II TIMOTHY 2:15 II TIMOTHY 3:16

#1004 – EFFECTIVE BIBLE READING

September 15, 2007 – Opening Class Session 8:30 am

October 2007 thru March 2008 Classes held each 2nd Saturday: (8:30 am-12 noon)

Unity Baptist Church7500 Tireman

Detroit, MI 48204

Evangelist Aaron David Brown – InstructorEmail: aaron@adbrown.com Website: www.adbrown.com

(313) 883-1929

Metropolitan District Congress Of Christian EducationSister Irma Wise, PresidentRev. Leroy Burden, Dean

ROMANS 15:4 I TIMOTHY 4:13

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

OBJECTIVE..............................................................................................................3

INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................4

PRELIMINARY CLASS SCHEDULE.....................................................................5

TEXTBOOK SUMMARY........................................................................................6

INTERNET HANDOUTS...........................................................................................

EIGHT RULES OF INTERPRETATION.......................................................8

TWENTY SCRIPTURE TWISTING METHODS .......................................13

GLOSSARY OF COMMON THEOLOGICAL TERMS..............................16

BIBLIOGRAPHY...................................................................................................35

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OBJECTIVE: To provide the student foundation skills for effective reading of Scripture exemplified in a holy, spiritual, evangelistic, and progressively mature Christian lifestyle. At the end of these sessions, students should be able to:

! Completely read the entire Bible at least once and maintain a personal journal of interests, questions, and reflections

! Begin developing a synopsis of all OT/NT books for future reference (class examples will be given on selected

books)

! Understand the importance of the Bible and a consistent Prayer-Life in the productive existence of the Church and ministry

! Identify and understand key passages and terminology relating to Bible Reading, Bible Study, Bible interpretation, and Bible living

! Identify and utilize study tools, including the Internet, reference Books, Language aids, and Bible Software programs ! Distinguish between popular Bible Versions

! Give a concise 3-5 minute presentation on the historical development of the Bible

! Memorize at least 100 key Scripture passages including God’s plan of salvation, basic Christian beliefs, key texts, and recommended mnemonic paradigms

! Recite correctly the 66 Books of the Bible

! Outline at least 5 of your favorite books of the Bible including authorship, general outline, key texts, basic teachings, and statistics

! Develop discernment and reasonable responses regarding controversial Scriptural passages

! Apply lessons learned to Sunday School and Sermon Preparation, personal Bible study, Holy living, witnessing, and

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Christian apologetic encounters

INTRODUCTION

Greetings in the name of our Christ! This Course is an opportunity to refine and add to your existing Bible Reading, Bible Study, and Bible Living skills. Here are a few suggestions that will enable you to get the most out of this course:

1. Read carefully and prayerfully each page of your handouts and the required textbook: How To Study & Teach The Bible by Julius R. Scruggs.

** The class syllabus and most handouts may also be viewed on the Internet. Go to www.adbrown.com and click on “#1004-Effective Bible Reading” under the Bible Center. Additional resources for the class are under “Bible Resources and Links” in sections entitled: “How the Bible came to be” and “How to study the Bible Resources”. Please study BOTH sections thoroughly!

2. Take notes during class and add your ideas to the notes as if YOU were teaching the class.

3. Do not consider this course an end in it self. This class is designed to generate ideas, and motivate you to reproduce in your daily life, evidence of recognizing your responsibility to Christ, through effective Bible Reading and Living.

4. Commit key sections to memory. For example, each week require yourself to memorize a key fact, verse, statistic, etc.

5. Consult the bibliography and begin to build a comprehensive resource library of audiovisuals, periodicals, reference works, radio / tv programs, and webliography (Internet websites).

6. One of the keys to learning is constant repetition. Read the information in your class notes and handouts, at least once a week. Read your Bible at least once a day! PRAY without ceasing (I Thess. 5:17).

7. Finally, consider leading someone to Christ. One survey indicated that the AVERAGE Christian wins 1 soul to Christ

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every 19 years! You can do better – can’t you?

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PRELIMINARY CLASS SCHEDULE (Subject To Change)

September Session:- Introduction of students- Group discussion on Bible Reading Practices- Begin Complete Bible Reading Plan: Minimum Requirements: 5 chpts. Daily /

Memorize 5 verses weekly (familiar verses already learned may be used toward quota)

- Purchase Textbook: How to study and teach the Bible by Julius R. Scruggs and read chapters 1 and 2

- Evangelistic emphasis: Learn God’s Plan of Salvation & Use it! Report next month! Everyone should have WON at least 1 soul!!

October Session:- Review and discuss homework Readings- Role Play winning a soul using Bible Readings- Books of the Bible Quiz- Assignment: Read Chpt. 3

November Session:- Review - Discuss Basics of Biblical Hermeneutics- Bible Reading current Sunday School Lesson / Brief Discussion- Homework: Read Chpt. 4

December Session:- Comprehensive Review and Quiz- Biblical Study Tools / Biblical Language examples (Lecture with Q/A)- Homework: Read Chpt. 5

January Session:- Review- Oral Quiz on memory verses, Bible facts, and terminology.- Bible reading of controversial issues (Homosexuality, Speaking in tongues, Slain

in the Spirit) – group discussion (Q/A)- Homework: Read chpt. 6

February Session: - Review- Class Bible Reading of selected controversial texts (Godhead, baptism, Gospel of

Inclusion)- Homework: Read chpt. 7 and Prepare for Final Exam

March Session:- Review- Bible readings of continued controversial issues: selected from students- Final Exam

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TEXTBOOK SUMMARY

How To Study & Teach The Bible by Julius R. Scruggs - Effective Bible ReadingChapter Highlights and Supplementary Notes Compiled by Aaron D. Brown

Chapter 11. The Bible commanded systematic teaching of God’s law in Deut. 6:1-9. The

New Testament admonition of Paul to Timothy to “rightly divide the word of truth” involves properly applying the Scripture to the 3 major groups of Jew, Gentile, and the Church (2 Timothy 2:15; I Cor. 10:32).

2. A Ph.D is considered an expert in the fields of theology and religion after putting in approximately 320 semester hours. Jesus’ disciples spent 3 years in training and would have the equivalent of 8,760 hours (365 days times an average of 8 hours per day = 2,920 hours per year times 3 years). The disciples had experience with the greatest of teachers and after Pentecost were empowered by the Holy Ghost to carry out the Great Commission (Matt. 28:18-20; Acts 1:8). Make sure you have ‘burning’ with your ‘learning’. The Pastor/Teacher is vital to the growth of the church (Eph. 4:11-15).

Chapters 2 - 31. The Hebrew Bible is divided into the Law, the Prophets (former and latter), and

the Writings (Hagiographa – sacred + writings). Compare this arrangement to our English Bibles (Law, History, Poetry, Major and Minor Prophets). The so-called lost books of the Bible or the ‘Apocrypha’ are included in Catholic Bibles but Protestants do NOT regard them as inspired. Why spend a lot of time investigating the Lost Books when many people are not living anything out of the Found Books?

2. The New Testament is composed of 4 gospels or portraits of Christ; 1 Historical book, 21 Letters, and the final book of consummation called the Revelation. The book of Revelation is the revelation of Jesus Christ and the only book in the Bible with a blessing promised for reading, hearing, and keeping the things therein written (Revelation 1:1,3).

3. Biblical Hermeneutics is the science of interpreting Scripture. We should be aware of historical, cultural, and language gaps when reading Scripture. Ask the basic questions when reading Scripture: Who wrote it? When? Where? Why? Also, how is Christ seen and how can I apply this to my daily Christian living? The student should be aware of figures of speech when reading scripture, especially: metaphor, simile, analogy, and hyperbole. The Bible also uses anthropomorphic terms in describing God. Hebrew poetry uses various forms of parallelism which may restate an idea in different terms (cf. Psalms 51:2). Progressive revelation is God revealing himself and culminating in the person of Jesus Christ. Jesus is the ‘exegesis’ of God (John 1:18).

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Chapter 41. A basic tool for serious Bible study includes a good study Bible. The KJV is

probably the best known version and the favorite of some teachers. Many versions of the Bible are on the market and the student should be careful and prayerful in their selection of a Bible for study. Other tools include Bible dictionaries, concordances, atlases, maps, commentaries, and archaeological works. In this cyber-age of technology, there are many computer Bible study aids available.

2. In order to know the Bible, become familiar with the stories of the Bible. Some recommend that Bible reading begin in the New Testament and then proceed to the Old Testament. Another approach is to read the 5 books of the Law, then read the entire New Testament followed by the rest of the Old Testament.

Chapter 51. In preparing to teach a lesson, cover yourself in sincere prayer for guidance.

Become familiar with the entire context of your lesson. Look up unfamiliar words and consult all available resources in your analysis stage. Have clear objectives in mind when teaching a lesson and evaluate your performance through your students and the Holy Ghost.

2. Vary your teaching methods when presenting lessons (group activities, use of instructional aids, role play, question and answer, etc.). Most people use the lecture method and never have any input from the class. Sometimes, let the students help teach the lesson and all can learn, even the teacher. Remember that the Holy Ghost is the real teacher and we are just channels through which he will work if we allow him to operate.

Chapters 6 – 71. When teaching various age groups, be mindful of the attention span of your

audience, the knowledge base of your students, and the spiritual and natural needs of your class. Know your students thoroughly – visit them at home, meet their families, establish a channel of open communication, and ALWAYS live so your students will respect you and not view you as a hypocrite!!

2. The teacher of scripture MUST know the Christ they are presenting. A clean, holy, and prayerful life is a must for all good soul winners. Every teacher must know a simple plan of salvation. For example, read John 3:16 to a prospect and then let them read it substituting THEIR name for ‘whosoever’. Lead them in a simple sinner’s prayer and FOLLOW up on them by getting them to a good Spirit-filled, Bible-believing, Bible-living church (Prov. 11:30). If your church does not qualify, send them somewhere else! And maybe you might want to get out of dodge yourself!

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Eight Rules of Interpretationhttp://www.digistat.com/gcf/8rules.htm

*The above website provides the following information which you may find helpful in your study of this class.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------Solomon said:A wise man will hear, and will increase learning . . . to understand a proverb, and the interpretation. (Proverbs 1:5-6.) Apostle Paul said:Be diligent to present yourself approved to God, a worker who does not need to be ashamed, rightly dividing the word of truth. (2 Timothy .2:15) 1. Rule of Definition 2. Rule of Usage 3. Rule of Context 4. Historical Background 5. Rule of Logic 6. Rule of Precedent 7. Rule of Unity 8. Rule of Inference This document summarizes the rules so the reader can see them together in one place. These rules are the center of all grammatical interpretation. They were developed by specialists in the "science of meaning" over the past 2500 years, from Socrates to the present day. They apply equally to legislative or theological language. Critical analysis is impossible without them. Interpretive scholarship accepts them.

Jesus and the apostles used these rules, and also many prominent fathers of the early church, and also the master theologians of the Middle Ages. to Luther. Wesley, and Calvin, although some were not consistent in their use of them.

When the Emperors Constantine and Justinian tried to settle the doctrinal disputes of their time, they learned that the "word wars" of the theologians were exceedingly difficult wars to deal with because each word warrior was determined to make the words mean what he wanted them to mean.

This is true of the twisted mass of doctrinal confusion in Christendom today. All false doctrines, or nearly all, are distortions of biblical words. "The Council of Trent avoided a clear definition of terms" (Seeberg).

"God is not the author of confusion" (I Cor. 14: 33 ) . Who then is the author of these many centuries of confusion about the divorce texts? Who are the authors of all the doctrinal confusion about other texts?

The Bible is a legal document, and throughout the Bible there is frequent use of legal terms and illustrations, and much importance is attached to these legal ideas. The word Testament is a legal term, and hundreds of times God spoke of His commandments as "laws." Why then should our interpretation be objected to as "legalistic" when the biblical writers used the contemporary legal language of the Mediterranean world?

The Apostle Peter said, "We have also a more sure word of prophecy. . . " and, that no Scripture "is of any private [personal] interpretation" (II Pet. 1:1920) . We cannot have a

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sure word about the meaning of Scripture or anything unless we have a sure method to interpret the words. Always remember that Satan deceived Eve with words.

When two interpretations are claimed for a Scripture, the construction most in agreement with all the facts of the case should be adopted. When all the facts of an interpretation are in agreement they sound together in harmony, like notes in a chord.

Biblical interpretation is more than knowing a set of rules, but it cannot be done without the rules. So. learn the rules, and rightly apply them, and you can disregard what Jerome, the learned Latin father of the Middle Ages, said: "What fools these people be' Everybody thinks he can interpret the Bible."

Here are the eight rules:

1. Rule of Definition

Any study of Scripture . . . must begin with a study of words. (Protestant Biblical Interpretation, Ramm, Bernard, p. 129. W. A. Wilde Co.. Boston. 1956. )

Define your terms and then keep to the terms defined. (The Structural Principles of the Bible, Marsh, F. E., p. 1. Kregel Publications.)

In the last analysis, our theology finds its solid foundation only in the grammatical sense of Scripture. The interpreter should . . . conscientiously abide by the plain meaning of the words. (Principles of Biblical Interpretation, Berkhof, pp. 74?75, Baker Book House, 1960.)

The Bible writers could not coin new words since they would not be understood, and were therefore forced to use those already in use. The content of meaning in these words is not to be determined by each individual expositor . . . to do so would be a method of interpretation [that is] a most vicious thing. (Studies in the Vocabulary of the Greek New Testament, bluest, Kenneth. pp. 30-37, Eerdmans Pub. Co., 1945.)

[The author] confines the definitions strictly to their literal or idiomatic force; which, after all. will be found to form the best. and indeed the only safe and solid basis for theological deductions of any kind. (Young's Analytical Concordance, Prefatory Note.)

2. Rule of Usage

The whole Bible may be regarded as written for "the Jew first." and its words and idioms ought to be rendered according to Hebrew usage. (Synonyms of the Old Testament, Girdlestone. R. B., p. 14..)

Christ then accepted the usage He found existing. He did not alter it. (Pulpit Commentary, Matthew, V. 1, xxv. old edition.)

Jesus of Nazareth was a Jew, spoke to and moved among Jews in Palestine .... He spoke first and directly to the Jews, and His words must have been intelligible to them... It was absolutely necessary to view that Life and Teaching in all its surroundings of place. society. popular life.... This would form not only the frame in which to set the picture of

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the Christ, but the very background of the picture itself. (The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, Edersheim, Alfred. V, 1, xii, Eerdmans Pub. Co., 1953.)

In interpreting very many phrases and histories of the New Testament, it is not so much worth what we think of them from notions of our own . . . as in what sense these things were understood by the hearers and lookers on. according to the usual custom and vulgar dialect of the nation. (Bishop Lightfoot, quoted in The Vocabulary of the Greek New Testament, xii. Moulton & Mulligan, Eerdmans Pub. Co., 1959.)

3. Rule of Context

Many a passage of Scripture will not be understood at all without the help afforded by the context; for many a sentence derives all its point and force from the connection in which it stands. (Biblical Hermeneutics, Terry. M. S.. p. 117. 1896.)

[Bible words] must be understood according to the requirements of the context. (Thayer's Greek?English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 97.)

Every word you read must be understood in the light of the words that come before and after it. (How to Make Sense, Flesch, Rudolph, p. 51, Harper & Brothers. 1959.)

[Bible words] when used out of context . . . can prove almost anything. [Some interpreters] twist them . . . from a natural to a non?natural sense. (Irenaeus, second?century church father, quoted in Inspiration and Interpretation, p. 50, Eerdmans Pub. Co., 1957.)

The meaning must be gathered from the context. (Encyclopedia Britannica, Interpretation of Documents. V. 8, p. 912. 1959.)

4. Rule of Historical Background

Even the general reader must be aware that some knowledge of Jewish life and society at the time is requisite for the understanding of the Gospel history. (The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, Edersheim. Alfred. V. 1, xiii, Eerdmans Pub. Co., 1953.)

The moment the student has in his mind what was in the mind of the author or authors of the Biblical books when these were written. he has interpreted the thought of Scripture .... If he adds anything of his own. it is not exegesis. (International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. V. 3. p. 1489. 1952. )

Theological interpretation and historical investigation can never be separated from each other. . . . The strictest historical . . . scrutiny is an indispensable discipline to all Biblical theology. (A Theological Word Book of the Bible, 30 scholars. Preface, Macmillan Co., 1958.)

I have said enough to show the part which the study of history necessarily plays in the intelligent study of the law as it is today .... Our only interest in the past is for the light it throws upon the present. (U.S. Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., 1902?1932. quoted in The World o f Law, V. 2. p. 630. Simon & Schuster. 1960. )

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5. Rule of Logic

Interpretation is merely logical reasoning. (Encyclopedia Americana. V. 15. p. 261. 1953.)

The use of reason in the interpretation of Scripture is everywhere to be assumed. The Bible comes to us in the forms of human language, and appeals to our reason . . . it invites investigation. and it is to be interpreted as we interpret any other volume by a rigid application of the same laws of language, and the same grammatical analysis. (Biblical Hermeneutics, Terry, M. S., p. 25. 1895.)

What is the control we use to weed out false theological speculation? Certainly the control is logic and evidence . . . interpreters who have not had the sharpening experience of logic . . . may have improper notions of implication and evidence. Too frequently such a person uses a basis of appeal that is a notorious violation of the laws of logic and evidence. (Protestant Biblical Interpretation, Ramm, Bernard. pp. 151153, W. A. Wilde Co., 1956.)

It is one of the most firmly established principles of law in England and in America that "a law means exactly what it says, and is to be interpreted and enforced exactly as it reads." This is just as good a principle for interpreting the Bible as for interpreting law. (The Importance and Value of Proper Bible Study, Torrey. R. A., pp. 67?70, Moody Press, 1921.)

Charles G. Finney, lawyer and theologian, is widely considered the greatest theologian and most successful revivalist since apostolic times. He was often in sharp conflict with the theologians of his day because they violated these rules of interpretation. Finney said he interpreted a Bible passage as he "would have understood the same or like passage in a law book" (Autobiography, pp. 42-43 ) .Finney stressed the need for definition and logic in theology and said the Bible must be understood on "fair principles of interpretation such as would be admitted in a court of justice" (Systematic Theology. Preface, ix).

6. Rule of Precedent

We must not violate the known usage of a word and invent another for which there is no precedent. (The Greek New Testament for English Readers, Alford, Dean, p. 1098, Moody Press.)

The professional ability of lawyers in arguing a question of law, and the judges in deciding it, is thus chiefly occupied with a critical study of previous cases. in order to determine whether the previous cases really support some alleged doctrine. (Introduction to the Study of Law, p. 40, Woodruff, E. H., 1898.)

The first thing he [the judge] does is to compare the case before him with precedents .... Back of precedents are the basic judicial conceptions which are postulates of judicial reasoning, and farther back are the habits of life, the institutions of society, in which those conceptions had their origin .... Precedents have so covered the ground that they fix the point of departure from which the labor of the judge begins. Almost invariably, his first step is to examine and compare them. It is a process of search, comparison. and little

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more. (U.S. Supreme Court Justice Benjamin Cardozo, 1932??1938, The Nature of the Judicial Process, quoted in The World of Law, V. 2. p. 671. Simon & Schuster, 1960.)

7. Rule of Unity

[It is] fundamental to a true interpretation of the Scripture. viz.. that the parts of a document. law, or instrument are to be construed with reference to the significance of the whole. (Dean Abbot. Commentary on Matthew, Interpretation, p. 31. )

Where a transaction is carried out by mean of several documents so that together they form part of a single whole, these documents are read together as one .... [They are to be so read ?1 that, that construction is to be preferred which will render them consistent. (Interpretation of Documents, Sir Roland Burrows. p. 49. Lutterworth & Co., London. 1946. )

8. Rule of Inference

In the law of evidence. an inference is a fact reasonably implied from another fact. It is a logical consequence. It is a process of reasoning. It derives a conclusion from a given fact or premise. It is the deduction of one proposition from another proposition. It is a conclusion drawn from evidence. An inferential fact or proposition. although not expressly stated. is sufficient to bind. This principle of interpretation is upheld by law courts. (Jesus proved the resurrection of the dead to the unbelieving Sadducees by this rule (Matt. 22:31. 32). See Encyclopedia Britannia, V. 6. p. 615 (1952) and Black's Law Dictionary, p. 436, Fourth Edition. West Pub. Co.. 1951. )

A proposition of fact is proved when its truth is established by competent and satisfactory evidence. By competent evidence is meant such evidence as the nature of the thing to be proved admits. By satisfactory evidence is meant that amount of proof which ordinarily satisfies an unprejudiced mind beyond reasonable doubt. Scripture facts are therefore proved when they are established by that. kind and degree of evidence which would in the affairs of ordinary life satisfy the mind and conscience of a common man. When we have this kind and degree of evidence it is unreasonable to require more. (Systematic Theology, Strong. Augustus H.. p. 142. Judson Press. 1899.)

It would have been easy to quote many more Biblical and legal authorities on interpretation and evidence, but it would have been needless repetition.

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Scripture Twisting Methods of the Cults

by James Sire(Internet Handout: http://www.apologeticsindex.org/b03.html)

In debating and discussions with non-Christians such as Mormons or atheist, I have found many areas of twisting of the Scriptures. In the book "Scripture Twisting," James Sire has a chapter devoted to each of the methods, and I have seen them ALL used from time to time.

1. INACCURATE QUOTATION: A biblical text is referred to but is either not quoted in the way the text appears in any standard translation or is wrongly attributed. Example: The Maharishi Mahesh Yogi says, "Christ said, 'Be still and know that I am God.'" Whereas this text is found ONLY in Psalms.

2. TWISTED TRANSLATION: The biblical text is retranslated, not in accordance with sound Greek scholarship, to fit a preconceived teaching of a cult. Example: the Jehovah's Witnesses translate John 1:1 as "In [the] beginning the Word was, and the Word was with God, and the word was a god."

3. BIBLICAL HOOK: A text of Scripture is quoted primarily as a device to grasp the attention of readers or listeners and then followed by a teaching which is so nonbiblical that it would appear far more dubious to most people had it not been preceded by a reference to Scripture. Example: Mormon missionaries quote James 1:5 which promises God's wisdom to those who ask him and, then, follow this by explaining that when Joseph Smith did this he was given a revelation from which he concluded that God the Father has a body.

4. IGNORING THE IMMEDIATE CONTEXT: A text of Scripture is quoted but removed from the surrounding verses which form the immediate framework for its meaning. Example: Alan Watts quotes the first half of John 5:39 ("You search the Scriptures, because you think that in them you have eternal life"), claiming that Jesus was challenging His listeners' over emphasis of the Old Testament, but the remainder of the immediate context reads, "and it is they that bear witness to me; yet you refuse to come to me that you may have life" (verses 39-40), which shows that Jesus was upholding the value of the Old Testament as a testimony to Himself.

5. COLLAPSING CONTEXTS: Two or more verses which have little or nothing to do with each other are put together as if one were a commentary of the other(s). Example: The Mormons associate Jeremiah 1:5 with John 1:2,14 and thus imply that both verses talk about the premortal existence of all human beings; Jeremiah 1:5, however, speaks of God's foreknowledge of Jeremiah (Not his premortal existence) and JOhn 1:2 refers to the pre-existence of God the Son and not to human beings in general.

6. OVERSPECIFICATION: A more detailed or specific conclusion than is legitimate is drawn from a biblical text. Example: The Mormon missionary manual quotes the parable of the virgins from Matthew 25:1-13 to document the concept that "mortality is a probationary period during which we prepare to meet God." But the parable of the virgins could, and most probably does, mean something far less specific, for example, that human beings should be prepared at any time to meet God or to witness the Second Coming of Jesus Christ.

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7. WORD PLAY: A word or phrase from a biblical translation is examined and interpreted as if the revelation had been given in that language. Example: mary Bake Eddy says the name Adam consist of two syllables, A DAM, which means an obstruction, in which case, Adam signifies "the obstacle which the serpent, sin, would impose between man and his Creator."

8. THE FIGURATIVE FALLACY: Either (1) mistaking literal language for figurative language or (2)mistaking figurative language for literal language. Example of (1): Mary Baker Eddy interprets EVENING as "mistiness of mortal thought; weariness of mortal mind; obscured views; peace and rest." Example of (2): The Mormon theologian james Talmage interprets the prophesy that "thou shalt be brought down and speak out of the ground" to mean that God's Word would come to people from the Book of Mormon which was taken out of the ground at the hill of Cumorah.

9. SPECULATIVE READINGS OF PREDICTIVE PROPHESY: A predictive prophesy is too readily explained by the occurance of specific events, despite the fact that equally committed biblical scholars consider the interpretation highly dubious. Example: The stick of Judah and the Stick of Joseph in Ezekiel 37:15- 23 are interpreted by the Mormons to mean the Bible and the Book of Mormon.

10. SAYING BUT NOT CITING: A writer says that the Bible says such and such but does not cite the specific text (which often indicates that there may be no such text at all). Example: A common phrase "God helps those who help themselves" is not found in the Bible.

11. SELECTIVE CITING: To substantiate a given argument, only a limited number of text is quoted: the total teaching of Scripture on that subject would lead to a conclusion different from that of the writer. Example: The Jehovah's Witnesses critique the traditional Christian notion of the Trinity without considering the full text which scholars use to substantiate the concept.

12. INADEQUATE EVIDENCE: A hasty generalization is drawn from too little evidence. Example: The Jehovah's Witnesses teach that blood transfusion is nonbiblical, but the biblical data that they cite fails either to speak directly to the issue or to adequately substantiate their teaching.

13. CONFUSED DEFINITION: A biblical term is misunderstood in such a way that an essential biblical doctrine is distorted or rejected. Example: one of Edgar Cayce's followers confuses the eastern doctrine of reincarnation with the biblical doctrine of being born again.

14. IGNORING ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATIONS: A specific interpretation given to a biblical text or set of text which could well be, and often have been, interpreted in quite a different fashion, but these alternatives are not considered. Example: Erich von Daniken asks why in Genesis 1:26 God speaks in the plural ("us"), suggesting that this is an oblique reference to God's being one of many astronauts and failing to consider alternative explanations that either God was speaking as "Heaven's king accompanied by His heavenly host" or that the plural prefigures the doctrine of the Trinity expressed more explicitly in the New Testament.

15. THE OBVIOUS FALLACY: Words like OBVIOUSLY, UNDOUBTEDLY, CERTAINLY, ALL REASONABLE PEOPLE HOLD THAT and so forth are substituted for

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logical reasons. Example: Erich von daniken says, "Undoubtedly the Ark [of the Covenent] was electrically charged!"

16. VIRTUE BY ASSOCIATION: Either (1) a cult writer a associates his or her teaching with those of figures accepted as authoritative by traditional Christians; (2) cult writings are likened to the Bible; or (3) cult literature imitates the form of the Bible writing such that it sounds like the Bible. Example of (1): Rick Chapman list 21 gurus, including Jesus Christ, St. Francis and St. Theresa, that "you can't go wrong with." Example of (2): Juan Mascaro in his introduction to the Upanishads cites the New Testament, the Gospels, Ecclesiastes and the Psalms, from which he quotes passages supposedly paralleling the Upanishads. Example of (3): The Mormon DOCTRINE AND COVENANTS interweaves phrases from the Gospel of John and maintains a superficial similarity to the Gospel such that it seems to be like the Bible.

17. ESOTERIC INTERPRETATION: Under the assumption that the Bible contains hidden, esoteric, meaning which is open only to those who are initiated into its secrets, the interpreter declares the significance of biblical passages without giving much, if any, explanation for his or her interpretation. Example: Mary Baker Eddy gives the meaning of the first phrase in the Lord's Prayer, "Our Father which art in heaven," as "Our Father-Mother God, all harmonious."

18. SUPPLEMENTING BIBLICAL AUTHORITY: New revelation from post biblical prophets either replaces or is added to the Bible as authority. Example: The Mormons supplement the Bible with the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants and the Pearl of Great Price.

19. REJECTING BIBLICAL AUTHORITY: Either the Bible as a whole or texts from the Bible are examined and rejected because they do not square with other authorities - such as reason or revelation = do not appear to agree with them. Example:Archie Matson holds that the Bible contains contradictions and that Jesus himself rejected the authority of the Old Testament when he contrasted His own views with it on the Sermon on the Mount.

20. WORLD-VIEW CONFUSION: Scriptural statements, stories, commands or symbols which have a particular meaning or set of meanings when taken within the intellectual and broadly cultural framework of the Bible itself are lifted out of that context, placed within the frame of reference of another system and thus given a meaning that markedly differs from their intended meaning. Example: The Maharishi Mahesh Yogi interprets "Be still, and know that I am God" as meaning that each person should meditate and come to the realization that he is essentially Godhood itself

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GLOSSARY OF COMMON THEOLOGICAL TERMS

Internet Handout: Birmingham Christian College

http://www.birminghamchristiancollege.ac.uk

Absolution The declaration of the forgiveness of sins. In the R.C. tradition it is an essential part of the sacrament of reconciliation (penance).Adoptionism A Christological belief emphasising the complete humanity of Jesus. The term often denotes the belief that Jesus was essentially human and was elevated to divine sonship at some point in his life.Agape A Greek word used in the N.T. to signify God's love for humanity and the love which should bind people, especially Christians, together.Agnosticism Technically the belief that it is impossible to know anything which is not capable of scientific description or verification. Often used to describe an openness of mind about whether God exists or not.Agrapha A Greek term (meaning "unwritten") referring to sayings of Jesus that are not recorded in the canonical Gospels. The saying found in Acts 20:35, for example, "remembering the words of the Lord Jesus, for he himself said: It is more blessed to give than to receive,' " is not found in the Gospels. Alexandrinus A fifth-century uncial manuscript containing the Gospels, Acts, Paul's letters and Revelation.Allegorical A type of interpretation of a text which minimises the plain meaning in favour of a secondary meaning drawn out when items within the text are taken as pointing to things other than themselves. A famous example is Philo’s “On the migration of Abraham”, or Augustine’s sermon on the parable of the Good Samaritan.Altruism A selfless concern for the well being of others.Amanuensis From the Latin "by hand," thus a term for a scribe or secretary, who would usually write from dictation. Anabaptist Literally one who "re-baptises". Used of many of the more radical groups during the Reformation period.Analogy The comparing of like with like. We often express our understanding of God in analogous terms. For example, "God is like a rock".Anathema A Greek word referring to the exclusion of heretics from the Church.Animism The belief that all natural phenomena are possessed by souls or spirits which animate them. Anonymous when the name of the author not stated within the literary work itself, e.g. Mark’s Gospel.Anthropology The study of humankind, especially in social groupings. Biblical anthropology refers to Christian doctrines about the status of humankind before God.Anthropomorphism The attribution of human characteristics to the activities or emotions of God.Antinomianism The belief that having been saved by faith, a person is free from all moral obligations.Apocalypse Literally "revelation". The common title of the last book in the present N.T. canon.Apocalyptic A type of “literature of revelation” which reports heavenly journeys, dreams or visions, often interpreted by an Angelic guide, purporting to reveal divine secrets

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about many and various things, but especially about history itself, past, present and future.Apocrypha/Apocryphal Originally a term meaning "the hidden things," but now commonly used to designate books which are not included in the Protestant canon of Scripture (see appendix I). The Apocryphal books that were included in the LXX (and now also form part of the Roman Catholic Bible) are referred to as the Old Testament Apocrypha. The New Testament Apocrypha consists of the extra-canonical documents based upon but later than our present NT.Apollinarianism A set of Christological beliefs which stressed that the centre of the human personality of Jesus was replaced by the divine Logos. The beliefs were first formulated by Apollinarius (fl. c.359 A.D.).Apologetics The study of how to justify Christianity in the face of other ideas or worldviews that oppose it.Apologist One who defends the faith either personally or in writing. Particularly used of a number of second century Church Fathers who were the first to try to do this systematically:- Quadratus, Aristides, Justin, tatian, Athenagoras, Theophilus, Melito and HegesippusApophthegm A technical term, meaning "utterance" or "pronouncement," used by Rudolf Bultmann in his development of form criticism. Apostasy The abandonment of Christianity for unbelief or another belief.Apostolic Fathers Leaders of the early church during the late first and early second century whose written works were valued by Christians but did not become part of the canon. Aramaic A Semitic language spoken in Palestine and beyond during the time of Jesus. Arianism The Christological theories of Arius (c.250 -336) which were condemned at the first Council of Nicaea in 323 A.D. More generally, it refers to any Christological view that makes the Logos (The Word, John l) subordinate to God the Father.Arminianism The belief that people are free to choose for or against faith in Christ and that Christians can fail away from faith. It is based on the sixteenth century writings of Jacobus Arminius, It is in opposition to the views expressed in Calvinism.Asceticism Self-denial and self-discipline, often to an excessive degree. Sometimes used by Christians to avoid being mastered by sin. Often associated with monasticism.Atheism The belief that there is no God. This is not very common, since many people without faith are in fact agnostics.Atonement Literally "at-one-ment". The bringing of people back into relationship with God by the forgiveness of their sin. In the O.T. atonement was brought about through animal sacrifices. In the N.T. the death of Christ is the full and final atonement. In English, the term was originally coined by William Tyndale to translate the Latin term “reconciliatio”, which has since come to have the developed meaning of “the work of Christ” or “the benefits of Christ gained for believers by his death and resurrection.”Augustinian Hypothesis The opinion of Augustine that the current canonical order of the Gospels is the actual chronological order in which they were composed. This view was later modified by J. T. Griesbach's hypothesis that Mark was the latest Gospel to be composed. Autograph A reference to the original manuscript of an author's work. Since we do not possess any original manuscripts of the Bible, scholars must work with later copies. Augustinianism A term used in two major senses. First, it refers to the views of Augustine of Hippo concerning the doctrine of salvation, in which the need for divine grace is stressed. In this sense, the term is the antithesis of Pelagianism. Second, it is used

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to refer to the body of opinion within the Augustinian order during the Middle Ages, irrespective of whether these views derive from Augustine or not.B.C.E/C.E. "Before the Common Era" and "The Common Era," respectively. Terms that mean the same as B.C. and A.D., respectively, but without Christian or theological implications. Of increasingly common use in Biblical Studies, especially where Jewish and Christian Scholars might both be involved.Barthian An adjective used to describe the theological outlook of the Swiss theologian Karl Earth (1886-1968), noted chiefly for its emphasis upon the priority of revelation and its focus upon Jesus Christ. The terms "neo-orthodoxy" and "dialectical theology" are also used in this connection. Bezae (D)-A sixth-century uncial manuscript containing the Gospels, Acts and Paul's letters. Bible From the Greek biblia meaning scrolls – hence a collection of “books”.Bibliolatry A negative term sometimes used of the attitude of regarding or "worshipping" the Bible as a book in itself to the point of obscuring its message or its divine author. Black theology A movement in North American theology which became especially significant in the late 1960s, which emphasised the importance and distinctiveness of the religious experience of black people. Calvinism An ambiguous term, used with two quite distinct meanings. First, it refers to the religious ideas of religious bodies (such as the Reformed church) and individuals (such as Theodore Beta) who were profoundly influenced by John Calvin, or by documents written by him. Second, it refers to the religious ideas of John Calvin himself. Although the first sense is by far the more common, there is a growing recognition that the term is misleading.Canon From the Greek kanon, "rule," "norm" or "standard," now designating those books of the Bible which have become the church's accepted and authoritative guide for faith and practice. Cappadocian fathers A term used to refer collectively to three major Creek-speaking writers of the patristic period: Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzen, and Gregory of Nyssa, all of whom date from the late fourth century. "Cappadocia designates an area in Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey), in which these writers were based.Captivity Epistles The letters of Paul which he is thought to have written from prison (commonly considered to be Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, Philemon, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy and Titus). Casuistry The application of general moral principles to concrete ethical decisions or situations.Catalogue of Virtues or Vices List of vices or virtues commonly used in Stoic philosophy and found in various sections of the New Testament (e.g., Gal 5:19-21, 22-23). Catechesis/Catechetical From the Greek katecheii, "to instruct" usually in the form of oral exhortations to new Christians. A Catechism is a popular manual of Christian doctrine, usually in the form of question and answer, intended for religious instruction.Catholic A term derived from the Greek word meaning "universal" and used as a description of the whole church world-wide. It is also used to refer to the Roman Catholic Church, one of the three great traditions within Christianity.Catholic Letters Also known as the General Letters or General Epistles. From "universal," thus designating those letters in the New Testament which were not written to specific congregations e.g. James, 1 and 2 Peter, 1, 2 and 3 John and Jude.

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Chalcedonian definition The formal declaration at the Council of Chalcedon that Jesus Christ was to be regarded as both human and divine.Charisma, Charismatic A set of terms especially associated with the gifts of the Holy Spirit. In medieval theology, the term "charisma Is used to designate a spiritual gift, conferred upon individuals by the grace of God. Since the early twentieth century, the term "charismatic" has come to refer to styles of theology and worship which place particular emphasis upon the immediate presence and experience of the Holy Spirit.Christology The section of Christian theology dealing with the identity of Jesus Christ, particularly the question of the relation of his human and divine natures.Chrysostom, bishop of Constantinople from A.D. 397 to 407, is credited with being the first person to use the plural, “ta biblia” (books), as a designation of the Old and New Testaments. Circumincession See perichoresis.Codex Ancient manuscripts of either papyrus or vellum that were put into book form rather than a scroll. Collate A technical term in textual criticism to describe the process by which text critics compare manuscripts in order to reconstruct the original text. Colophon A paragraph or subscript added to an ancient book, often giving the title and information about the author and place of composition.Comma Johanneum The passage in 1 John 5:7-8 which was found in the Vulgate but not in any of the earliest Greek manuscripts. Erasmus inserted these verses into his complete Greek NT by translating into Greek from the Latin. From there, the verses ended up getting included in the KJV.Confession Although the term refers primarily to the admission of sin, it acquired a rather different technical sense in the sixteenth century - that of a document which embodies the principles of faith of a Protestant church. Thus the Augsburg Confession (1530) embodies the ideas of early Lutheranism, and the First Helvetic Confession (1536) those of the early Reformed church. The term "Confessionalism" is often used to refer to the hardening of religious attitudes in the later sixteenth century, as the Lutheran and Reformed churches became involved in a struggle for power, especially in Germany. The term "Confessional" is often used to refer to a church which defines itself with reference to such a document. Confessions (which define denominations) should be distinguished from creeds (which transcend denominational boundaries). Conflation In textual criticism, the fusion of two or more passages into a single or composite one. Constantine Also known as Constantine the Great, Roman emperor 306-337, whose conversion to Christianity facilitated the spread of the church and Christian ideals throughout the Empire. Consubstantial Literally "to be of the same substance" (Gk Homoousion). The term was used at the Council of Nicaea to describe the relationship between the eternal Son and the Father.Consubstantiation The doctrine that Christ is bodily present "in, with, and under" the elements of the Eucharist, although they are not essentially altered. It is based on Luther's (1483 -1546 A.D.) teaching about the Eucharist and is in contrast to the doctrine of transubstantiation.Corpus A collection of letters, such as "the Pauline Corpus" or "the Johannine Corpus." Cosmology The study of the structure, origin and development of the universe.Council of Carthage The Third Council of Carthage in A.D. 397 appears to have been the first council to officially endorse the twenty-seven books which make up the New Testament canon.

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Council of Trent An important council of the Roman Catholic Church held .in 1545-1563, at which, among other things, the Latin Vulgate was declared to be the official Bible of the church. Counter Reformation A movement for the reform of the Roman Catholic Church in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, sometimes called the Catholic Reformation, to distinguish it from the secessionist Protestant Reformation Covenant (Greek diatheke), a binding agreement, will or Testament.Creed A formal definition or summary of the Christian faith, held in common by all Christians. The most important are those generally known as the Apostles' creed and the Nicene creed.Critical Apparatus Those critical footnotes in the Hebrew or Greek text, which show textual variations in manuscripts. .Criticism (Biblical) The scholarly study of the Bible, especially its historical background and its linguistic and literary style.Criticism From the Greek krino, to judge, discriminate, decide, especially as used for any intelligent reading of literature and ancient texts. Not a negative term.Dead Sea Scrolls Manuscripts and fragments of the Old Testament and other Jewish literature discovered in caves at Qumran near the Dead Sea, generally dating from 250 B.C. to A.D. 68. Decalogue A name given to the ten commandmentsDeism A term used to refer to the views of a group of English writers, especially during the seventeenth century, the rationalism of which anticipated many of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The term is often used to refer to a view of God which recognises the divine creatorship, yet which rejects the notion of a continuing divine involvement with the world.Demythologization An approach to theology especially associated with the German theologian Ruldolf Bultmann (18&4-1976) and his followers, which rests upon the belief that the New Testament worldview is "mythological." In order for it to be understood within, or applied to, the modern situation, it is necessary that the mythological elements should be eliminated. Deontological A way of making ethical decisions based on a person's moral obligation and duties rather than on an examination of the consequences of the proposed behaviour.Depravity (Total) The position of humankind under the power of Original Sin. There is nothing which has not been infected by its power.Determinism The doctrine that human action is not free and is to be understood as the necessary outcome of certain causes.Deutero-Pauline Written by a "second" or "another" Paul. Commonly used to refer to letters attributed to Paul but which he may not have written himself. Dialectic The holding together of apparent contradictions and tensions in a philosophical discussion.Dialectical theology A term used to refer to the early views of the Swiss theologian Karl Barth (1886-1968), which emphasised the disjunction between God and humanity. Diaspora The dispersion or spread of the Jewish people beyond the borders of Palestine, particularly in the Hellenistic world. Diatessaron Tatian's harmony of the four Gospels (literally, “through the four”), which was used extensively in the Syrian churches for several centuries. Diatribe A Greek form of rhetoric popularised by Cynic and Stoic philosophers and occasionally used by Paul. Didache from the Greek meaning “teaching”. The Didache, or Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, is a late first or early second-century manual of church instruction.

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Dispensationalism A Protestant movement, especially associated with North America, placing emphasis upon the various divine “dispensations” (different kinds of covenant) with humanity, and stressing the importance of eschatology. Dittography A term used in textual criticism meaning “written twice”, a scribal error of repeating a word or phrase. Docetism An early Christological heresy, which treated Jesus Christ as a purely divine being who only had the appearance of being human.First John may be an example of early Christian attempts to combat this heresy. Donatism A movement, centring upon Roman North Africa in the fourth century, which developed a rigorist view of the church and sacraments. Dualism The belief that there are two ultimate and self-existent realities, one good and the other evil. This is seen as an answer to the problem of evil, which God is then not responsible for.Early Catholicism A technical term in New Testament studies indicating the early institutionalisation of the church in areas such as leadership and sacramentalism. Eastern Church A term generally applied to the geographical area of the Church which bordered the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea from Constantinople to Alexandria in Egypt. Ebionite An early Jewish-Christian sect which continued to emphasise the observance of the Mosaic law while minimising the doctrine of the person of Christ, whom they regarded as a purely human figure, although recognising that he was endowed with particular charismatic gifts which distinguished him from other humans. Ecclesiastical History The most significant and extensive writing of Eusebius (c. A.D. 264-340), bishop of Caesarea. Ecclesiology From the Greek ekklesia, “church”, meaning the study of the church. Eisegesis The practice of reading into or bringing to a text the meaning which one desires to find (the opposite of exegesis, bringing meaning out of the text). Ekklesia A Greek word used in the N.T. to describe the Church.Election From the Greek, meaning choice. In Biblical Studies Primarily God’s historical choice of the people of Israel as the bearers of his covenant promises. In Reformation debates, the term began to be applied to the more hypothetical question of the salvation of individuals.Empiricism A philosophical term for the view that all knowledge is ultimately derived from and tested by experience.Enlightenment, the A term used since the nineteenth century to refer to the emphasis upon human reason and autonomy characteristic of much of western European and North American thought during the eighteenth century. The movement has had a great influence on modern thought and in particular on the high place occupied by the scientific method in our pursuit of truth.Episcopacy From the Greek episkopos (overseer), Today - a system of leadership by which the church is overseen translocally by overseers or Bishops as well as locally by elders or priests.Epistemology The philosophy of how we attain knowledge, particularly inquiring into how we know and what the sources of our knowledge are.Epistle Basically another word for letter. The distinction between “epistle” (enduring, artistic) and “letter” (momentary, situational) made by A. Deissmann is no longer accepted by scholars. Erasmus-A distinguished Dutch scholar and humanist who produced the first Greek edition of the New Testament in 1516. Eschatology From the Greek eschaton, hence the doctrine of the last things.

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Eschatology The section of Christian theology dealing with the "last things," especially the ideas of the parousia, judgement, resurrection, hell, and eternal life. Essenes A Jewish ascetic sect that existed c. 200 BC. to AD. 100 in Palestine and that may be associated with the Qumran community near the Dead Sea and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Eucharist Another term for the Lord's Supper, from the Greek eucharisteo, to give thanks. Evangelical A term initially used to refer to the nascent reforming movements, especially in Germany and Switzerland, in the 1510s and 1520s. The term was later replaced by “Protestant” in the aftermath of the Diet of Speyer. In modern times, the term has come to be used of a major movement, especially in English-language theology, which places especial emphasis upon the supreme authority of Scripture and the atoning death of Christ.Evangelism The act of sharing the good news of the Gospel with othersEvangelist Broadly used for anyone who proclaims the good news of the gospel; technically, a term in Gospel studies used to designate the anonymous writers of the Gospels. Ex opere operatum A Latin term to describe the view that grace is conferred through the sacraments if only minimal requisite conditions are present.Exegesis From the Greek exegeomai, to “draw out” hence drawing out what a text means. The broader study of interpretation is usually referred to as “hermeneutics” Exemplarism A particular approach to the atonement, which stresses the moral or religious example set to believers by Jesus Christ. Existentialism A philosophical movement which reached its zenith in the late 1940's and 50's. It rejected externally imposed values and moral codes in favour of individuals making their own choices in terms which made sense of their own existence.Expiation The act of making right for an offence or injury done to some person. The term is often used with reference to the work of Christ, although some feel this does not do justice to the sacrificial imagery of the Bible. See "propitiation".Family In textual criticism, an identifiable group of manuscripts with common characteristics. Fatalism The belief that human destiny. is shaped by impersonal spiritual forces. It often leads to an attitude of resignation.Fathers (Early) Key writers and thinkers in the first few Christian centuries. They played an important part in the formulation of Christian doctrine. An alternative term for “patristic writers” Feminism A major movement in western theology since the 1960s, which lays particular emphasis upon the importance of women's experience, and has directed criticism against the patriarchalism of Christianity. Five Ways, the A standard term for the five arguments for the existence of God especially associated with Thomas Aquinas.Flesh Our lives and personalities when they are directed away from God. The Apostle Paul sees "the flesh" as being in total opposition to the spirit. In this context "flesh" must not be confused with the body.Form criticism (Formgeschichte) A study of the early forms in which the oral material of the circulated before they were written down. Form critics are particularly interested in classifying recurring patterns in such material, and trying to understand not only the original setting of the occurrence described in the oral material, but also the typical community situations in which the material was later recited and used. See “Sitz im leben”.

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Fourth Gospel A term used to refer to the Gospel according to John. The term highlights the distinctive literary and theological character of this gospel, which sets it apart from the common structures of the first three gospels, usually known as the synoptic gospels.Fundamentalism A form of American Protestant Christianity which lays especial emphasis upon the authority of an inerrant Bible.Genre -From the French word for style, kind; thus it is used of classifications literature such as Gospels, letters and biographies. Germara From the Hebrew “gmr”, to complete, i.e., to complete knowledge has been learned. The Mishnah and the gemara together constitute the Talmud (from lamad, study; limmad, to teach, to instruct). Gloss In textual criticism, comments or interpretations which scribes often in the margins while copying manuscripts but which later were incorporated into the text itself. Glossolalia Literally "speaking in tongues". St Paul writes about this in 1 Cor. 12-14.Gnosticism A varied set of religious beliefs common in the Graeco-Roman world in N.T. times. Became of major importance during the second century. Strongly dualistic, i.e. holding to a radical contrast between the material and spiritual realms, it held that different gods were responsible for creation and redemption. Placed a great emphasis upon "knowledge" (gnosis) in salvation. Salvation was attained through such secret knowledge. It saw Jesus as one mediator among many between God and humanity.Gospel from the Greek euangelion, good news. Later designated as a book which tells good news of the life and teaching of Jesus. Griesbach Hypothesis The theory of J. J. Griesbach (1745-1812) that Matthew was the earliest Gospel and that it was used by Mark and Luke (cf. Augustinian Hypothesis). Hades The place of departed spirits. A Greek term equivalent to the Hebrew "Sheol". Although sometimes translated "hell", it is not a place of punishment.Haggadah Edifying material that is intended to enhance the Torah with stories, parables, legends, etc.Halakha Rules of conduct (from Hebrew hlk – to walk) handed down orally by the rabbis.Hapax Legomenon-A Greek term meaning "said only once." A certain word, example, may only be used once in all of Paul's letters. Haplography A scribal error in copying manuscripts in which a word, or line is accidentally omitted because of similar adjacent material. Harmonisation In textual criticism, the tendency to want the wordings of to agree, i.e., to be in harmony with one another. There has been a strong e in some circles to harmonise accounts in the Gospels. Hasidim From the Hebrew “hesed”, originally an orthodox Jewish group who formed part of the broad range of resistance to Hellenism and the extremes of Antiochus IV in the period leading up to the Maccabean revolt. During the revolt, at least some of this group joined the armed struggle. May been the forerunners of the Pharisees. Later used of medieval and modern Jewish groups standing within the mystical tradition.Haustafeln German term referring to the household rules or tables in the Testament which deal with domestic relationships within the home and household (e.g., Col 3:18-4:1; Eph 5:21 6:9). Heilsgeschichte A German term meaning "salvation history". The saving acts of God to which the O.T. and N.T. bear witness.Hellenism The predominantly Greek culture which began with Alexander the Great and continued alongside Roman culture. It was an influential aspect of the cultural background of the N.T.

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Hellenist A word used in the NT to mean not an “admirer of Greek culture”, but simply a Greek-speaking Jew, often from the Diaspora, but possibly resident in Jerusalem. There were entirely Greek speaking synagogues even in Jerusalem. Some understandings of Acts 6 see the cultural difference between these Jews and their Aramaic speaking Palestinian brothers leading to two quite distinct groups within the early Christian church in Palestine.Henotheism The worship of a single God without expressly denying the existence of other supernatural beings or deities.Heresy A set of beliefs considered by the church to be contrary to Christian tradition. Contrasts with "orthodoxy".Hermeneutics The principles underlying the interpretation, or exegesis, of a text, particularly of Scripture. Heterodox Opinions or doctrines not judged correct. Historical Jesus A term used, especially during the nineteenth century, to refer to the real historical person of Jesus of Nazareth, as opposed to the Christian interpretation of that person, especially as presented in the New Testament and the creeds.Homiletics The study of the art of preaching.Homily In church circles, a type of abbreviated sermon. Homoioteleuton From the Greek meaning "similar ending"; in textual transmission, similar endings to lines or words often resulted in scribal errors of omission. Homoousion A Greek term, literally meaning "of the same substance," which came to be used extensively during the fourth century to designate the mainstream Christological belief that Jesus Christ was "of the same substance as God." The term was polemical, being directed against the Arian view that Christ was "of similar substance" (Homoousion) to God.Hortatory giving advice or exhortation. Humanism A complex movement, linked with the European Renaissance. At the heart of the movement lay not (as the modern sense of the word might suggest) a set of secular or secularising ideas but a new interest in the cultural achievements of antiquity. Thus many reforming Christians also saw themselves as humanists when they desired to get back to the original scriptural sources of the faith. In modern times, “humanist” has come to mean a belief in the capacity of human nature to redeem itself by the aesthetic and moral senses and by education, a somewhat different idea.Hypostasis A Greek term used in the early church debate on the doctrine of the Trinity. Eventually it came to mean "individual person" and was used in the phrase "three persons in one substance".Hypostatic union The doctrine of the union of divine and human natures in Jesus Christ, without confusion of their respective substances.Immanence A term used to describe the nearness ("contactability") of God. It is usually contrasted with the Transcendence of God.Impassible A term often attributed to God to indicate that he is not influenced by feelings in the way human beings are.Incarnation A term used to refer to the assumption of human nature by God, in the person of Jesus Christ. The term "incarnationalism" is often used to refer to theological approaches (such as those of late nineteenth- century Anglicanism) which lay especial emphasis upon God's becoming human.Inerrancy The belief that the Bible is without error in anything about which it speaks when properly interpreted and understood. Interpolation In textual criticism, material that was inserted into the original text either unintentionally or intentionally by scribes or copyists.

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Ipsissima Verba From the Latin meaning "the very words." Used in Gospel studies to distinguish between the very words of Jesus (ipsissima verba Iesu) and words which may have been attributed to Jesus by the early church and/or Evangelists. Itacism In textual criticism, the term used when words and vowels were pronounced alike but had different meanings (e.g., the English their and there). Jamnia (or Jabneh) A town on the coast Northwest of Jerusalem which became an important rabbinical centre after the fall of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 and where some think the books of the Old Testament were canonised c. A.D. 90. Josephus A Jewish historian and apologist c. A.D. 3&110 who wrote a number of significant works, such as The Jewish War and Jewish Antiquities. Judaizers Jewish Christians who opposed a law-free gospel for the Gentiles as presented by Paul. The Judaizers' opposition to Paul is reflected, for example, in Acts 15:1-35, Galatians 2 and Philippians 3. Justification by faith, doctrine of The section of Christian theology dealing with how the individual sinner is able to enter into fellowship with God. The doctrine was to prove to be of major significance at the time of the Reformation. Kenosis Derived from a Greek word meaning "to empty". A form of Christology which lays emphasis upon Christ's "laying aside" of certain divine attributes in the incarnation, or his "emptying himself' of at least some divine attributes, especially omniscience or omnipotence. Kephalaia In textual criticism, the sections into which early manuscripts of the New Testament books were divided. Kerygma Derived from the Greek word for "proclaim". A term used, especially by Rudolf Bultmann (1884-1976) and his followers, to refer to the essential message or proclamation of the New Testament concerning the significance of Jesus Christ.Koine From the Greek meaning “common”. Hence common Greek, i.e., the Greek of daily conversation and the form or type of Greek language used by the writers of the New Testament. L In Gospel source criticism "L" designates material peculiar, or unique, to Luke. Laity Derived from a Greek word meaning "people". It is usually used to distinguish the non-ordained Christian from one who is ordained.Lectionary An early Christian book containing Scripture selections from the New Testament for use in worship and/or private devotion. Lectionaries are useful evidence for scholars seeking to reconstruct the early Greek text. Legalism The approach to religion which sees the keeping of laws and regulations as central.Letter-Another term for epistle, a form, or genre, of writing. Liberal A type of theology which asserts its freedom to question accepted authorities. It is often critical of orthodox Christianity.Liberal Protestantism A movement, especially associated with nineteenth-century Germany, which stressed the continuity between religion and culture.Liberation Theology A movement which has spread from Latin America since the early 1960s. It is concerned with the application of Christian belief to situations of oppression and political injustice.Limited atonement An approach to the doctrine of the atonement, especially associated with Calvinist writers, which holds that Christ's death is only effective for those who have been elected to salvation. Liturgical-Pertaining to worship and/or the components of worship services of the church.

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Liturgy A set form of worship, usually published in a book. Liturgy is usually followed word by word but sometimes simply provides a framework for worship.Logia From the Greek for "words," or "sayings," used in connection with words of Jesus or supposed collections of sayings of Jesus which antedate the Gospels.Logos A Greek word normally translated "Word". In the early church it was used to express the mind or reason of God which was perfectly seen and embodied in the person of Jesus.Lutheranism The religious ideas associated with Martin Luther, particularly as expressed in the Lesser Catechism (1529) and the Augsburg Confession (1530). A series of internal disagreements within Lutheranism after Luther's death (1546) between hardliners (the so-called "Gnesio-Lutherans" or "Flacianists") and moderates ("Philippists"), led to their resolution by the Formula of Concord (1577), which is usually regarded as the authoritative statement of Lutheran theology. M In Gospel source criticism, "M" designates material peculiar or unique to Matthew.Magisterial Reformation A term used to refer to the Lutheran and Reformed wings of the Reformation, as opposed to the radical wing (Anabaptism). Marcionite Following the teachings of Marcion who was excommunicated in Rome in c. 144 A.D. He rejected the Old Testament and made a strong distinction between the loving Father of Jesus and the God of the Old Testament.Masoretic Text The most common or received text of the Hebrew Old Testament, with vowel points and punctuation introduced by the Masoretes (Jewish grammarians) between the seventh and tenth centuries A.D. Materialism The theory that all reality is essentially matter and that all human activity can be explained without reference to the mind or spirit. It can also mean a tendency to prefer material possessions and physical comfort to spiritual values.Medieval Pertaining to the time of the Middle Ages. In Christian thought this period was characterised by the attempt to harmonise Biblical teaching with the philosophy of Aristotle.Metaphysical Those things which are beyond the realms of physical observation. The term can also be used of the study of what is fundamental to Being.Midrash From the Hebrew, to search out, with the aim of exegeting and interpreting a portion of Scripture. The word refers to a method of Rabbinic interpretation and to a form of interpretation such as interpretive paraphrases of Exodus or Leviticus. Millennialism The belief that there will be a thousand year period (Millennium) when the kingdom of God will flourish, based especially on Rev ch 20. Millennialists tend to fall into three camps : l) those who believe that the second coming of Christ will come before the millennium (premillennialism) and 2) those who believe that Christ will come again only after the millennium (postmillennialism). 3) Amillennialists do not believe in a literal time period of this kind.Minuscule In textual studies, the term given to the small cursive or "run- " letters that were used quite extensively by the time of the ninth and tenth centuries A.D. Mishnah From the Hebrew meaning “to learn”, now designating a collection oral rabbinical legal discussion (halakha) assembled by the early third century A.D. Modalism A doctrine of God which denies the distinct personhood of Father, Son and Holy Spirit. Each person is seen as merely a different aspect (or "mode") of God's existence.Modalism A Trinitarian heresy, which treats the three persons of the Trinity as different "modes" of the Godhead. A typical modalist approach is to regard God as active as Father in creation, as Son in redemption, and as Spirit in sanctification.

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Monism The belief that all things, material and immaterial, personal and impersonal, are essentially one fundamental reality.' It is the underlying belief of Hinduism.Monophysitism A Christological belief which held that Jesus had only one nature in him after the incarnation and that it was divine. This view was common in the fourth century after the Council of Chalcedon and was in contradiction to the declaration of the Council that Jesus had two complete natures in one person, human and divine.Monotheism The belief that there is only one God. A fundamental belief of Christianity, Islam and Judaism;Muratorian Canon/Fragment A partial codex of the New Testament contain- a list of twenty books. It was discovered by L. A. Muratori in 1740 and is 2d between AD. 200 and 400. Mystery Something that we can know but never fully understand.Mysticism The pursuit of the interior life of the spirit through spiritual exercises and discipline in the attempt to know and experience the divine at the deepest possible level. There is a long tradition of mysticism within Christianity and within other religions.Myth A powerful story, often in some primeval or other ancient setting which expresses or encapsulates truths (religious or other). It may also teach a moral code or explain ritual. Within hermeneutics, has also come to be used simply of a style of writing. Some Christians would see the early chapters of Genesis as mythological proper, and some as only stylistically mythological.Nag Hammadi An ancient town in Upper Egypt where an important collection of Gnostic and other writings dating from the fourth century was discovered in 1945-1946. Natural law The theory that there are inherent universal structures of human existence which may be discerned by human reason and which form the basis for judgements of conscience. The theory of Natural Law underpins the thought of Thomas Aquinas and much Roman Catholic ethical teaching.Natural Revelation The revelation of God as seen in creation. This is distinct from the special revelation of God as seen in the Old and New Testaments.Natural theology The attempt to build a doctrine of God on the basis of reason and experience alone. There is no appeal made to faith or special revelation.Neo-orthodoxy A term used to designate the general position of Karl Barth (1886-1968), especially the manner in which he drew upon the theological concerns of the period of Reformed orthodoxy, especially in his emphasis on the importance of the revelation of God through the Word of God.Nestorianism A term referring to the Christological beliefs of Nestorius, who became Bishop of Constantinople in A.D. 428. Scholars are uncertain of his exact beliefs. The term is normally used to describe the belief that the divine and human in Christ were not fully united.Neutral Text In textual criticism, the name given to the so-called Alexandrian by E J. A. Hort in 1882 because he considered it to be the purest representative of the New Testament manuscripts. Nomina Sacra In textual criticism, the term used for "sacred names" such as Jesus, Christ, Son, etc. These were frequently abbreviated in New Testament manuscripts. Nominalism A theory of knowledge particularly associated with William of Occam (c. 1300 - c.1349). He held that universal concepts had no separate or independent reality but were simply names used to organise things with similar characteristics. The theory was in contrast with "realism" which held that a universal concept was more real than the individual manifestation of it - e.g. the concept of "humanity" is more real than any individual person. Occasionally the term is used incorrectly to refer to the “via moderna”Novum Testamentum The Latin title for the New Testament.

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Numinous An inner sense of spiritual realities beyond our everyday material lives.Omnipotence Being all powerful, the possession of the perfect form of power. A term usually applied to God alone.Omnipresence The attribute applied to God to indicate his presence everywhere.Omniscience Literally "the knowing of all things". An attribute usually applied to God alone.Ontological Argument The name given to one of the "proofs" of the existence of God. The thesis is that in the very nature of things, logic demands that a being must exist who is greater than everything else. Especially associated with the scholastic theologian Anselm of Canterbury. Oral Tradition stories, teachings, poetry etc that are passed on by word of mouthOriginal sin The predisposition towards sin which is part of fallen human nature. This predisposition is believed to have originated from the Fall (Genesis 3).Orthodoxy A term used in a number of senses, of which the following are the most important: (1) Orthodoxy in the sense of "right belief," as opposed to heresy ; (2) orthodoxy in the sense of a movement within Protestantism, especially in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, which laid emphasis upon need for doctrinal definition; (3) Orthodoxy in the sense of the old churches of the East from which the Roman Catholic Church split in the eleventh Century.Ostraca Broken pieces of pottery that in antiquity were used for writing short notes and dockets.Oxyrhynchus Papyri A cache of ancient papyrus fragments that was discovered at Oxyrhynchus in Upper Egypt between 1897 and 1907 and that includes material dating from the second century 8.c. to the seventh century AD P46 One of the earliest papyrus manuscripts (c. A.D. 200) of the letters of Paul. Paleography The study of ancient inscriptions and writings. Palimpsest A manuscript which has been erased, scraped and used again for writing. Panentheism The belief that everything exists in God, but that creation does not exhaust God's being as God also transcends it.Pantheism The belief that all things are divine. Many pantheists worship nature.Papyrus A plant growing in the delta area of the Nile in Egypt that was used as writing material from the fourth century BC. to the seventh century AD. Parablepsis In textual criticism, "a looking by the side," i.e., a scribe would either skip or repeat similar words or phrases. Paraclete Literally "one who is called alongside". The name given to the Holy Spirit in John's gospel.Paradigm A model or pattern. Paraenesis A technical term in New Testament studies for moral exhortation and admonition. Parchment Also called vellum; the skins of cattle and other animals used as writing material as early as the second century BCParousia A Greek term meaning "coming" and "presence". Usually refers to the second coming of Christ.Passion (of Christ) The suffering experienced by Jesus as his death approached. Usually refers to the time from the prayer in the Garden of Gethsemene to his death on the cross.past sins.Pastoral Epistles A technical term referring to the letters of 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus because of their pastoral nature. Patristic An adjective used to refer to the first centuries in the history of the church, following the writing of the New Testament (the "patristic period"), or scholars writing

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during this period (the "patristic writers"). For many writers, the period thus designated seems to be c.100-451 (in other words, the period between the completion of the last of the New Testament writings and the Council of Chalcedon). Patristics The study of the life, writings and thought of the theologians of the Early Church.Pauline homologoumena The seven undisputed letters attributed to Paul (Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, Philemon). Pelagianism A set of beliefs based on the teachings of Pelagius (c.400) about the relationship between divine grace and the human will. He denied the existence of original sin and emphasised the importance of the freedom of the human will. St. Augustine attacked Pelagianism as he believed it implied the possibility that humanity could save itself and had no need for grace.Perhaps the most common solution is the "two source" theory, which claims that Matthew and Luke used Mark as a source, while also drawing upon a second source (usually known as "Q"). Other possibilities exist: For example, the Griesebach hypothesis treats Matthew as having been written first, followed by Luke and then Mark. Perichoresis A term relating to the doctrine of the Trinity, often also referred to by the Latin term circumincession. The basic notion is that all three persons of the Trinity mutually share in the life of the others, so that none is isolated or detached from the actions of the others. Pericope A short section or unit of text such as a miracle story or parable. Peshitta The common Bible of the Syrian church since the fourth and fifth centuries A.D. Phenomenology (of religions) A method of studying religion where the scholar does not judge the beliefs of a religion as true or false but tries to see the world as the believer sees it.Philo of Alexandria (c. 20 B.C.- A.D. 45) A Hellenistic Jewish scholar who sought to interpret the Old Testament by Greek philosophy and allegorical exegesis. Pietism An approach to Christianity, especially associated with German writers in the seventeenth century. Pietistic faith places an emphasis upon personal appropriation and the need for holiness in Christian living. The movement is perhaps best known within the English-language world in the form of Methodism.Platonic Teaching based on the ideas of the Greek philosopher Plate (427-347 B.C.). He held that this world is a copy of the "ideal forms" to which human eternal souls belonged.Pliny A Roman governor of Bithynia in the second century A.D. who famously wrote to the emperor Hadrian enquiring whether Christians were to be arrested purely for being such, or only if they were guilty of some specific crime.Pluralism The belief that all religions and world views are equally valid, and that truth claims by one imply a disparagement of all others.Pneumatology-From the Greek pneuma, spirit or wind; hence pneumatology is the study of the Holy Spirit. Polytheism The belief that there are many gods.Positivism The philosophical belief that all true knowledge consists of matters of fact or logic. This is in contrast to "speculative" philosophy, which allows value judgements to have the status of knowledge as well.Postliberalism A theological movement, especially associated with Duke University and Yale Divinity School in the 1980s, which criticised the liberal reliance upon human experience, and reclaimed the notion of community tradition as a controlling influence in theology.

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Postmodernism A general cultural development, especially in North America, which resulted from the general collapse in confidence of the universal rational principles of the Enlightenment. Praxis The application of Christian belief which starts from concrete situations, particularly those of injustice and oppression. It is a fundamental element of Liberation Theology and its hermeneutics.Predestination God's foreordaining of a person's life and eternal destiny. This has always been difficult to reconcile with ideas of free will and the individual's own step of repentance and faith. It is associated with the teaching of John Calvin.Pre-existence (of Christ)Being in existence before creation. Christians believe that not only was God the Father pre-existent but that the Son of God, the Logos, was also pre-existent. This is in contrast to the teaching of Arius (d.336).Prevenient grace In Roman Catholic teaching it refers to the supernatural power which quickens and assists the will to have faith. In Protestantism it is generally used to refer to the grace preceding the individual's decision of faith but does not imply a special quickening.Process theology A theology which emphasises process over against unchanging being and substance. God Himself is involved in processes and is thus not an unchanging God.Propitiation The act of appeasing the wrath of a deity by offering a suitable sacrifice. Some view the death of Christ in this way, although others are uncomfortable about seeing Christ's death as an appeasement and prefer to see it as God's self-giving. See "expiation".Proselyte A Gentile converted to Judaism. The term can also be used to refer to any person converted from one creed to another.Protestantism A term used in the aftermath of the Diet of Speyer (1529) to designate those who "protested" against the practices and beliefs of the Roman Catholic church. Prior to 1529, such individuals and groups had referred to themselves as "evangelicals." Protoevangelium-From the Greek, the first or the earliest form of the gospel. Pseudepigrapha From the Greek, false writings, or works falsely written in the name of another person or attributed to a different author. Has come to be used to describe a modern collection of intertestamental writings of various kinds.Q Source From the German Quelle, meaning “source” and referring to material not found in Mark but common to both Matthew and Luke. Qumran-The location of a settlement of in the wilderness near the Dead Sea where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered. Rabbi A Hebrew word for teacher or master. Rabbinic A term used to refer to the schools and ideas of rabbis that produced such literary works as the Talmud. Radical Reformation A term used with increasing frequency to refer to the Anabaptist movement - in other words, the wing of the Reformation which went beyond what Luther and Zwingli envisaged.Rationalism A seventeenth and eighteenth century philosophical movement which valued reason as the ultimate arbiter of all statements. Rationalists frequently question the existence of any special revelation from God.Recto -The front side of a sheet of papyrus. Redaction Criticism From the German Redaktionsgeschichte, a method of New Testament study, particularly of the Gospels, which understands the Evangelists to have been principally the editors of existing material and seeks to understand their selection, arrangement and interpretation of Gospel material as a disclosure of their theological concerns.

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Redactor An editor; someone who shapes, arranges and edits oral and literary material into a final composition. Reformed A term used to refer to a tradition of theology which draws inspiration from the writings of John Calvin (1510-64) and his successors. The term is generally used in preference to "Calvinist." Regeneration Literally "rebirth". The term is used to refer to the renewing of the self which occurs when God's grace is accepted. In Roman Catholic teaching regeneration has traditionally been identified with the reception of the sacraments.Reincarnation The belief that all souls live a series of succeeding lives within animals and within human beings. An important belief in Hinduism.Renaissance Literally 'rebirth'. A movement in the fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries which marks the end of the mediaeval period. During this period there was a new freedom to think out beliefs in a fresh way, rather than being bound entirely by the past.Revelation God's action in making himself known to the world.Sabellianism An early Trinitarian heresy, which treated the three persons of the Trinity as different historical manifestations of the one God.Sacrament St. Augustine described this as "an outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace". It is a rite in which God's saving grace is active. Baptism and the Eucharist are sacraments but Roman Catholics would also add confirmation, marriage, ordination, reconciliation, and extreme unction.Sanctification Literally "being made holy". The process by which the believer's life and character are changed into the likeness of Christ, through the work of the Holy Spirit.Schism A deliberate break with the unity of the church. The one at the time of the Donatist crisis was condemned by Cyprian and Augustine. The most important later schisms have been between Western and Eastern Christianity in the eleventh century, and the Roman and Protestant churches in the sixteenth century.Scholasticism A particular approach to Christian theology, associated especially with the Middle Ages, which lays emphasis upon the rational justification and systematic presentation of Christian theology. The philosophical impetus for the movement came from the newly rediscovered texts of Aristotle that came to the West after the fall of Byzantium.Scotism The scholastic philosophy associated with Duns Scotus. Scripture principle The theory, especially associated with Reformed theologians, that the practices and beliefs of the church should be grounded in Scripture. Nothing that could not be demonstrated to be grounded in Scripture could be regarded as binding upon the believer. The phrase sola scriptura, "by Scripture alone," summarises this principle. Scroll, Roll The product of pasting papyrus sheets side by side to form a continuous sheet which could be rolled up to form a scroll. Sctiptio continua Writing which has no spaces between the words, as in uncial manuscripts such as Sinaiticus. Secularism A world view which takes no account of traditional world faiths and often denies the existence of the spiritual dimension. It is characteristic of the modern western world.Septuagint (LXX) The Greek translation of the O.T. including the Apocrypha. It is said to have been made about 270 B.C. by seventy translators. It is often abbreviated LXX as the Roman numeral for 70.Sermon on the Mount The standard way of referring to Christ's moral and pastoral teaching in the specific form which it takes in chapters 5-7 of Matthew's gospel.

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Sheol The name given in the O.T. to the place where the spirits of the dead reside. See "Hades".Sinaiticus (a) A fourth-century uncial manuscript containing the Gospels, Acts, Paul's letters and Revelation. Situation Ethics An approach to making ethical decisions which gives primary importance to the situation/context of the decision rather than to moral codes or principles. The highest intrinsic good is love and love must always be served in the situation.Sitz im Leben From the German meaning "situation in life." The term is used in Gospel studies to refer both to the setting in which a saying of Jesus was originally spoken (Sitz im Leben Jesu) and to the setting in which a saying was used by the early church (Sitz im Leben Kirche). Social gospel An influential American movement in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century which emphasised collective sin and social salvation. The kingdom of God was seen as a work of God focussed entirely on the transformation of this present world. It was closely identified with liberal Protestantism.Soteriology The section of Christian theology dealing with the doctrine of salvation (Greek: soteria). Soteriology The study of the doctrine of salvation.Source Criticism A method of studying the New Testament, particularly the Gospels, which considers the literary sources that might have been used by the Evangelists. Stichometry A list in which the number of lines (stichoi) of a book is given to indicate the length of the writing. Stoicism A Greek philosophical movement founded by Zeno (c.300 B.C.). It saw the universe as permeated by Mind or Reason, and human beings as needing to live according to reason. It was ascetic in nature.Subordinationism A view of the Trinity in which the Son is thought to be subordinate to the Father, or the Holy Spirit is thought to be subordinate to both.Syncretism An attempt to combine together different and apparently divergent teachings and doctrines. This may be within one faith or between faiths.Synoptic gospels A term used to refer to the first three gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke). The term is derived from the Creek word meaning “seeing together”, since Matthew, Mark and Luke’s account can more or less be set along side one another. Synoptic Problem Questions that arise from comparing the Synoptic Gospels for their similarities and differences and attempting to explain them. Talmud From the Hebrew, study or instruction. Basically a comprehensive term to designate the material in the Mishnah and Gemara. There is a Babylonian as well as a Jerusalem Talmud, although the former rather than the latter achieved normative status within Judaism.Targum Informal Aramaic translations of the Hebrew Scriptures done to accompany Synagogues readings for people whose main language was Aramaic. Eventually, some of these were written down.Teleology Often used in ethics to describe the process by which the means of an action are justified by the ends of the action. It also refers to one of the classical "proofs" of the existence of God, arising from the question of the purpose of existence.Terminus a quo used when giving approximate date ranges. Latin term meaning the earliest date at which an event could have taken place. Terminus ad quem used when giving approximate date ranges. Latin term meaning the latest date at which an event could have taken place.

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Testament -From the Latin Testamentum, often used to translate the Hebrew and Greek words for covenant. Since the time of Tertullian it has been used to designate the two main divisions of Scripture: the Old and New Testaments.Textus Receptus -Latin for "received text," the name given to Erasmus's Greek text of 1535 upon which the KJV of 1611 is based.Theism The belief in one unified being which although distinct from the cosmos is the source of it and continues to sustain it. Theism is usually contrasted with Pantheism.Theodicy A term coined by Leibnitz to refer to a theoretical justification of the goodness of God in the face of the presence of evil in the world. Theophany A manifestation of God in some visible form.Thomism, via Thomae The scholastic philosophy associated with Thomas Aquinas. Torah In a limited sense, a term referring to the Law, the Pentateuch (first five books of the Old Testament), but more broadly it is used of the entire Old Testament.Tractarianism A nineteenth century Anglican movement which attempted to reinstate the Church's Catholic heritage.Transcendent Something which extends beyond human and earthly concerns. An attribute often associated with God, and contrasted with "immanence".Transubstantiation The medieval doctrine according to which the bread and the wine are transformed into the body and blood of Christ in the Eucharist, while retaining their outward appearance. Trinity The distinctively Christian doctrine of God, which reflects the complexity of the Christian experience of God. The doctrine is usually summarised in maxims such as "three persons, one God."Tritheism An extreme Trinitarian belief in three separate and distinct persons sharing the nature of deity. It denies the orthodox belief in the essential unity of the Trinity.Two natures, doctrine of A term generally used to refer to the doctrine of the two natures, human and divine, of Jesus Christ. Related terms include "Chalcedonian definition" and "hypostatic union." Uncials Capital or large Greek letters, characteristic of manuscripts written on parchment from the third to tenth centuries A.D.Unitarianism The belief that only God the Father is divine and that the Son and the Spirit are not God.Universalism The belief that everyone will eventually receive salvation, even if they have no faith in Christ.Ur-Evangelium -A German term meaning "Primitive Gospel." Some scholars posit a hypothetical primitive Gospel which preceded our written canonical Gospels.used in the Nicene Creed (325 A.D.) to describe the relation of the Son to the Father in the Godhead.Variant In textual criticism, this term indicates a particular difference or variation found in manuscripts.Vaticanus (B) An early uncial manuscript of the New Testament from the fourth century A.D. containing the Gospels, Acts and Paul's letters.Verbal Plenary Inspiration The belief that every word of Scripture is inspired by God. In some extreme forms this implies a mechanical or dictational process, thus eliminating the human element in writing and copying.Verso The reverse or back side of a sheet of papyrus.Vulgate The Latin translation of the Bible upon which medieval theology was largely based, and was ratified by the Council of Trent in 1546 as the official Scripture for the Roman Catholic Church. The "Vulgate" contains Jerome's translation of the Old Testament (except the Psalms, which was taken from the Gallician Psalter); the

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apocryphal works (except Wisdom, Ecclesiastes, I and II Maccabees, and Baruch, which were taken from the Old Latin Version); and all the New Testament. The recognition of its many inaccuracies was of fundamental importance to the Reformation. Western Church A term generally applied to the geographical area of the Church which bordered the western side of the Mediterranean Sea from Rome westward, including Carthage in North Africa.Zealots A Jewish sect in the first century A.D. (later than the timeframe of the Gospels) which tried to overthrow the Roman occupying army by force.Zwinglianism The term is used generally to refer to the thought of Huldrych Zwingli, but is often used to refer specifically to his views on the sacraments, especially on the "real presence" (which for Zwingli was more of a "real absence").

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allison, Joseph D. Bible Study Resource Guide. Nashville:Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1982.

Arthur, Kay How To Study Your Bible. Oregon: Harvest House Publishers, 1974.

Baxter, J. Explore the Book. Grand Rapids: Zondervan

Publishing House, 1966.

Biblesoft. PCSTUDY BIBLE 4.2 Computer Software.

Fuller, Otis. Which Bible. Grand Rapids: Grand Rapids International Publications, 1975.

Gill, A. L. God’s Promises For Your Every Need. Dallas: Word Publishing Inc., 1988.

Gregory, John Milton. The Seven Laws of Teaching. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1977.

Harris, R. Laird. Your Bible. Wheaton:, Evangelical Teacher Training Association, 1976.

Little, Paul E. Know what you believe. Wheaton, Illinois: SP Publications, Inc., 1975.

Mears, Henrietta C. What The Bible Is All About. Minneapolis:Gospel Light Publications, 1966.

Scruggs, Julius R. How to Study & Teach The Bible. Nashville: Townsend Press, 1994.

Thiessen, Henry C. Lectures in Systematic Theology. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmanns Publishing Co., 1975.

Terry, Milton S. Biblical Hermeneutics. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1976.

Vine, W. E. Vine's Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words. Nashville: Royal Publishers, Inc., 1952.

Walton, John H. Chronological and Background Charts of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids, Michigan: The Zondervan

Publishing House, 1994.

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