D -23.17±0.38E -22.78±0.33D -23.104

D2 -3.29±0.06C -2.60±0.06C -3.41±0.06C -3.45±0.08C -2.88±0.08C -3.126

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D3 8.78±0.17A 8.69±0.14A 7.49±0.19A 6.57±0.15A 7.82±0.17A 7.87

D4 -3.89±0.08D -4.07±0.08D -3.91±0.12C -4.79±0.10D -3.24±0.14C -3.98

D5 3.12±0.13B 3.65±0.13B 5.85±0.20B 2.53±0.17B 4.37±0.22B 3.904

Means sharing similar letter in a row or in a column are statistically non-significant (P>0.05). Capital letters are used for overall mean.

The table reveals that there lies statistically significant differences among research sections of Pakistani academic writing on D1, D4; whereas no statistical significant differences among research sections on D2, D3 and D5 were observed. Pair wise comparison reveals that methodology and conclusion are significantly different from other research sections.

Discussion on Variation among Research Sections in Pakistani Academic Writing on Biber’s 1988 Textual Dimensions

Variation among research sections in Pakistani academic writing on Biber’s 1988 set of textual dimensions is being discussed as under.

Variation among Research Sections on D1

On D1 Pakistani academic writing has been manifested highly informational and integrated. Figure 2 given below exhibits comparison among research sections of Pakistani academic writing on D1 of Biber’s 1988 study.

Figure 2: Comparison of Research Sections on D1

Figure 2 compares the mean dimension score of research sections on D1 and displays that all research sections in Pakistani academic writing have been found highly informational rather than interactive and involved. Among all, the section on Methodology has been revealed to be the most informational by having the highest mean score (-4.33), whereas, Introduction with mean score of -22.01 has

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been found to be the least informational and more inclined towards interactive and involved pattern of discourse on D1.

The sections on Literature Review and Results are found to have almost similar degree of informational package with mean score of -23.23 and -23.17 respectively. The section on Conclusion has mean score of -22.78 and is slightly more informational and less interactive than Introduction. The less informational stance of Introduction and Conclusion indicates the interactive style of Pakistani academic writing in the presentation of the rationale of the study and in summarizing the findings respectively. The differences among the research sections can further be explored by looking into the distribution of features of informational discourse across research sections.

The presence of all major informational linguistic features (nouns, prepositions, attributive adjectives) in all research sections is shown in the figure given below, which displays the distribution of informational linguistic features across research sections of Pakistani academic writing on D1 of Biber’s 1988 study .

Figure 3: Comparison of Informational Features on D1

Figure 3 compares the grammatical features among five research sections of Pakistani academic writing on D1 and reveals that Pakistani academic writing is highly characterized by the density of nouns in all research sections. Leech (1966) and Pop (2007) along with many other researchers recognize that providing information is one of the major functions of nouns. Moreover, the whole nominal group contains three important constituents of informational discourse, i.e. attributive adjectives, nouns and prepositions. It is noticeable that the Result section uses the highest frequency of nouns with the mean score of -392.78 which clearly shows the concern of this section with the description of objects and entities more than any other research section. However, Methodology section is characterized by slightly less use of nouns (with mean score of -384.924) as

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compared to the section on Results. The section on Introduction is shown to be using the highest frequency of attributive adjectives with mean score of -77.50805 and is revealed to be associated with more elaborated informational discourse.

Overall, Methodology has been found the most informational section with the highest accumulative mean score (-192.234) on the informational features. The sections on Literature Review and Results are next to Methodology in using informational features with -191.782and -191.364 mean score respectively. Prepositions (-128.9913) have been shown at the highest frequency rate in Conclusion, and add into clarity of informational stance of this section. The example given below is packed with extensive information crowded with the density of nouns, preposition and attributive adjectives in Pakistani academic writing.

Example 1: After completing the data collection, data was analyzed by using PC in computer laboratory. The analysis has been taken in two ways.

1-Univarient analysis has been taken with the help of simple tabular analysis based on percentages, frequencies and bar charts.

2-Bivarient analysis has been taken with the help of cross tabular analysis based on association between the percentages and frequencies of different variables. (Text 99, 3, SS)

The example exhibits the density of nouns, prepositions and attributive adjectives and is highly informational, where the author is informing the reader about the ways of data analysis.

The trends of Pakistani academic writing on D1 have been found to share high degree of information and knowledge based discourse with the reader. This trend seems to be in accordance with the situational characteristics of thesis writing, as research is a systematic effort to add new knowledge. Its major purpose is to contribute new knowledge through careful investigation or inquiry in the related field and to enhance the understanding of the readers about the topic being explored or discussed.

For the differences among research sections, presentation of explicit information may be related to the purpose of different research sections and expected readers. Introduction is found least informational and more interactive due to its objective of making readers understand the rationale of the study. In presenting extensive information of the procedures taken in conducting research, the section on Methodology seems to expect readers with wide background knowledge.

The results on D1 are quite similar to Conrad (1996), on the section on Methodology being the most informational among all research sections in both studies; however, they are different on the least informational sections. Contrary

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to Conrad (1996), in which the section on Results is found to be the least informational, Introduction is revealed to be the least informational and most interactive section in Pakistani academic writing.

The foregoing discussion, based on the mean dimension scores and individual linguistic features along with example from Methodology section, provide sufficient evidence to the claim that Pakistani academic writing on D1 is highly informational and integrated.


On D2 Pakistani academic writing appears to use non-narrative discourse. Figure 4 given below compares all the five research section of Pakistani academic writing and shows that all the research sections have negative mean scores along D2.

Figure 4: Comparison of Research Sections on D2

Figure 4 exhibits that Pakistani academic writing is characterized by highly non- narrative concerns. Pakistani academic writing is revealed to be is expository, explanatory and descriptive rather than ‘event oriented’. However, there are differences in the research sections in the degree to which they have been found non narrative in discourse. The section on Results has been justifiably found the most expository and descriptive one with the highest mean score of -3.4. This clearly speaks of the fundamental concern of this section with the presentation of the procedural information about the findings of the study. With a slight difference of the mean score is found the section on Methodology (-3.41) in maintaining expository and non-narrative manners in the production of academic discourse. Comparatively less descriptive and more narrative sections are Conclusion and Literature Review with mean scores -2.88 and -2.60 respectively. That indicates that Literature Review with minimum scores has more potential for including narrative elements, obviously due to references to past researches.

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These non-narrative concerns have been discussed by many researchers including Biber, 1988, 2010; Biber & Conrad, 2009; Connor & Upton, 2003, 2004. Connor and Upton (2004) describe these non-narrative concerns as:

These non-narrative purposes include (1) the presentation of expository information, which has few verbs and few animate referents; (2) the presentation of procedural information, which uses many imperatives and infinitive verb forms to give step by step description of what to do, and (3) description of actions usually in progress, that is, actions in the present tense, a straightforward and concise packaging of information. (p.249)

The differences among the research sections can be further viewed in relation to the presence of the features representing non narrative discourse.

Example 2: The studied ground waters are usually basic in nature, have high EC due to elevated levels of TDS, reflecting moderate mineral dissolution. The intensity of soluble minerals is expressed as saturation index. In understudy groundwater samples, the saturation index (SI) of calcite has shown significant correlation. The positive correlation of SI of calcite with Ca2+, SI of dolomite with Mg2+, while Ca2+ and SO42- corresponds with SI of gypsum (Fig. 5 c-f), indicate that, these minerals are in a state of under saturation in ground water. The SI results may be attributed to extensive water logging of study area and is promoting contamination. (Text 188, S)

The example above shows Pakistani academic writing as highly non-narrative and gives the presentation of expository information, which has present tense verbs, description of actions usually in progress, that is, actions in the present tense, a straightforward and concise packaging of information.

The trends shown on D2 seem to be justified and can be related to the basic purposes of different research sections. The sections on Results and Methodology have been found the most non narrative among all, as the Results aim to present the findings of the ongoing study and Methodology section takes up the purpose of presenting the steps and procedures involved in the ongoing study. Therefore, both are non-narrative for being least concerned with historical references. The section on Literature Review has been found least non-narrative due to its purpose of providing detailed insights into the past relevant researches. The section on Conclusion aims to summarize the findings of the study, and is comparatively inclined towards narrative discourse.

The results on D2 can be compared with Conrad’s (1996) findings on variation among research sections. In both studies, non-narrative patterns of discourse are observed with variation in the extent to which they conform to the norm of non-narrative discourse. In Pakistani academic writing the section on Methodology has been found the most non-narrative; whereas, in Conrad’s study

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(1996) of research articles Introduction is revealed to be the most non-narrative section.

Over all, Pakistani academic writing on Biber’s second dimension of 1988 study has been revealed non-narrative with variation in the trends of different research sections as per their purposes.


On D3 Pakistani academic writing has been revealed highly explicit and elaborated. Figure 5 below depicts comparison among all the research sections in terms of mean dimensional scores.

Figure 5: Comparison among Research Sections on D3

Figure 5 reveals that all the research sections of Pakistani academic writing have positive mean score on D3 and are characterized by referentially explicit and overt discourse. Introduction has been revealed as the most explicit section among all with mean score of 8.78. The explicitness in Introduction clearly speaks of clarity and openness of rationale and objectives. Next to Introduction is the section on Literature Review with mean score of 8.69 in maintaining explicit and overt discourse. The sections on Conclusion and Methodology have been shown less explicit than the first two sections in having mean scores 7.82 and 7.49 respectively. The section on Results with mean score 6.57 has been found least explicit among all. The variation among research sections of Pakistani academic writing can be further viewed in terms of the distribution of the some of the linguistic features representing explicit discourse. Figure exhibits the features of explicit discourse across research sections of Pakistani academic writing on D3.

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Figure 6: Features of Explicitness on D3

Figure 6 shows that all the research sections use all the linguistic features of explicit discourse. The features of explicitness include: Wh relative clauses on object position Wh relative clauses on subject position, pied piping constructions, phrasal coordination and nominalization. The highest mean score 85.7755 is achieved by nominalization in all research sections that indicate nominalization as mainly responsible for explicitness in Pakistani academic writing. The frequency of nominalization has been found many times greater in all research sections than other linguistic features on this dimension. Nominalization is generally used to refer larger issues. In the present research, nominalization is found to be most frequently occurring in the section on Literature Review (90.75277). This shows that literature review is extensively marked by the description of related issues. However, the section on Introduction has been found the most explicit one and is devoted to more explanatory and elaborated discourse by using the maximum frequency of relative clauses (1.7908).

The trend of using nominalization is common in academic writing register. Conrad (1996) also found density of nominalization ranging from mean score 100 to 32 in all research sections. The features other than nominalizations are found to be at the lowest end in all research sections in the mean score of their normalized frequency. As in the current study, all Wh clauses along with coordinating phrases have the mean score of 1.8462. Wh clauses are used for referential purposes and add further details and openness into the explicitness of Pakistani academic discourse. Introduction is the most explicit research section in Pakistani academic writing with the highest mean score due to the density of all linguistic features of explicitness. The following example from the corpus of Pakistani academic writing indicates the frequent use of nominalization.

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Example 3: Capital intensity, profit intensity, age and size of the firm are in negative relation to energy intensity. So the above discussion shows energy intensity and other variables have one-way relationship. The results of the regression have been given in following table. The estimation of the regression equation from the period 2005 to 2010 is based on an unbalanced panel data. The regression equation has been estimated by using STATA 10. Table 4.4 summarizes the regression results and showing the relationship between energy intensity and its determinants. (Text 159, 4, SS)

The example given above shows how greatly Pakistani academic writing relies on nominalization. This example is taken from the section on Results which has the minimum mean score on nominalization. The differences among research sections on D3 can be attributed to situational characteristics of academic writing. The reason which can be attributed to Introduction for being the most explicit and elaborated is that at this very stage, the readers have minimum knowledge about the topic, so more explanations of concepts and terms are needed for clarity. This stance is strengthened by the most frequent presence of Wh relative clauses, as they have the highest mean score on this section. Wh clauses help out in giving elaborated information as “they facilitate the packing of information into complex noun phrase” (Conrad, 1996, p.184). Literature Review with the mean score 8.69 is slightly less explicit than introduction. The section on Results is least elaborated and explicit. That clearly shows the results are more exact, less elaborated and relatively concerned with situation dependent reference.

However, the differences in research sections in the degree of explicitness can be related to the differences in purposes in writing different sections. The Methodology and Results sections are least explicit as they are more concerned with procedures and evidence. According to Conrad, (1996, p.188), “the reporting of procedures and evidence correspond with few nominalization and more place and time adverbials.” The findings on this dimension are bit different from Conrad (1996) on variation among research sections.


The ANOVA results indicate that there lie statistically significant linguistic differences among research sections on D4. Pair wise comparison shows that Methodology and Conclusion are significantly different from other research sections.

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Figure 7 shows that Pakistani academic writing is marked with the absence of persuasive expression and has been found least argumentative. The figure compares the degree of persuasiveness among research sections and reveals that the section on Results has been most prominently marked by the absence of writer’s point of view and found least persuasive with the mean scores of -4.79. This trend shows the objective style of Pakistani academic writing in the presentation of findings. Next to the Results is the section on Literature Review which is marked by less non persuasive stance with the mean score of -4.07. The section on Conclusion is inclined towards the persuasive style when compared with other sections as having the lowest mean score of -3.24.

The findings on D4 are similar to Conrad (1996) on the section of Results for being the most non-persuasive section among all. However, they are different on sections with the least non persuasive style as in Conrad, the section on Introduction is found to be the least non-persuasive.

The trends shown in different sections of Pakistani academic writing on this dimension are highly related to the purposes of different sections. The section on Result reports the findings of the research in factual, non-persuasive style, thus lacks overt expression of argumentation of the writer. The section on Conclusion presents the summary of the reported research and recommends future researches and pedagogical implementations, becoming slightly suggestive and purposive in stance.

Overall, Pakistani academic writing is marked by non-persuasive style characterized by the lack of linguistic features such as –prediction and necessity modals, persuasive verbs and conditional subordination which seek judgmental advisability or likelihood of the event to persuade the reader. These findings are quite unlike of the academic writing as shown in many of the previous researches.

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As thesis writing is characterized by the presentation of new knowledge, it is of utmost importance that the authors should support their claims. In the case of Pakistani academic writing it is clear that arguments are least made for the overt expression of persuasion. However, the differences may be related to the purposes associated with different research sections.


On D5 Pakistani academic writing has been found highly impersonal and detached. The results presented in table 2 indicate that there lies no statistical significant variation among research sections on D5. Figure 8 draws a comparison among the research sections on D5.


The comparison reveals that among all, the section on Methodology has been found the most abstract and impersonal with the highest positive mean score of 5.85. The section on Conclusion with the mean score of 4.37 has been revealed next to the section on Methodology in the production of impersonal discourse. The sections on Introduction and Literature Review have mean score of 3.12 and 3.65 respectively on this dimension and have been shown less impersonal than Methodology and Conclusion. Surprisingly, the least impersonal and more personal section is the section on Result with mean score of 2.53 on D5 of 1988 study.

The figure below depicts the clear picture of the presence of the linguistic features of impersonal expression across research sections.

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Figure 9: Comparison of the Linguistic Features of Impersonal Expression on D5

Figure 9 compares the density of conjunctions and passives in research sections of Pakistani academic writing and reveals that passives with the highest mean scores of 34.42809 are most frequently occurring in the section on Methodology, thus making it the most abstract and theoretical section among all. Conjunctions, however, are found at the highest frequency rate (13.5911) in the section on Introduction and function to add cohesion in Pakistani academic discourse. This shows that Introduction is the most cohesive among all sections. The section on Results has the lowest frequency rate of passives (17.16766) as well as conjunctions (10.14851) which indicates that the section on Results is the least impersonal among all.

The following example from Methodology section clearly reveals density of passives and conjunctions.

Example 5: Unit root test, Johansen co-integration technique and Vector error correction methods had been used to measure the correlation between public and private investment and to empirically test the accelerator and neoclassical theories of investment in Pakistan's context. Unit root test was applied to check the stationarities of the data. Co-integration approach had been used to find out long run results of the model. Error correction model was employed to get both long and short run results of the data. Unit root test is used to check whether the time series data is stationary or non-stationary by applying an autoregressive model. To obtain reliable results, data must be stationary. (Text 81, SS)

These results indicate Pakistani academic writing as highly conceptual, theoretical and abstract in the production of Methodology section and slightly less conceptual and intangible in the section on Conclusion. The results are slightly different from Conrad (1996) on this dimension. Though all the research sections in Conrad are found to be impersonal, the section on Discussion is revealed to be the most impersonal. In Conrad, Introduction has been found least impersonal, whereas, in Pakistani academic writing, the section on Results has been found least impersonal.

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The situational analysis leads to the fact that the purpose of Methodology section is to give accounts of procedures involved in taking up the research. The procedures are generally written in passive constructions. Conclusions summarize the reported research and are often written in passive voice to make connections with the work carried upon, thus becoming impersonal in style.

Conclusion and Future Recommendations

The foregoing discussion on the linguistic variation across research sections of Pakistani academic writing on Biber’s 1988 five textual dimensions reveals interesting results on all the five dimensions:

On D1, Pakistani academic writing has been found highly informational which is justified as per norms and major purpose of academic writing. However, certain variations among research sections have been revealed. The section on Methodology has been found the most informational, whereas, the section on Introduction is found to be the least informational and more inclined towards interactive discourse which is true to the purpose and expected readers of these two research sections. On D2, Pakistani academic writing has been justifiably found to have highly non-narrative discourse. The section on Results being based on the presentation of the findings is revealed to be the most non-narrative section; whereas, Literature Review, as per purpose of this very section has been found least non-narrative in the presentation of the review of previous related studies. On D3, Pakistani academic writing has been found to rely on referentially explicit and overt discourse. The most explicit section among all is the section on Introduction with clarity and openness of the rationale of study. The section on Results is found to be the least explicit of all the five research sections.

On D4, Pakistani academic writing is found to lack overt expression of persuasion that indicates its non-argumentative style in the presentation of information. The section on Results has been found the most non-persuasive in discourse, thus highly lacking in argumentative stance; whereas, the section on Conclusion has been revealed least non-persuasive in style. On D5, Pakistani academic writing has shown impersonal and detached style in the production of academic discourse. The section on Methodology has been found to be the most impersonal section among all. Surprisingly, the section on Results which has been marked with least argumentative discourse has been found least impersonal in style.

On further exploration of linguistic features, Pakistani academic writing has been marked with the dense presence of nouns, present verbs, nominalizations, passives and conjunctions. Categorically mentioning, the findings of the present study show the fact that Pakistani academic writing is characterized by highly informational, non-narrative, explicit, non-persuasive and highly impersonal discourse. Moreover, the dense presence of distinct linguistic features speaks of the distinct existence of Pakistani academic writing register with its own norms.

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The results of the present study will prove to be a valuable source of information to the future researchers, syllabus designers, ESP practitioners and lexicographers. The results of the present study may be taken as norms of Pakistani academic writing and may be compared with other registers of Pakistani English. The results of MD analysis of the Pakistani academic writing can also be compared with the prospective studies on the language of other genres of academic writing like the language of text books, journals etc. This comparison will be a valuable study to evaluate the linguistic variation across sub-genres of academic writing.

The results of the present study will be of a great help to syllabi designers of books on academic writing by giving the practical insight into the usage of linguistic items in Pakistani academic English. The syllabi of academic writing may be set by taking practical examples from the present study regarding the different linguistic items found in the different categories of Pakistani academic writing.

The corpus of Pakistani academic writing can be used to prepare valuable material for copy-writers. It can be used to recognize the lexical packages and make lists of nouns, adjectives, passive and adjuncts and many other grammatical features. In addition, a small dictionary based upon the vocabulary items like adjectives, passives, nouns, adjuncts and verbs of language of academic writing can be produced with the different available software like Antconc or Wordsmith Tools.

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Appendix I

Mean Dimension Scores of Sub-Categories of Pakistani Academic Writing

Intro SE Mean Minimum Maximum SD

D1 0.278 -32.37 -7.35 4.269

D2 -5.1 0.33 0.9622 1.768

D3 0.174 2.66 25.75 2.673

D4 0.0757 -6.61 1.3 1.1632

D5 0.128 -2.86 11.6 1.967

Lit.R SE Mean Minimum Maximum SD

D1 0.278 -33.97 -7.35 4.262

D2 0.0629 -4.88 0.81 0.9648

D3 0.138 1.02 14.4 2.109

D4 0.0821 -6.61 2.46 1.2585

D5 0.132 -0.32 10.94 2.03

Method SE Mean Minimum Maximum SD

D1 0.304 -38.04 -11.81 4.661

D2 0.0583 -5.4 0.33 0.8942

D3 0.194 -2.22 17.89 2.973

D4 0.12 -6.61 9.56 1.837

D5 0.197 -2.11 14.29 3.016

Results SE Mean Minimum Maximum SD

D1 0.38 -41.35 -6.23 5.83

D2 0.0794 -5.35 0.54 1.2173

D3 0.151 0.85 15.57 2.314

D4 0.0981 -6.61 0.02 1.504

D5 0.167 - 3.230 17.170 2.562

Con SE Mean Minimum Maximum SD

D1 0.327 -36.35 -6 5.014

D2 0.0815 -5.53 2.07 1.249

D3 0.169 -0.97 15.81 2.596

D4 0.141 -6.61 4.23 2.156

D5 0.217 -3.24 25.6 3.322

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Appendix II

Linguistic Features Relevant to 1988 MD Analysis of Academic Writing

Private verb (e.g., believe, feel, think)

‘That’ deletion (e.g., I think[that] he did it)

Present tense verb (uninflected present, imperative and third person)

Pro-verb ‘do’

Demonstrative pronoun (that, this, those, these)

Adverb/Qualifier-emphatic (e.g., just, really, so)

First person pronoun (e.g., we, our)

Pronoun it/its

Verb ‘Be’ (uninflected present tense, verb and auxiliary

Subordinating conjunction-causative (e.g., because)

Discourse particles (sentence initial, well, now)

Nominal pronoun (e.g., someone, everything)

Adverbial-Hedge (e.g., almost, may be)

Adverb/ Qualifier, amplifier (e.g., absolutely, entirely)

Wh-question

Modals of possibility (can, may, could, might)

Coordinating conjunction-clausal connector

Wh-clause (e.g., he believed what I told him)

Stranded preposition (appearing at sentence end)

Noun (excluding nominalization and gerund)

Preposition

Attributive adjective (e.g., national interest, annual return)

Past tense verbs

Third person pronoun (except ‘it’)

Verb-perfect aspect

Public verb (e.g., assert, complain)

Wh-pronoun- relative clause-object position ( the person who he likes)

Wh-relative clause-subject position (e.g., the participants who like to join…)

Wh-relative clause-object position with prepositional fronting (‘pied piping’)

Co-ordinating conjunction-phrasal connector

Nominalization (e.g., organization, development)

Adverb-time (e.g., instantly, soon)

Adverb-place (e.g., above, beside)

Adverb other (excluding adverb/Qualifier, Hedge, Emphatic, Time, Place, Amplifier

Infinitive verb

Modals of prediction (will, would.)

Suasive verb (e.g., ask, command)

Subordinating conjunction-conditional (if, unless)

Modal of necessity (ought, should, must)

Adverb within auxiliary (splitting aux-verb)( e.g., the product is specifically meant)

Adverbial-conjuncts (however, therefore, thus)

Agentless passive verb (e.g., however, therefore, thus)

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Agentless passive verb (e.g., the scheme was introduced)

Passive verb+ by (e.g., the plan was introduced by principal)

Passive post nominal modifier (e.g., the message conveyed by)

Subordinating conjunction-other (e.g., as, excepts, until)

Present tense verbs (uninflected present, imperative and third person)

2nd Person Pronoun

Ist Person Pronoun

Verb ‘Be’

Noun (excluding nominalization and Gerund)

Preposition

Verb perfect aspect

Predictive adjectives

Passives all

That-complement clause controlled by stance verb

To-complement clause controlled by stance verb

To-complement clause controlled by stance adjective

Process nouns, (isolation)

Other abstract nouns (e.g., idea)

Activity verb (e.g., give, take)

Mental verb (e.g., believe, enjoy)

Seem

Contractions

Split infinitives

NOT neg.

P-and

O_AND

FINAL PREP.

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Book Review

All American Yemeni Girls: Being Muslim in a Public School

Loukia K. Sarroub, 2005 University of Pennsylvania Press Pages: 158 ISBN 0812238338

An interpretation to anethnography is what a heart is to a human being. As without a functional heart a human turns into an unbreathing mass, ethnography becomes a meaningless mound of words if it is not interpreted through a certain analytical framework. This is what Sarroub (2005)—the author of All American Yemeni Girls: Being Muslim in a Public School—does in her ethnography of 26 months about six second-generation American Yemeni Arab girls. The girls are high school students. Sarroub calls the girls Hijabat because they are always covered with Hijab—a type of veil that is used by adult Muslim females. Sarroub’s major objectives in the ethnography are to understand and let her readers know (a) what it means to the girls to be Muslim, (b) what it means to them to succeed in the school, and, (c) how they construct their identities and negotiate with them for these purposes. For these objectives, the author investigates all physical, mental, and textual spaces that the girls use and reside in in the host country.

The first chapter of the ethnography is devoted to delineating the theoretical and methodological bases upon which Sarroub builds the ensuing chapters. She draws on a variety of sociological, anthropological, and sociolinguistic theories in order to make her readers understand how the Hijabat create their identities, negotiate with them, and lead their lives by the identities. The theories give meaning to the data the author collected. The theoretical discussion not only situates the girls’ different selves in different contexts but it also helps a reader to view a dynamic interplay of religion, gender, and ethnicity in various spaces. She digs the chemistry of these variables by using interviews—both formal and informal—observation, shadowing, and, note-taking as her tools.

Sojourning is the theme of her second chapter. The chapter is meant to exhibit that the girls live in two worlds: Yemen from where their parents emigrated to the United States and the United States where they are born and settled. They live in the United States as if they had led their life in Yemen. Thus, their living style overtly manifests the influences of the Yemeni culture, traditions, and, most importantly, religion in their life in the host country.

The second chapter also talks about Layla. Layla is one of the six girls in her ethnography. Because Layla’s life in the host country is similar to the other five, Sarroub focuses on her. Sarroub exhibits that her life choices, therefore

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the life choices of the other five girls too, is mainly driven by three responsibilities: “to uphold the honor of the family, to become good mothers, and to succeed in school” (2005, p. 23). A reader knows as s/he reads the chapter further that the Layla’s life is engulfed by an array of uncertainties that arise due to the sociocultural environment of her family. Uncertainties such as, for instance, Layla is uncertain when she shall be married; whether she shall be allowed to choose her life-partner on her own; when and whether she shall be sent to Yemen for good; and, whether she shall be allowed for higher education after finishing her high school. Her parents are the ones who know answers of the uncertainties. They are the ones who decide her future by following their Yemeni culture, traditions, and religion. Her parents may decide against the Layla’s wishes that Layla fears may lead her to be unsuccessful in the eyes of the people of the host country.

Moreover, the second chapter also showcases the girls’ “dual identities” (2005, p. 44)—Yemeni and American. The identities work differently in different contexts. For instance, being a good Yemeni girl, Layla does “many chores” (p. 37) at home. She upholds the values of her family by being modest and true Muslim. Thus, she recites the Holy Quran daily. She offers prayers five times a day. She keeps herself covered and distant from adult males. She remains submissive and obedient to her parents. And, being a good American Yemeni student, she works hard to perform better in the school as American students do. She intends to avail college education after her school as other students of the host country do.

How the girls construct their student identities and negotiate them with their Yemeni identity in the school is the focus of the third chapter. Sarroub (2005) shows that the girls behave out of modesty and “fear” (p. 49) at the school hallways and cafeteria. These are usually the spaces where they sit in a group. They look at only each other and converse with only female friends. What is noteworthy is that they do not converse with any male students at the places. They act out of modesty because, according to them, it is obligatory on females in their religion and culture to be humble. They fear because they think if they are caught conversing with American male students by their American Yemeni male students, the American Yemeni male students would later disrepute their names in their community. The male students would misinform about their behavior at the school.

Although the school hallways and cafeteria are the physical spaces of the school where they behave out of modesty and fear, their classrooms turn out to be the most comfortable places for them. It is in the classrooms where they talk with other male students without any fear and anxiety of being misperceived or whatever. The girls feel secure because their conversations revolve around issues related to school. In addition, there is always a teacher in classrooms. The teachers’ presence adds to their sense of security. They

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think that nothing wrong can occur in presence of the teachers. Sarroub takes this thought-provoking point as her one of the interesting findings of her ethnography. She compares the finding with such other ethnographies that have shown that spaces of school other than classroom have been taken as the most comfortable places by other minority students.

In the fourth chapter, Sarroub turns to the Hijabats’ textual worlds and literacy practices in order to explore how they live in them. She thinks it is important to explore the spaces because it is in the spaces that they make “sense of their lives as high school students and good Muslim daughters, sisters, and mothers” (p. 59). The author contends, “the literary practices with which the Hijabat engaged were clearly influenced by their religion” (p. 64). Therefore, she thinks that their literacy practices at school must be contradicting with that of their religion and culture because the school literacy practices demand on them to question, critique, and challenge. However, their religious and cultural literacy practices discourage them to do so. The girls enter textual spaces at various locations such as home, school, parties, the Arabic school, and Muhathara (discussions and lectures organized by women in the community).The girls negotiate their Yemeni identity by categorizing the spaces in three categories: Haram (forbidden), Hilal (lawful), and Mahkru (not written as forbidden in the Quran but condemned by the Prophet Muhammad).At all the locations, they enter in ‘Hilal’ textual spaces. However, they do listen pop music of the mainstream culture but with Islamic content. They do wear Western clothes such as “tight” jeans and shirts but under “their scarves and abayas (cloaks, my meaning)” (p. 69).Thus, their scarves and abayas cover the shirts and jeans the wear. Moreover, in wedding parties that characterize as their reserved spaces, they do indulge in “unrestricted behavior and listen to different types of music and in-between lyrics” (p. 70).

The fifth chapter explores how the Muslim students, who constituted about 40% student population, have been accommodated in the school. The accommodative measures were necessitated particularly by two incidents. One, when their parents were asked to postpone their Eid-ul-Udha (one of the two biggest Muslim feasts) celebrations from Thursday to weekends. They were asked to do so because the school administration feared the school’s attendance might fall down 75% threshold. In that case, the district might be forfeited with $340, 000 as a penalty. The other, when an Arab student fought with a non-Arab student in the student cafeteria. The measures were carried out at both formal and informal levels. At the formal level, a committee was established to promote cultural understanding between the Muslim and non-Muslim students. Educational content regarding Muslims and their cultures was included in curriculum. The Muslim students were granted Friday afternoon leave for their Friday Prayers. In addition, bilingual program was initiated for the new Arab students who were instructed in both Arabic and

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English. At the informal level, the Muslim students were provided with Hilal food at the cafeteria. Signs in both English and Arabic were used within the school premises. Finally, they were granted leave on their religious holidays.

In the sixth chapter, although the Hijabats’ sense of uncertainty regarding their success in general and future education, marriage, and jobs in particular has been made predominant, the theme of their desperation is again brought into focus. Notwithstanding the fact that the girls perform well as compared to Arab boys in securing their CGPA and gaining teachers’ appreciation, the girls are not sure if they shall be able to profit from their hard work. Teachers too realize their anxiety but cannot do anything because these issues are directly linked to their private domains where their families influence more than the teachers can do. Finally, in the seventh chapter, the author writes down her research experiences of conducting observations for her ethnography in the backdrop of September 11th events and their impacts on minorities in general and Muslims in particular. She recollects that she first faced some problems about her presence at both community and school spaces. Later, she succeeded in developing a rapport that subsequently won her an entry into the Muslim lives. She became a “non-threatening presence” (p. 122) among them. Sarroub also notes down in the chapter the discussions she observed the September 11th events had initiated. The debates focused about the themes of citizenry and Americanness.

In effect, becoming an acceptable observer in such research work speaks Sarroub’s firsthand and genuine experience as an ethnographer. Her observations reflect her deep insight that show to a reader the new changes that are emerging in the lives of minorities in the United States as an effort to adapt and survive. Although most of the girls accept the version of success as held by their parents for them up to the end of this ethnography, the book turns out to be a meaningful experience of understanding certain theoretical stances taken by the sociologists, anthropologists and education experts in minority and immigrants’ education discourse. For instance, the book makes evident the role and nature of social capital in the construction of the girls’ identities (Bourdieu, 1991). Most of the parents of these girls are uneducated, thus, they do not provide any concrete academic help and guidance. However, discourses prevalent in their homes and the community (mosque, religious school, etc.) direct them to do what they should in accordance with the rules, norms, and traditions of their culture and religion. Therefore, their cultural and social capital keeps cultivating them. Moreover, because their cultural and social capitals are powerful, the girls pursue accumulating them with heart and soul in addition to using them in their lives.

The ethnography manifests that the girls’ living to the expectations of their culture comes out as the intersection point too where their cyclone of uncertainties grows as a result of the clash of two versions of success: one

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which is held by their parents for them and the other held by these girls. Their parents’ version is shaped by their cultural and religious norms and the girls’ one is fashioned by their aspirations and the discourse of free choices that they have had from the mainstream culture of the host country. Although the girls burn the mid nights’ oil for their schoolwork, as their culture demands on them too, they only want to be teachers and nurses in future. They want only these jobs because the jobs are held in high esteem in their culture. They succumb to their parents’ choices for the choices. Resultantly, the ethnography shows that their parents’ should-do frame of references dominates the girls’ wan-to-do frame of references.

As far as the girls’ working hard in the school is concerned, the ethnography, in effect, vindicates the Ogbu’s theory of voluntary minorities and the minority students’ struggle for success. Ogbu (1987) had concluded that voluntary minority students work hard as they are inspired by their “folk theory of making it and survival strategies.” The girls study hard due to such folk theory from their culture, community, and their parents who hold hard working students in high esteem. The girls get high appreciations from their teachers and secure decent GPA.

Above all, the ethnography is a must read for anyone who is interested in understanding how a certain minority students act as minority students as well as the nationals in a host country. It is adequately said that one who has undergone a certain process better qualifies to discuss and interpret the process. This is what seems to be quite true as far as the author of the ethnography is concerned. Because Sarroub herself underwent the process of immigration and assimilation, her observations are sharp, deep, and meaningful. This ethnography is indeed an invaluable contribution to the literature regarding minorities and their settlement in host countries.

References Bourdieu, P. (1991). Language and symbolic power. Malden: Policy Press. Ogbu, J. U. (1987). Variability in Minority School Performance: A Problem in

Search of Explanation. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 18(4), 312-334.

Sarroub, L. K. (2005). All American Yemeni girls: Being Muslim in a public school. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Reviewer Liaquat Ali Channa Associate Professor, Department of English Balochistan University of Information Technology, Engineering & Management Sciences (BUITEMS), Quetta


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CONTENTS ISSN 2222-5706

Research Papers

Muhammad Safeer Awan Teaching the Empire to Write Back: Locating Kipling’s “english” in the Postcolonial Literatures of the Subcontinent

Zawar Hussain Shah Hashmi Motivation and Willingness to Communicate in English (WTCE): Synthesizing Socio-Educational and WTCE Models

Zohra Fatima Humor, Satire and Verbal Parody in The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy: A Relevance Theoretic Approach

Muhammad Ilyas Chishti & Muhammad Aslam Marked Cultural Cues, Folk Traditions and Social Representations Embedded within Schimmel’s As Through a Veil

Syeda Saira Hamid Transforming Teacher Education for the Globalization of Education

Musarrat Azher & Muhammad Asim Mahmood Exploring Variation across Pakistani Academic Writing: A Multidimensional Analysis

Book Review

Liaquat Ali Channa All American Yemeni Girls: Being Muslim in a Public School

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