ii. qualitative research methods week 12: interviewing social research methods alice mah

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II. Qualitative Research Methods Week 12: Interviewing Social Research Methods Alice Mah

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Page 1: II. Qualitative Research Methods Week 12: Interviewing Social Research Methods Alice Mah

II. Qualitative Research MethodsWeek 12: Interviewing

Social Research MethodsAlice Mah

Page 2: II. Qualitative Research Methods Week 12: Interviewing Social Research Methods Alice Mah
Page 3: II. Qualitative Research Methods Week 12: Interviewing Social Research Methods Alice Mah

Lecture Outline

• Introduction– What is an interview and why interview?– Ethics, power and knowledge– Limitations of interviewing

• Different forms and types of interview• Interviewing practicalities

– Selecting interview respondents– Constructing an interview guide– Interview planning and techniques– Transcription

• Analysis of interview material• Conclusion

Page 4: II. Qualitative Research Methods Week 12: Interviewing Social Research Methods Alice Mah

What is an interview?

‘A conversation with a purpose.’ (Burgess, 1988)‘A verbal exchange of information between two or

more people for the principal purpose of one gathering information from the other(s).’ (Pole and Lampard, 2002)

‘The process of interviewing is the production of meanings and it is also the interpretation of reality. A kind of knowledge which is neither predetermined nor absolutely unique is the effect of this interpretative practice.’ (Holstein and Gabrium 1997 )

Page 5: II. Qualitative Research Methods Week 12: Interviewing Social Research Methods Alice Mah

Qualitative interview continuum

• Collecting data ------------- Intimate encounter

• Semi-structured-------------Unstructured

Page 6: II. Qualitative Research Methods Week 12: Interviewing Social Research Methods Alice Mah

Why interview?

• To provide insights into how research participants view the world

• Interview as flexible research instrument, widely employed in qualitative research

• Control over the data collection/ production– Not self-completed by respondent– Follow up areas of interest: gain an understanding of the context

of respondents’ answers• More complete/ ‘rich’ data

– Clarify and help the respondent understand the meaning of questions

– Probe for further information or clarification

Page 7: II. Qualitative Research Methods Week 12: Interviewing Social Research Methods Alice Mah

Ethics, power and knowledge

• Interview is a social interaction between researcher and researched

• Qualitative researchers strive to 'give voice' to the researched. This raises issues of:– objectivity (taking sides)– epistemology (whose point of view?)– politics (how do you judge empowerment? ) – power relations between researcher and researched

• Issue of transcription (written language is not speech written down)

Page 8: II. Qualitative Research Methods Week 12: Interviewing Social Research Methods Alice Mah

Limitations of interviewing

• Less naturalistic and sensitive to context than participant observation– the interview as an ‘artificial’ setting.

• Relies too much on the informant’s account of actions that occurred elsewhere in space and time:– Interviewer may not fully understand the ‘local language’– Omission of details – ‘Distorted lenses’

• But: the extent of these limitations depends on research aims/questions and specific forms/types of interviewing

Page 9: II. Qualitative Research Methods Week 12: Interviewing Social Research Methods Alice Mah

Different forms of interview

Structure: Structured, semi-structured and unstructured (qualitative research interviews are either semi-structured or unstructured)Medium: Face-to-face, telephone and online (face-to-face is the most commonly used in qualitative research; telephone and online are cheaper and easier but harder to obtain rapport and ‘rich’ detail)Context: Individual and group

Page 10: II. Qualitative Research Methods Week 12: Interviewing Social Research Methods Alice Mah

Individual interviews

• Structured interviews: used in quantitative survey research with standardized questions; focused on maximizing the reliability and validity of measurement of key concepts; clearly specified set of research questions.

• Semi-structured interviews: most common type of qualitative interviews, also known as qualitative ‘depth’ interviews; follow a topic guide but both the interviewer and the respondent have flexibility in shaping the interview and may depart from the topic guide (with additional questions and tangents often encouraged to gain deeper insights).

Page 11: II. Qualitative Research Methods Week 12: Interviewing Social Research Methods Alice Mah

Life story or biographical interviews

• Minimally structured, highly personal, may involve many meetings, often combined with personal documents (diaries, photographs, letters).

• Covers the totality of a person’s life, often focused around significant turning points in individual’s life.

• Oral history interviews: more specific life story interviews where the interviewee is asked to reflect upon specific events or periods in the past; gives voice to marginalized or ordinary lives in history; problems of memory lapses and distortions.

Page 12: II. Qualitative Research Methods Week 12: Interviewing Social Research Methods Alice Mah

Narrative interviews (NI)

• Unstructured, in-depth interviews, aim to stimulate informant’s spontaneous narrative of events

• Critique of question-response schema of most interviews• 1) activate the ‘story schema’ and elicit the narrative from the

informant through ‘initiation’: introduction of the initial topic (broad, use of visual aids)

• 2) keep the narration going with non-verbal encouragement; no interruptions; active listening

• 3) questioning/probing only after the main narration is finished; no why questions, only clarification

• Difficult to maintain the ‘rules’ of NI and to manage expectations of the interviewee (for guidance/knowledge)

Page 13: II. Qualitative Research Methods Week 12: Interviewing Social Research Methods Alice Mah

Ethnographic interviews

• Context-informed interviews as extension of participant observation (part of triangulation)

• Often semi-structured but have a strong tendency to become unstructured (conversation-like)

• Power-relationships: interviewing process as an exchange between a researcher and researched. But how much can an ethnographer reveal his or her personal opinions or circumstances?

• Ethical dilemmas: confidentiality, privacy, need to renegotiate access.

Page 14: II. Qualitative Research Methods Week 12: Interviewing Social Research Methods Alice Mah

Focus group interviews

• Focus group interviews: group discussion is mediated by researcher

• A synergy emerges out of the social interaction• Observation of group dynamics• Two meanings of ‘focus’:• a topic for discussion that all participants focus upon.• The group dynamic and social construction of meaning is

the focus of the research.

Page 15: II. Qualitative Research Methods Week 12: Interviewing Social Research Methods Alice Mah

Focus group advantages

• Group members can challenge the researcher’s agenda

• Generation of diverse views therefore particularly useful where the subject of the research is complex or contentious

• Analysis of how meanings are made, negotiated and challenged

• Safer experience for those who prefer to discuss issues within a group rather than individually

• May lead to unanticipated findings • Allows a large number of interviewees to be accessed

Page 16: II. Qualitative Research Methods Week 12: Interviewing Social Research Methods Alice Mah

Focus group problems

• How to document data so that you are sure who has said what [video recording]

• Group dynamics may silence or exaggerate particular views [importance of skilled moderator]

• Economics of interviewing collectively vs. organizational effort required to ensure all can participate [venue, video recorder, moderator]

• Issues of confidentiality• The extraordinary environment of the focus group makes

difficult, if possible at all, to reconstruct the everyday social interactions

• Difficult to analyse

Page 17: II. Qualitative Research Methods Week 12: Interviewing Social Research Methods Alice Mah

Selecting interview respondents

• How many interviews? -- It depends on the nature of the topic and the resources available.

• Sampling: non-probability: aim to explore a range of views or positions of one or more social milieus

• Techniques: gatekeepers, snowballing• Meaning saturation: limited number of views,

interpretations or versions of reality• Upper limit: 15-25 individual interviews and 6-8 focus

group discussions (Gaskell); other scholars would suggest higher numbers (30-40 individual interviews is also commonly cited, depending on analytical approach)

Page 18: II. Qualitative Research Methods Week 12: Interviewing Social Research Methods Alice Mah

Constructing an interview guide• Formulate research problem and research question(s)• Create a certain amount of order on the topic areas but be

prepared to alter the order of questions during the actual interview

• Formulate research questions or topics in a way that will help you to answer your research questions

• Try to use a language that is comprehensible and relevant to the people you are interviewing (don’t use sociological jargon)

• Do not ask leading questions• Remember to ensure that you ask ‘facesheet’ information

(name, age, gender, occupation, etc.) to help in contextualising people’s responses

• (Bryman, 2008, Social Research Methods, p. 442)

Page 19: II. Qualitative Research Methods Week 12: Interviewing Social Research Methods Alice Mah

Interview planning

• Where will the interview take place? Private space where someone won’t be overheard by others?

• Importance of technology (recording equipment, sound interference, backup)

• Remember to take notes (after the interview if it is a recorded interview) on how it went and initial impressions/themes

Page 20: II. Qualitative Research Methods Week 12: Interviewing Social Research Methods Alice Mah

Criteria of a successful interviewer• Knowledgeable: familiar with the focus of the interview• Structuring: gives purpose for interview; rounds it off• Clear: simple, easy, short questions; no jargon• Gentle: lets people finish; gives people time to think• Sensitive: listens attentively; is empathetic• Open: responds to interviewee’s concerns; flexible• Steering: knows what she/he wants to find out• Critical: prepared to challenge what is said• Remembering: relates to what has previously been said• Interpreting: clarifies and extends meaning (not imposing)• Balanced: does not talk too much or too little• Ethically sensitive: sensitive to ethical dimensions

(Bryman, 2008 Social Research Methods, adapted from Kvale 1996, p. 445)

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Transcription

• Transcription helps to correct the natural limitations of our memories

• It allows for more thorough examination of what people say

• It opens up the data to public scrutiny by other researchers

• It allows the data to be reused in other ways than intended by the researcher

• However, it is time-consuming, requires good equipment and produces a lot of written material

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Analysis of Interviews• Look for meaning and understanding, particularly through

identifying themes, stories, arguments and concepts• Iterative (throughout the research process, go back and forth

between theory, method and analysis) • Read and re-read the interview transcriptions and interview notes,

mark key words, issues, stories, ideas and themes in the text (coding), relate to original research questions/aims

• Various techniques for analysis: not mechanical but relies on creative insights and critical thinking.

• Computer-assisted software may be useful to store, sort and code transcribed interviews (to be covered in week 19) but it also has many limitations.

*for further information about analysing interview material, see Rubin and Rubin, 1995, recommended reading list.

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Conclusion

• Interviews are opportunities for researchers to ‘collect data’ but at the same time they are social encounters.

• Interviews give ‘rich’ data.• There are a number of different forms, types and

approaches to qualitative interviewing.• Interviews require planning – particularly in terms of

the topics/questions you wish to ask (and why)• Transcription and analysis are important parts of the

interview process.