iii this thesis for the master of landscape architecture...

READING SITES

A FRAMEWORK TOWARD COMPREHENSIVE SITE ANALYSIS TEACHING

STRATEGIES

by

NERMEEN DALGAMONI

Bachelor of Architectural Engineering, Al al-Bayt University, 2008

A thesis submitted to the

Faculty of the Graduate School of the

University of Colorado in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Landscape Architecture

Landscape Architecture

2014

ii

© 2014

NERMEEN DALGAMONI

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

iii

This thesis for the Master of Landscape Architecture degree by

Nermeen Dalgamoni

has been approved for the

Landscape Architecture Program

by

Lori Catalano, Chair

Ann Komara

Jody Beck

Joern Langhorst

21 July 2014

iv

Dalgamoni, Nermeen (MLA, Landscape Architecture)

Reading Sites: A Framework toward Comprehensive Site Analysis Teaching Strategies

Thesis directed by Senior Instructor Lori Catalano

ABSTRACT

This thesis explores the importance of the comprehensive reading of sites during

the site analysis phase of the design process. Landscape architects in particular benefit

from critically analyzing sites; their understanding of the specific connections between

landscape and social, cultural, environmental, and political structures is crucial to the

success of their projects. This research also examines different methods used in analyzing

sites over the past few decades; the authors of these methods have significant

perspectives that influenced designers in their careers up to this point. Addressing the

significance, the limitations, and the biases of each method has contributed in

establishing the proposed teaching framework. This framework represents an integrative

method that combines the experience-based methods of on-site exploration and the

academic methods of the evaluation and the documentation of sites. This research also

discusses different teaching methods and tools of discovery that will assist instructors and

students during the reading of sites. This research also acknowledges the biases of

instructors and students as one of the most critical issues students face during the site

analysis phase which can affect their judgments about the site.

Key Words: Site, context, tools of discovery, underlying values, reading sites, site

analysis, and methods in site analysis.

The form and content of this abstract are approved. I recommend its publication.

Approved: Lori Catalano

v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Lori Catalano

for her guidance, patience, and endless support throughout the course of this study. I also

wish to thank all the members of my committee, Ann Komara, Jody Beck, and Joern

Langhorst for their valuable participation and insights. I also wish to thank Leila

Tolderlund and Tony Mazzeo for their cooperation. Special thanks to Mr. Don Brandes

for his special support.

I would like to thank my sponsor, Jordan University of Science and Technology

and the faculty of the Collage of Architecture and Design; Professor Natheer N. Abu-

Obeid, Professor Hussain H. Alzoubi, and Professor Raed S. Al Tal for their endless help,

insights, and support.

My final gratitude goes to my sisters; Neveen and Hanin, my brothers; Nawras,

Ahmad, and Mohammed, and to my best friends; Ruba Zuibi and Hagir Baker for their

encouragement and support throughout my education at UCD.

vi

DEDICATION

I dedicate this thesis to my mother Khitam Al Rosan, my husband Tareq

Dalgamoni, and our son Mohammed. Thank you all for your endless support,

encouragement, and understanding. I also dedicate this thesis to the memory of my father,

Adnan Dalgamoni, may his soul rest in peace.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION.……………………………………………………………..……..1

Background.…………………………………………………………....…………...... 2

Objective Statement.……………………………………………………..…………... 5

Scope of Research.…………………………………………………………....……… 7

Research Limitations.…………………………………………………………....…... 7

Thesis Organization.….…………………………………………………………….... 8

II. PROBLEM DEFINITION AND MOTIVATION..……..……...………......……… 10

What is a Site?..……….……………...……………...…………...………….…..…. 12

What is Site Analysis?.……………………………………………......…..…………18

Why is it Important to Analyze the Sites in a Comprehensive Manner? ………....…24

Summary.…………………………………………………………….....……….…...32

III. METHODS OF SITE ANALYSIS ……………………………….…………………35

The Proponents of the Selected Methods.…………………………........................…36

The Technical Method, Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack.…………………………........38

The Scientific Systematic Method, Ian McHarg.....................….................................54

The Context-Sensitive Method, James A. LaGro.……………...……………………62

The Experiential Method, Bernard Lassus and Richard Haag……….................……74

Summary............................................................................................................…......81

IV. THE TEACHING OF SITE ANALYSIS.…………………………………...………90

viii

Teaching Methods.…………………………………………………..……….…....…90

Tools of Discovery.…………………………………………………..………………94

Understanding Biases.……………………………………………..…………..…....102

Summary.………………………………………………………...……………....…104

V. THE PROPOSED FRAMEWORK FOR TEACHING SITE ANALYSIS.………..106

The Concept of the Teaching Framework.……………………………...….…..…..106

The Structure of the Teaching Framework.………………………..……….………109

Student Learning Outcomes…………………………………….……………..……113

Summary.…………………………………………...…………………………....…114

VI. CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION…...………………..………………………116

Research Summary.………………………………..…….…………………………116

Discussion.……………………………………………….…………………………119

Future Research.………………………………………..…………………………..121

BIBLIOGRAPHY..………………………………………………………..………...….124

APPENDIX

A.……………………………………….....................………………………………….129

B.……………………………….....................………………………………………….130

C.………………………….....................……………………………………………….139

ix

LIST OF TABLES

Table

2.1 Selected development constraints............................................................................... 28

3.2 Examples of physical, biological, and cultural attributes that may be mapped at the

site scale.......................................................................................................................63

3.3 Selected physical factors to consider in site planning and design...............................67

x

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

2.1 The three distinct areas of a site based on Burns and Kahn classification..................17

2.2 Spatial hierarchy-regions, landscapes, sites.................................................................19

2.3 Information from the site analysis is utilized by many professions engaged in the land

development process....................................................................................................24

2.4 Constraints and opportunities may be on-site or off-site attributes that shape

development suitability patterns and influence the spatial organization of program

elements on the site....................................................................................................29

3.5 A sketch of a neighborhood street by a resident of San Francisco..............................53

3.6 Composite “physiographic obstructions”....................................................................58

3.7 Recommended minimal- social- cost alignment..........................................................59

3.8 Summary map of water and land features for part of the metropolitan area...............60

3.9 Site planning and design process.................................................................................62

3.10 Site inventory.............................................................................................................65

3.11 Site analysis...............................................................................................................65

3.12 Overlay analysis using a linear combination approach..............................................72

3.13 The Red Dot Experiment...........................................................................................79

4.14 Different diagramming scales to explain different site's qualities.............................95

4.15 Mental map: Problems of the Boston image..............................................................96

4.16 GIS map for the recreational facilities at Globeville and Elyria Swansea-Denver…98

4.17 Le Modular, Le Corbusier........................................................................................101

1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The notion of “site” has been studied in various approaches such as the technical,

the social, the anthropological, the ecological, and the symbolic approaches. A review of

the related literature, presented in chapter two, shows that there are many significant

methods that influence the research of the designers in different fields. However, no

single method gives a comprehensive image of a site. Each method has developed a

discourse which is oriented toward highlighting one perspective of understanding a site

and eliminates or underestimates the others. Furthermore, few studies have ever focused

on the investigation of the means through which various qualities of a site (such as the

spatial-formal, environmental, operational, and deontological qualities) are represented.

The choice of means is fundamental to the choice of a site, to the subsequent

modifications of that site, and to build on it.1

Landscape architecture has never been just about land manipulation; it touches

history, culture, literature, ecology and more. Landscape architecture is not just about

aesthetic; it is more about affecting human perception and behaviors. The profession of

landscape architecture aims at creating, enhancing, maintaining, and protecting places in

order to be functional, aesthetically pleasing, meaningful, sustainable, and meet human

needs and expectations. Landscape architecture occupies the middle ground between

different disciplines and professions. Discussing site analysis from the perspective of

landscape architect can benefit other disciplines engaged in the design process.

1 Xiaodong Li, “Meaning of the Site: A Holistic Approach Toward Site Analysis on

behalf of the Development of a Design Tool Based on a Comparative Case-Study

between FengShui and Kevin Lynch's system”, (PhD diss. Universiteitsdrukkerij,

Eindhoven, The Netherlands, 1993).

2

This research explores the importance of reading sites in depth; each site has a

unique set of historical, natural, and cultural values that determine how a site is

evaluated. According to Christophe Girot in “The Four Trace Concepts in Landscape

Architecture”, a designer understands a site by overlaying different analytical layers and

recognizing the visible and the invisible forces.2 The careful analysis of sites and its

context can lead to higher-quality built environments. According to James LaGro, if the

existing conditions of a site, or different sites, are poorly understood, the development for

these sites can result in negative environmental, social, and economic impacts.3

From an educational perspective, this thesis aims at establishing a framework that

expands the ability of students to explore, read, and document sites in a comprehensive

manner. The overarching goal of this study is to help students understand their own

values and biases and to develop their own techniques and tools to enhance the learning

of students and develop their critical thinking skills.

Background

Sites are not just the physical boundaries of a specific land; sites are sets of

environmental and social relationships that form human communities and influence

human actions and behaviors. There are many definitions for the term “site” depending

on the discipline and the context. One of the most well-known definitions in the field of

landscape architecture is Lynch and Hack’s definition. Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack

define that site as a composition "of many factors- above, below, and on the ground- but

2 Christopher Girot, The Four Trace Concepts in Landscape Architecture (New York:

Princeton Architectural Press, 1999).

3 James LaGro, Site Analysis, A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning and

Site Design, Second edition (John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 2008).

3

these factors are interrelated."4 According to Lynch and Hack, a site is a crucial aspect of

the environment; it has "biological, social, and psychological impact that goes far beyond

its more obvious influence on cost and technical function."5

In “Site Matters”, Carol Burns and Andrea Kahn discuss what constitutes a site in

design. They classify three distinguished areas of a site. The first one is the area of

control which identifies the physical site within its property lines. The second area is the

area of influence which comprises systems and forces that affect a site even if they do not

take place within its boundaries. The third classified area, according to Burns and Kahn,

is the area of effect which reflects the domains beyond the given site that are affected by

design.6 In this context, a site is understood at three different levels.

In many situations, designers do not take the time to explore sites in depth, and

they tend to analyze them from a distance. Technology (such as Geographic Information

System (GIS) and Google Maps), budget, and time affect their ability to gain deep

interaction with sites.7 As technology grows, there is a possibility that site analysis will

be just about information and data, and overlook other important aspects such as the

values, the interpretation, the biases, and other contextual forces that make a site a

meaningful part of the whole.

4 Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,

1983), 30.

5 Ibid, 2.

6 Carol Burns and Andrea Kahn, Site Matters: Design Concepts, Histories, and Strategies

(New York: Routledge, 2005).

7 Tim Waterman, The Fundamentals of Landscape Architecture (Fairchild Books, 2009).

4

Landscape architects need to read sites in depth; their understanding of specific

connections between landscape and social, cultural, environmental, and political

structures is crucial to the success of their projects. Many professions are engaged in the

site analysis process (architecture, landscape architecture, urban planning, engineering,

etc.). Landscape architects, for example, focus on the entire arrangement of a site. The

analysis generated by landscape architects includes information about the location of

buildings, grading, stormwater management, construction, and planting. Similarly,

architects need to consider the relations between a building and its surrounding context to

reflect a complete image of their designs. Social studies also have a place in the site

analysis phase; the understanding of demographics, income level, and ethnicity play a

significant role in the formation of a site. A comprehensive reading of a site can evolve

the awareness and appreciation of a designer to include the social and cultural

considerations.

Much information generated by the site analysis is provided by other disciplines.

For instance, landscape architects must be able to understand information provided by

natural, social, and cultural sciences and to interpret relevant findings from these

disciplines. Information from the site analysis phase will be used and applied by many

professions engaged in the land development process. Thus, it is very critical to

understand what the term “site” means.

During the past few decades, many architects, planners, theorists, and landscape

architects discussed the process of site analysis. Even more, they published many books

explaining and promoting their ideas about sites. These ideas have influenced designers'

use of different approaches in analyzing sites for a long time. However, each method has

5

its limitations and biases that may not always result in a comprehensive understanding of

a site.

After reviewing the existing methodologies of site analysis, this thesis proposes a

teaching framework that increases the ability of students to decide which method to use,

how to use it and in what particular context. It is critical for students to understand what

is missing in each method and the inherent biases in each of them. On the other hand,

exploring these methods help students navigate their own value system. The proposed

framework also suggests, in some situations, creating a hybrid method by overlaying

these methods to achieve a more comprehensive reading of a site.

Objective Statement

The design process, in particular site analysis, involves many participants

including architects, landscape architects, developers, etc. The information involved in

the site analysis process is getting more complicated. The need for new approaches and

methods that address the cooperation between these various disciplines engaged in the

site analysis phase is needed. The decision making process requires a designer to consider

the correlation among the components of a site. Having a comprehensive set of concepts

and tools during the site analysis phase will lead to more suitable decisions.

Research Questions

The new site analysis approach proposed in this research is an integrative

approach that addresses a comprehensive perspective of the forces that form sites

(natural, cultural, social, etc.). Therefore, this thesis will answer the following questions:

1. How a site is socially, culturally, and environmentally constructed?

6

2. Why is it important for a landscape architect to understand the underlying values

of a site?

3. What are the limitations of the existing methodologies in site analysis?

4. How can students decide what tools of discovery to use and based on what

criteria?

5. How can an instructor effectively teach site analysis in a comprehensive manner

without imposing his/her values and help students understand their own values

and meanings?

The proposed framework in this research is based on existing methods, and it

expands them within an organized structure that provides flexibility in applying the

appropriate approach based on the different goals of different projects.

Research Methodology

The research presented in this paper examines different methods used in

analyzing sites over the past few decades. These methods are: the Technical Method, the

Scientific Systematic Method, the Context-Sensitive Method, and the Experiential

Method. The authors of these methods have significant perspectives that influenced

designers' understanding and applications during the site analysis phase. A descriptive

research methodology was used for this study to address the significance, the limitations,

and the biases of each method which contributed in establishing the proposed teaching

framework. Using the descriptive research methodology helped acquiring accurate,

factual, and systematic information that provided a comprehensive perspective about

each of these methods.

7

Scope of Research

This thesis proposes a teaching framework that represents an integrative approach

that combines the experience-based methods of on-site exploration and the academic

methods of evaluation and documentation of sites. The findings of this research state that

although the notion of “site” has already been studied in various methods. On the other

hand, the findings of this research also address that each method is oriented toward

highlighting one perspective of understanding a site and eliminates or underestimates the

others. To gain a better understanding of a site and site analysis, this research classified

these methods based on the approaches of their proponents in site analysis. These

methods are: the Technical Method by Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, the Scientific

Systematic Method by Ian McHarg, the Context-Sensitive Method by James A. LaGro,

and the Experiential Method by Bernard Lassus and Richard Haag. These methods are

the most prevalent in the design profession and still influence the designers’ research in

different fields.

Research Limitations

This research presents and discuses information, insights, and ideas from multi-

disciplinary fields. Based on the time line of this thesis, it was hard to engage all the

methods that have discussed the notion of “site” and “site analysis”. Therefore, this

research discusses the most prevalent methods in the design profession.

The politics of sites is one of the topics that this research does not cover.

Understanding the political forces and their impacts on forming community is

fundamental. Discussing this topic and its wide dimensions requires extensive research

and review of literature and legal documents in various discourses. Based on the limited

8

time of this research and its core targets and goals, this research acknowledges this issue

in general; but does not explore it in depth.

This thesis also presents a framework based on existing methodologies of site

analysis, and is not proposing a new method. This thesis is more oriented toward the

teaching of site analysis rather its application in the professional practice.

Another critical piece that needs additional research and discussion is the inherent

individual biases which is understood by individual cultures. This thesis briefly

acknowledges the biases of instructors and students as one of the most critical issues

students face during the site analysis phase which can affect their judgments about a site.

Teaching biases is a complicated topic and, in many situations, it cannot be avoided.

Thesis Organization

This thesis is presented in six chapters. This chapter, Chapter One (Introduction),

lays out background information about the existing methods in site analysis, and

addresses research questions and objectives. It also discusses the scope and the

limitations of this research.

Chapter Two, (Problem Definition and Motivation), defines the various notions of

“site” and “site analysis” in different discourses and disciplines. This chapter also defines

the terms “reading sites” and “comprehensive site analysis” in the context and the goals

of this research. It also discusses the importance of the comprehensive reading of sites

during site analysis phase of the design process.

Chapter Three, (Methods of Site Analysis), examines the different methods that

have taken place in analyzing sites during the past few decades. Methods discussed in

this chapter are: the Technical Method by Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, the Scientific

9

Systematic Method by Ian McHarg, the Context-Sensitive Method by James A. LaGro

and the Experiential Method by Bernard Lassus and Richard Haag.

Chapter Four, (Teaching Site Analysis), discusses different teaching methods that

can enhance students' learning experience and different “Tools of Discovery” that can

help students in investigating sites. This chapter also briefly acknowledges the biases of

instructors and students as one of the most critical issues students face during the site

analysis phase which can affect their judgments about the site. This chapter also discusses

some ideas that can help instructors and students minimize the individual biases' impacts

during site analysis to enhance students’ learning and develop their critical thinking

skills.

Chapter Five, (The Proposed Framework for Teaching Site Analysis), discusses

the concept and the structure of the proposed framework. This proposed teaching

framework will be the structure to develop a course for teaching site analysis to first year

students in architecture, landscape architecture, and urban planning programs. This

chapter also outlines teaching strategies and techniques along with a syllabus and

examples of assignments.

Chapter Six, (Conclusions and Discussion), discusses the findings presented in the

preceded chapters and summarizes general concepts and guidelines for the proposed

framework for teaching site analysis. This chapter also suggests future research that may

extend the concept and implementation of the site analysis framework proposed in this

research.

10

CHAPTER II

PROBLEM DEFINITION AND MOTIVATION

As noted earlier, the notion of “site” has been studied in various approaches; the

technical, the social, the anthropological, the ecological, and the symbolic approach. The

review of related literature, presented in this chapter, reveals that there are many

significant methods that influence the designers’ research in different fields. However, no

single method gives a comprehensive understanding of a site. Each method has

developed a discourse which is oriented toward highlighting one perspective of

understanding the site and eliminates or underestimates the others.

In “Site Matters”, Carol Burns and Andrea Kahn note that in each of the design

specialty areas, literature about specific locals and projects exists, but none of them

discusses the subject of a site in reference to engage other areas or disciplines. Each

discipline’s concerns during site analysis revolved around the local attributes. This

attitude made the multiple understanding about sites more complicated.

Grappling with site-based issues evokes the analogy of seven blind men

describing an elephant: each depicts vivid aspects within reach but non correlates

to another, and altogether they miss the sense of the overall object of study.1

Burns and Kahn argue that if each discourse discusses the notion of a site without

taking into account other considerations of the different discourses, they will uncritically

iterate their own conceptions of a site which leaves a great deal of knowledge

unarticulated.

To provide an example about a successful experience in exchanging knowledge

and perspectives among different disciplines, Burns and Kahn point at the significant


(New York: Routledge, 2005), xiv.

11

shift in architectural theory in the past thirty years. Burns and Kahn note that the

interaction between architecture and other disciplines (such as philosophy and literary

theory) has led to the positive transformation in the architectural theory from the

consideration of physical conditions toward a progressively abstract array of concerns.

This integration among disciplines has enriched the architectural thinking, and the

architectural discourse has become more broad and inclusive.2

Site analysis is a complex and connected professional practice. New approaches

and methods that address the cooperation between these disciplines are needed. The

decision making process requires a designer to consider the correlation between the

components of a site. Having a comprehensive set of concepts and tools will lead to more

suitable, informed, and critical decisions.

To establish a comprehensive understanding of the notion of a site, designers

must acquire the knowledge and the skills necessary to explore sites in depth. They need

to understand what forces form a site, how a designer investigates it, and what the most

critical information needed to get a comprehensive perception of a site. It is extremely

useful for students to know how a single study of a site can address different forces from

different disciplines. To address these correlated issues, this chapter defines the various

notions of “site” and “site analysis” in different discourses and disciplines. This chapter

also defines the terms “reading sites” and “comprehensive site analysis” in the context

and the goals of this research. It also discusses the importance of the comprehensive

reading of sites during site analysis phase of the design process.



12

It is important to note here that this research uses the term “comprehensive” in

describing the targeted reading of sites. In general, comprehensive means:

Covering completely or broadly,

Having or exhibiting wide mental grasp.

In the context of the site analysis, it is understandable that a comprehensive site analysis

vary from one site to another, from one purpose to another, and from one person to

another. Although a designer cannot cover every single detail of a site, or even it is

unnecessary to investigate every aspect giving them the same weight of priority, a

comprehensive site analysis means that a designer needs to investigate a broad range of

aspects of a site to get an exhibit of wide mental grasps and ideas that assist him/her

during the investigation of a site. The topics that need to be addressed during a

comprehensive site analysis will be generated by the site itself, the purpose for this

analysis, and by the set of values and meanings inherent by the individual experience of

the investigator.

What is a Site?

The term “site” in this research is used as a set of environmental and social

relationships that form human communities and influence human actions and behaviors.

Each site has a unique set of historical, natural, and cultural values that determine how a

site is evaluated. Although the word site is quiet simple, this research argues that what

gives a site its uniqueness is the meanings and the values which are inherent from the

surrounding context.

The origin of the term “site” came from the late Middle English (as a noun): from

Anglo-Norman French, or from Latin situs "local position". “Site” as a verb dates from

13

the late 16th century.3 “Site” has many definitions based on the context. In general, the

term “site” is defined as:

• A place where something (such as a building) is, was, or will be located.

• A place where something important has happened.

• A place that is used for a particular activity. 4

In the previous definitions, a site can be understood as a location; a place that

relates to other places to form a whole fabric. This location can be described based on its

physical characteristics, and also can be linked with other locations within spatial systems

of the whole fabric. A site also means a place for activity or event. This aspect of

defining a site addresses that a site is not just the "where" of something; but also it is the

product of the integrated relationships between human and non-human, physical and

sensual, nature and culture, and past and future.

The concept of site, then, simultaneously refers to seemingly opposed ideas: a

physically specific place and a spatially and temporally expansive surround.

Incorporating three distinct geographic areas, two divergent spatial ideas, and

past, present, and future time frames, sites are complex.5

Burns and Kahn state that any physical site needs specific delimitations in order

to be controlled or owned. It also needs to be considered in reference to its surroundings

in order to be fully understood, "no particular local can be understood in isolation."6

3 "Site," Oxforddictionaries.com. Accessed September 23, 2013.

http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/site?q=site.

4 "Site," Merriam-Webster.com. Accessed September 23, 2013. http://www.merriam-

webster.com/dictionary/site.


(New York: Routledge, 2005), xii.

6 Ibid, xii.

14

It is helpful for designers to understand how a site is defined in various disciplines

as a combination of natural phenomena and human activity. For a geographer, a site is a

certain piece of land with visual qualities or attributes that are discovered through

observation. A geologist describes a site by the nature of its material. For example,

structural geology describes the composition and structure of the rocks that show how

sites have been developed over a particular period of time. On the other hand, dynamic

geology analyzes and describes the forces that helped in shaping these layers. Historical

geology studies the sequence of events recorded in the past that led to these forms in the

present.7 In the field of ecology, ecologists study the ways in which organisms or groups

of organisms are related to the living and non-living parts of their environment.

According to Lynch and Hack, in site analysis, ecology helps to describe "the limits and

conditions of human intervention. It implies certain values, diversity, approximate

stability, conservation, but these are neither ultimate nor comprehensive."8

Burns and Kahn note that in the design discourse, a site is generally defined by its

boundaries that distinguish it from its surroundings. Although this oversimplified

understanding has an arguable basis because designers often receive a site with specific

entity, Burns and Kahn argue that this approach limits the role of designers in defining

sites, and the determination of a site does not tolerate on the design consideration, which

7 Xiaodong Li , “Meaning of the Site: A Holistic Approach Toward Site Analysis on

behalf of the Development of a Design Tool based on a Comparative Case-Study

between FengShui and Kevin Lynch's system”, (PhD diss. Universiteitsdrukkerij,

Eindhoven, The Netherlands, 1993).


1984), 34.

15

is not the case.9 Although the existing physical conditions have a significant impact on

the design decisions, a site is connected to other forces from different systems on

different scales. These forces, indeed, can influence the designer in his/her intervention of

a site.

In the field of landscape architecture, one of the most well-known definitions of a

site is Lynch and Hack’s definition. Lynch and Hack state that a site is "composed of

many factors- above, below, and on the ground- but these factors are interrelated."10

According to Lynch and Hack, a site is a crucial aspect of the environment. A site has

"biological, social, and psychological impact that goes far beyond its more obvious

influence on cost and technical function."11

Although the existing qualities of a site can

limit what designers can do, these qualities can open new opportunities too. Lynch and

Hack argue that the complexity of the factors of a site creates its uniqueness. Although

these factors usually do not achieve a complete harmony, they still represent some

approximate balance.

In “Transformation of the Site”, Nicholaas John Habraken defines a site as "a

space and material: form, place and understanding make the site."12

In this definition,

Habraken points out two sets of variables; the physical and the spatial. The physical

variables define a site with its physical and visual form which is one of the most obvious



10

Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,

1984), 30.

11

Ibid, 2.

12

Nicholaas John Habraken, Transformation of the Site (Cambridge: Awater Press,

1982), 4.

16

and remarkable attributes of a site. On the other hand, the spatial variables link a site to

the surrounding context. The key element that overlaps the two sets of variable is the

human's understanding and observation of a site.

Burns and Kahn define a site "as a dynamic relational construction."13

Design

intervention is the result of the exchange between what a designer actually sees and what

he/she wishes to have in a site, between the reality and the possibility.14

Burns and Kahn

also discuss what constitutes a site in design; they argue that the first step of the design

process starts when a designer receives a piece of land with specific boundaries. When a

designer starts to analyze a site, he/she discovers new connections that expand his/her

scope of research, and he/she starts to add more analytical layers that go beyond the

physical features of a site.

Burns and Kahn note that there are many terms that define the physical location

(such as place, property, ground, setting context, situation, and landscape), but these

terms only identify a particular region. Burns and Kahn argue that none of these terms is

"exactly equivalent" to the full understanding of a site.15

Unlike the notions of these

terms, a site is purposely based; when designers start to call a particular piece of land a

site, then the purpose of it has already been stated.

To simplify the complicated relationships that form a site, Burns and Kahn

classify three distinguished areas of a site. The first one is the area of control which

identifies the physical site within its property lines. The second one is the area of

13

Carol Burns and Andrea Kahn, Site Matters: Design Concepts, Histories, and

Strategies (New York: Routledge, 2005).

14

Ibid.

15

Ibid.

17

influence which comprises systems and forces that affect a site even if they do not take

place within its boundaries (such as the solar system, hydrological features, and

geomorphology). The third one is the area of effect which reflects the domains beyond

the given site that are affected by design (such as the growth of a metropolitan region,

water cycles and infrastructural systems).16

In this context a site is understood at three

different levels (see figure 1). Although each level has distinguished characteristics and

implementations, they overlap and affect each other in a complementary relationship.

Figure 1: The three distinct areas of the site influenced by Burns and Kahn’s

classification.

Designers need to consider the correlations among the different systems that form

sites; the designers’ comprehensive understanding of these relations will help them to

bring the most suitable intervention to the area. In other words, a site needs to be

understood in reference to its context. Doreen Massey points out that the unique image of

a site cannot be understood unless a person sees it within a set of places, "a sense of

place, an understanding of “its character”, which can only be constructed by linking that

place to places beyond."17

Massey notes that to get this unique perspective, designers

need to read places as processes. Designers should perceive a site without boundaries, but

16



17

Doreen B. Massey, Space, Place and Gender (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994), 156.

1. The area of control

2. The area of influence

3. The area of effect

18

multiple relations, without a single unique identity, but consisting of a multitude of

conflicts. This perspective does not deny the importance of uniqueness of place.18

To conclude, a site is a set of dynamic relations with existing qualities. The

literature review states that the term “site” cannot be precisely defined, but a whole set of

variables and factors need to be considered to draw the most comprehensive image of a

site. If each discourse discusses the notion of a site without taking into account other

considerations that are important for other discourses, they will uncritically iterate their

own conceptions of sites, which will leave a great deal of knowledge unarticulated.

What is Site Analysis?

Site analysis is a multidisciplinary term. The literature review presented in this

chapter shows that site analysis is a systematic diagnostic process that requires

knowledgeable and skilled designers to critically investigate most of the important factors

of a site. Site analysis has been approached in a wide spectrum of methods during the

past few decades. Each method reflects the designers' way of thinking about a site and the

level of information that is required to acknowledge site from their point of view.

James LaGro defines site analysis as "a diagnostic process that identifies the

opportunities and constraints for a specific land use program."19

LaGro considers site

analysis phase as a systematic process that follows a sequence of steps. These steps

include site selection, inventory, analysis, concept development, and design

implementation. According to LaGro, building sites are the smallest units in a broad

18

Doreen B. Massey, Space, Place and Gender (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994).

19

James A LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning

and Site Design, Second Edition (Wiley, 2007), 169.

19

range of spatial scales when performing site analysis (see figure 2). LaGro classifies the

contextual data sets of a site into three categories which are: physical, biological, and

cultural attributes. In his position, these three attributes form a site and need to be

considered during the analysis of any site in order to create suitable and sustainable

development.20

Figure 2: Spatial hierarchy-regions, landscapes, sites: James A. LaGro, Site Analysis: A

Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning and Site Design, 2007.

In “Site, Space, and Structure” Kim W. Todd notes that the purpose of site

analysis is to "separate a whole complex image into simpler components, and understand

them in relationship to one another and to the whole.”21

Todd recommends that to make

site analysis more affective and meaningful, designers should avoid getting too much

information to begin with, and they also should avoid performing an oversimplified

20


and Site Design, Second Edition (Wiley, 2007).

21

Kim W Todd, Site, Space, and Structure (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1985),

11.

20

analysis that does not give any valuable information that influence the creative decisions

of the design.22

Ian McHarg's ideas of site analysis propose deconstructing components of the

nature into a system of layers. He suggests examining, mapping, and evaluating different

aspects of a site individually and then overlapping them on top of one another.23

This

approach helps acknowledging the components of a specific natural environment (such as

geology, hydrology, vegetation cover, surface waters, and climatic conditions) within the

surrounding context. McHarg also established a value system to diagnose the data appear

to result in scientific outcomes that lead to rational decisions.

For Lynch and Hack, the main two sources for site analysis are the site itself and

the purpose that it will be used for, "site analysis has two branches, the one oriented to

our particular purpose and the other to the site itself."24

Lynch and Hack argue that these

two sources are interrelated; in most situations a site draws the limitations for the targeted

project. On the other hand, the purpose of a site can direct a designer toward a particular

approach in analyzing a site.25

Although, in many situations, a site is analyzed for fitness to a purpose, Lynch

and Hack state that designers must consider the interests of the existing occupants. Lynch

and Hack argue that on-site experience allow a designer to set realistic purposes before

22

Kim W Todd, Site, Space, and Structure (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1985).

23

Ian McHarg, Design with Nature (New York: The Natural History Press, 1969), 144.

24


1984), 29.

25

Ibid.

21

finishing the analysis of a site. On the other hand, it can help a designer to judge and

evaluate a site before knowing its detailed purpose.26

The site analysis approach proposed by Burns and Kahn distinguishes between

“thinking about a site” and “site thinking”; they argue that a specific context of a site

provides a designer with the base and the raw material that he/she can start with (thinking

about a site), and the ideas of a designer about a site provide a theoretical background

toward his/her action or intervention (site thinking).27

These two approaches are related

in a complementary manner. In other words, the “writing”/“editing” of a site generated

by designers are reflections of their “reading” of a site.28

In “Site Citation: The Ground for Modern Landscape Architecture”, Elizabeth

Meyer states that the qualities of a site experienced by a designer are not the framework

of the designer's creative act, but they definitely draw the starting point of it. Meyer

suggests that a site is supposed to develop its own program instead of receiving a

predefined one.29

Lynch and Hack discuss this situation noting that this occasionally

happens. A designer might be given a site to figure out the “best use” of it. According to

Lynch and Hack, this kind of analysis is more difficult than the traditional site analysis.

26


1984).

27



28

Ellen Braae and Anne Tietjen, Constructing Sites on a Large Scale: towards New

Design Methods. Nordic Journal of Architecture (Copenhagen: The Danish

Architectural Press, 2011).

29

Elizabeth Meyer, “Site Citations: The Grounds of Modern Landscape Architecture.” In

Site Matters: Design Concepts, Histories, and Strategies, edited by Carol Burns and

Andrea Kahn, 92-129, New York: Routledge, 2005.

22

In this situation, a designer must analyze a site, or multiple sites, with more attention to

the ongoing social and ecological systems. A designer also has to examine the context of

the locality (ecology, circulation, behaviors, structures, and associated images) with equal

care.30

Comprehensively analyzing a site using this approach will draw the possibilities

of future plans, and the program will be developed from the site itself.

A choice of the best site for the “best use” can be made by evaluating and

comparing different alternatives. This comparison must balance ecology, market, and

social purpose.31

To clarify what a “program” means, Lynch and Hack define it as "the

first act of design that is built in a dialogue between the designer and the client."32

A

program is a proposed outcome and hypothesis of how a design will function when it is

occupied.

Meyer views sites as "plots are not empty canvases, but full of spaces, full of

nature and history, whose latent forms and meanings can be surfaced, and made palpable,

through design."33

From this perspective, Meyer identifies principles that are important

for site analysis: (1) site as armature or framework, (2) site as geomorphological figure;

site as ecosystem or geological fragment, and (3) and site as temporal phenomenon,

30


1984).

31

Ibid.

32

Ibid, 8.

33


Site Matters: Design Concepts, Histories, and Strategies, edited by Carol Burn and

Andrea Kahn, 92-129, New York: Routledge, 2005, 102.

23

haecceity, and subjective experience.34

These principles are crucial to acknowledge the

physical properties of sites (such as materials and structures), and the spatial properties of

sites (such as atmosphere and qualities).

In “From the Ground Up: Programming the Urban Site”, Kahn states that

traditional site analysis needs to be modified to meet the ongoing complexity of the

notion of sites. Kahn argues that the existing site analysis methods do not generate any

new knowledge about particular sites.35

In most situations, the conducted analysis re-

acknowledges what is already known; it produces inventories organized into standard

place-based categories as building typologies, usages, infrastructures, and formal urban

patterns.36

Instead of a traditional site analysis, Kahn suggests “site construction” as an

intentional method that can reveal the complex qualities of a site. Site construction breaks

with analytic objectivity and can be seen as a bodily site exploration. For Kahn,

unclassifiable aspects of a site can be grasped only through immersive practice.37

Site analysis is a multidisciplinary term that has been approached in a wide

spectrum of methods during the past few decades. This research discusses site analysis by

exploring it through different lenses (architect, landscape architect, urban planner,

historian and theorists). This will be extremely helpful to obtain the most comprehensive

image and for understanding different characters of a site.

34


Site Matters: Design Concepts, Histories, and Strategies, edited by Carol Burn and

Andrea Kahn, 92-129, New York: Routledge, 2005,102.

35

Andrea Kahn, From the Ground Up: Programming the Urban Site (The Harvard

Architecture Review, 1998).

36

Ibid.

37

Ibid.

24

Why is it Important to Analyze Sites in a Comprehensive Manner?

When a word or phrase is taken out of context, it can become meaningless, or

worse, its meaning can become distorted, even to the point of saying the opposite

of what was originally intended. This is why journalists are often heard to say

‘context is everything’. Context is no less important in the landscape.38

As discussed earlier, the notion of site is complex; it has a set of dynamic

relations with existing qualities. “Site” cannot be precisely defined, but a whole set of

variables and factors and their relations need to be considered to draw the most

comprehensive image of a site. Site analysis, as well, is a multidisciplinary term that

includes information gathered from various sources and will be applied by many

professions engaged in land development process (see figure 3).

Figure 3: Information from the site analysis is utilized by many professions engaged in

the land development process: James A. LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to

Sustainable Land Planning and Site Design, 2007.

38

Thompson Waterman, The Fundamentals of Landscape Architecture (Fairchild Books,

2009), 50.

25

Landscape architects in particular benefit from critically analyzing sites; their

understanding of the specific connections between landscape and social, cultural,

environmental, and political structures is crucial to the success of their projects. The

ultimate goal of a comprehensive site analysis approach is to create designs that naturally,

environmentally, culturally, and socially fit in the existing context.

This research uses the term “reading sites” to distinguish between traditional site

analysis and the targeted comprehensive site analysis. So what does “read” mean? The

origin of the term “read” is from old English rǣdan, of Germanic origin; related to

Dutch raden and German raten 'advise, guess'. Early senses included 'advise' and

'interpret (a riddle or dream). The term “read” first known use was before the 12th

century39

; it is a very common term that can be understood and used by most people.40

It

has different definitions, but the ones that meet the research requirements are:

Look at and comprehend the meaning of (written or printed matter) by mentally

interpreting the characters or symbols of which it is composed.

Discover (information) by reading it in a written or printed source.

Understand or interpret the nature or significance of something.41

To understand a site in a comprehensive manner, designers must look and

comprehend the meanings and the underlying values of a site. They also must discover

the information that is visible and invisible, and then critically understand them to obtain

39

"Read." Merriam-Webster.com. Accessed September 23, 2013. http://www.merriam-

webster.com/dictionary/read.

40

See appendix A.

41

"Read," Oxforddictionaries.com. Accessed September 23, 2013.

http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/read?q=read.

26

the most comprehensive image of a site, "to comprehend site requires many horizons of

understanding- historical, philosophical, rhetorical, legal; analytic, formal, descriptive,

aesthetic; strategic, tactical; social, economic, political."42

Each site has a unique set of historical, natural, and cultural values that can

influence a designer about how a site should be evaluated. According to Christophe Girot

in “The Four Trace Concepts in Landscape Architecture”, each piece of information

gathered in the site analysis phase can influence design decisions “different discoveries

imply different actions.”43

A designer understands a site by overlaying different

analytical layers and recognizing the visible and the invisible forces. In this context,

designers should go beyond the tangible forces; tangible forces provide designers with a

partial image that does not reflect what is in a site and how it should be transformed. On

the other hand, sites have problems and issues that are highly interrelated. In many

situations, the solution for one issue requires designers to solve other site's issues. Few, if

any, issues can be treated effectively in isolation from other site's issues.

The most obvious benefits of a comprehensive approach in site analysis are the

technical ones. According to LaGro, site analysis summarizes the suitability of a site for

the programmed uses. Different physical, biological, and cultural attributes can influence

the suitability of a site for the project under consideration. LaGro states that the careful

analysis of sites and its context can lead to higher-quality built environments. If the

existing conditions of a site are poorly understood, the development for this site can

42


Strategies (New York: Routledge, 2005), xxiv.

43

Christopher Girot, The Four Trace Concepts in Landscape Architecture (New York:

Princeton Architectural Press, 1999), 63.

27

result in negative environmental, social, and economic impacts.44

LaGro also argues that

a context-sensitive approach that aims at sustainable planning and development will help

protect public health, safety, and welfare. Acknowledging different issues of a site can

help in avoiding inherent site problems. On the other hand, LaGro states that a designer

can use the existing valuable qualities, materials and other components of a site in his/her

future project. The usage of these components will reduce long-term maintenance costs,

and the risks to life and property from natural hazards.45

LaGro notes that some inherent physiographic constraints (such as steep slopes,

shallow bedrock, water, and wetlands) in a site might make it unsuitable for development

(see table 2.1). Other sites (or parts of a site) might be suitable for development but

relatively inaccessible. Lack of access can be because of intervening constraints.

According to LaGro, extending roads and utilities to isolated site areas might be

unbeneficial and unauthorized; pockets of undevelopable land can render the original

program unfeasible. LaGro states that site analysis can uncover site constraints that might

lead to revising a project’s program (see figure 4).

Accurate information from reading the physical features of any site leads to more

suitable projects. This information is gathered based on the design program or the site

itself and includes, but are not limited to, topography, hydrology, climate, and soil.

Climate, for example, is a very critical attribute that a designer must give deep attention

during site analysis. Climate conditions (such as precipitation, air temperature, solar

incidence, wind direction, and wind speed) vary annually, seasonally, and daily. A good

44



45

Ibid.

28

reading of a site's microclimate can help a designer in anticipating future conditions and

develops new solutions for these conditions. A designer can also orient his/her design

concept based on the site analysis findings; these findings give the designer a rational

scientific base for spatial organization and orientation of buildings, structures, and

outdoor spaces. These informed decisions can significantly reduce energy consumption

for heating and cooling buildings and create more pleasant environments.

Table 2.1: Selected development constraints: James A. LaGro, Site Analysis: A

Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning and Site Design, 2007.

Constraint Examples

Ecological infrastructure Aquifer recharge areas, wetlands, surface water,

critical wildlife habitat

Health or safety hazards Floodplains, earthquake fault zones, areas susceptible

to landslides

Physiographic barriers Steep slopes, highly erodible soils, shallow bedrock

Natural resources

Prime farmland, sand and gravel deposits, specimen

trees, scenic views

Historic resources Historic buildings, archaeological sites

Legal restrictions

Zoning codes, subdivision ordinances, easements,

deed restrictions

Nuisances Noises, odors, unsightly views

Another critical technical consideration, according to LaGro, is ecology.

Ecological considerations include, but are not limited to, the habitat, exotic species,

wetlands, and wildlife. LaGro notes that human activities (such as agriculture, forestry,

and urban development) have negatively changed the structure and ecological function of

many of the landscapes in Europe. LaGro refers that to the continuing change in land uses

which destroyed some habitats, and also fragment and functionally disconnect others.

29

During the reading of a site, designers need to be cautious about the impact of his/her

design interventions on the surrounding environment, "protecting existing native

vegetation and wildlife is not only good for the environment, but it also contributes to the

unique sense of place of a site."46

Figure 4: Constraints and opportunities may be on-site or off-site attributes that shape

development suitability patterns and influence the spatial organization of program

elements on the site: James A. LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to


Besides the technical considerations of sites (such as topography, climate,

hydrology, and soils), designers must be aware of how a site is socially and culturally

46



30

constructed. It is important for them to understand the underlying values of sites;

acknowledging and evaluating a site's values can contribute to the success of the project.

Community development, for example, must aim at enhancing people's life. This

can be achieved by engaging people's value systems in driving the process of change.

Sites feature a multiple of interests. Conflicts between underlying goals and values must

be precisely understood and reflected through design decisions. Xavier de Souza Briggs

recommends that designers should consider the interactive systems that form

communities. Briggs also argues that designers can play a significant role in bridging the

gap between stakeholders and community members. To be capable of fulfilling this

position, designers have to comprehend and acknowledge people's values, needs and

expectations.47

Briggs addresses the existing conflict between community social values and

industry which generally faces community development. Briggs also states that designers

should be knowledgeable about different value systems; assessing community values and

their conflicts will give them a solid base that they can refer to.

As part social movement and part industry, community development will continue

to face dilemmas about core goals and values. But being more explicit about the

range of values that motivate the work, and recognizing values and value conflicts

for what they are, is a key place to start.48

According to Lynch and Hack, some of the people who will be affected by the

new development might be absent, uninformed, or voiceless. A designer has the

responsibility to speak for the values of the absence users, needs, and expectations. It is

47

Xavier de Souza Briggs. Rethinking Community Development: Managing Dilemmas

about Goals and Values (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2007), accessed

February 2, 2014. http://web.mit.edu/workingsmarter/media/pdf-ws-kia-brief-0701.pdf.

48 Ibid, 30.

31

very useful that a designer observes and interacts directly with the actual users of the new

site. This approach can help a designer to predict how these users will act in the new

configuration. Lynch and Hack note that engaging the actual users of a site in the design

of the new plans is one of the most effective strategies in creating successful design.49

Culture, as well, is one of the most critical attributes that can directly affect the

suitability of any project. Cultural influences provide designers with rich resources in

designing projects. These influences can lead to more suitable designs that fit

harmoniously in the existing context. In “Primitive Culture”, Edward B. Tylor defines

culture as a "complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs,

and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."50

This

definition states a rich spectrum of knowledge related to culture. Understanding the

cultural roots in a certain community will help designers to get answers, ideas, and

solutions that can improve design interventions and make projects harmoniously fit in the

urban fabric.

Social studies also take a place in the site analysis phase; the understanding of

demographics, income level and ethnicity play a significant role in the formation of any

site. A comprehensive reading of a site can evolve the awareness and appreciation of a

designer to the social values and considerations. Crime rate, for example, one of the

social characters that reflects a certain perception about any site, neighborhood or

community. Designers can play a critical role in decreasing crime rate through their

designs and approaches. First, designers need to analyze the factors that contribute to this

49


1984).

50

Edward B Tylor, Primitive Culture (New York: Gordon Press Publishers, 1973), 1.

32

phenomenon, and then they need to change this phenomenon and minimize the impacts

of these factors by their design ideas and spatial organization. For instance, they should

emphasize the significant role of citizens in the community to assist in establishing and

maintaining public safety. A community-oriented design, for example, encourages

citizens' involvement and acceptance of responsibility.

All ethics so far evolved rest upon a single premise: that the individual is a

member of a community of interdependent parts. His instincts prompt him to

compete for his place in that community, but his ethics prompt him also to co-

operate.51

This research discusses site analysis by exploring it through different lenses

(architect, landscape architect, urban planner, historian and theorists). Discussing this

approach from the perspective of a landscape architect can benefit other disciplines

engaged in the design process; landscape architecture occupies the middle ground

between different disciplines and professions. Landscape architecture touches history,

culture, literature, ecology, and more. Landscape architecture is concerned about

affecting human perception and behaviors. The profession of landscape architecture aims

at creating, enhancing, maintaining, and protecting places in order to be functional,

aesthetically pleasing, meaningful, sustainable, and to meet human needs and

expectations.

Summary

This chapter addressed that the notion of “site” has been studied using various

approaches; the technical, the social, the anthropological, the ecological, and the

symbolic approach. The review of the related literature shows that although there are

51

Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac, the Land Ethic (Oxford: Oxford University

Press, 1966), 239.

33

many significant methods that influence the research of designers in different fields, no

single method gives a comprehensive understanding of the site. Each method has

developed a discourse which is oriented toward highlighting one perspective of

understanding the site and eliminates or underestimates the others.

This chapter also argued that although the term “site” cannot be precisely defined,

a whole set of variables and factors and their relationships need to be considered to draw

the most comprehensive image of a site. If each discourse discusses the notion of a site

without taking into account other considerations of different discourses, they will

uncritically iterate their own conceptions of sites which will leave a great deal of

knowledge unarticulated.

You must start right from the beginning, letting your new buildings grow from the

daily lives of the people who will live in them, shaping the houses to the measure

of the people's songs, weaving the pattern of a village as if on the village looms,

mindful of the trees and the crops that will grow there, respectful to the skyline

and humble before the seasons. There must be neither faked tradition nor faked

modernity, but an architecture that will be the visible and permanent.52

This chapter also noted that site analysis is a multidisciplinary term that includes

information gathered from various sources and will be applied by many professions

engaged in the land development process. Site analysis has been approached in a wide

spectrum of methods during the past few decades. Discussing site analysis by exploring it

through different lenses (architect, landscape architect, urban planner, historian and

theoretical) is helpful to obtain the most comprehensive image and understanding the

characteristics of a site.

52

Hassan Fathy, Architecture for the Poor: An Experiment in Rural Egypt (University of

Chicago Press, 2000), 45.

34

This chapter also found that, in the context of the site analysis, it is

understandable that a comprehensive site analysis vary from one site to another, from one

purpose to another, and from one person to another. Topics that are needed to be

addressed during a comprehensive site analysis will be generated by a site itself, the

purpose for this analysis, and by the set of values and meaning inherent by the individual

experience of the investigator.

Although the technical considerations of sites are fundamental, designers must

also be aware of how a site is socially and culturally constructed. It is important for them

to understand the underlying values of sites; acknowledging and evaluating site's values

can contribute to the success of the project. Chapter Three discusses how site analysis is

approached in the most prevalent methods of site analysis to demonstrate an

understanding of these methods to be able to discover what is missing in each method

and their inherent biases.

35

CHAPTER III

METHODS OF SITE ANALYSIS

The information provided in the preceding chapters demonstrates that there are

many significant methods in site analysis that influence the theoretical and practical

experience and knowledge in different fields. Kahn argues that the existing site analysis

methods do not generate any new knowledge about particular sites.1 In most situations,

the conducting analysis re-acknowledges what is already known; it produces inventories

organized into standard place-based categories as building typologies, usages,

infrastructures, and formal urban patterns.2 This chapter examines different methods used

in analyzing sites over the past few decades. The presented methods are the most

prevalent in the design profession. On the other hand, the proponents of these methods

are from various disciplines; architects, landscape architects, planners, educators,

researchers and theorists. Since this thesis is more oriented toward the teaching of site

analysis rather than professional practice; having multiple lenses in analyzing a site

allows exploring it from different perspectives and different angles. It also gives students

a wide spectrum of tools and vocabulary that allows them navigate their own value

system, and in some situations, to create a hybrid by overlaying these methods to get the

most useful tools of them to achieve the most comprehensive reading of a site.

The methods to be discussed in this chapter are: the Technical Method by Kevin

Lynch and Gary Hack, the Scientific Systematic Method by Ian McHarg, the Context-

Sensitive Method by James A. LaGro, and the Experiential Method by Bernard Lassus

1 Andrea Kahn, From the Ground Up: Programming the Urban Site (The Harvard

Architecture Review, 1998).

2 Ibid.

36

and Richard Haag. The sequence followed for discussing these methods is a reflection of

the degree of how each method is prescribed. This research will start with the Technical

Method (the most direct method), and will end with the Experiential Method (the most

experiential and flexible one).

The Proponents of the Selected Methods

The proponents of the selected methods have contributed in shaping the design

profession during the past several decades. Their ideas still influence designers’ today.

Kevin Andrew Lynch was an American urban planner and author. He received a

Bachelor's degree in city planning in 1947. Lynch began lecturing at Massachusetts

Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1948 and became a full professor in 1963. Lynch

consulted for many cities in the United States and abroad on projects such as Boston's

Government Center and Waterfront Park. Lynch influences the field of city planning

through his work on the theory of city form, and on the perception of the city

environment and its consequences for city design.3

Gary Hack is an architect and planner. He teaches and practices planning and

urban design. He received a Bachelor's degree and a Master's degree in architecture, and

a Master's degree in planning. Hack is the former dean of the School of Design at The

University Pennsylvania. He has prepared plans for over thirty cities in the United States

and abroad such as the redevelopment plan for the Prudential Center in Boston.4

3 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Institute Archives and Special Collections,

accessed on February 19, 2014.

http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/research/collections/collections-mc/mc208.html.

4 University of Pennsylvania, School of Design, accessed on February 19, 2014.

http://www.design.upenn.edu/people/hack_gary.

37

Ian McHarg5, who was born in Scotland, is a landscape architect, urban planner,

and a writer. He remains one of the most influential pioneers of the environmental

movement. McHarg received a Bachelor's degree and a Master's degree in both landscape

architecture and city planning from Harvard University. He was responsible for the

creation of the Department of landscape architecture at the University of Pennsylvania in

1960. In 1969, McHarg published Design with Nature, "a finalist for the National Book

Award and a book that led to fundamental changes in the teaching and practice of

landscape architecture.”6

James A. LaGro is an American landscape architect. He received a Master's

degree from Cornell University in landscape architecture in 1982, and a PhD in natural

resources policy and planning in 1991. LaGro was the chair of the Department of Urban

and Regional Planning at University of Wisconsin-Madison from 2002-2008. His recent

book: “Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Site Planning and Design”

was ranked as one of the top planning books in 2008.

Bernard Lassus is a French landscape architect. He was a professor at the Higher

National School of Beaux Arts (ENSBA) in 1968. He partnered with Bernard Teyssèdre

in founding the first Department for Teaching and Research in the Plastic Arts at the

Université of Paris 1 at the Sorbonne. Lassus was also involved, from 1976 to 1985, in

5 For more information refer to: Lynn Miller and Sidonio Pardal, The Classic McHarg:

an Interview (Lisbon: CESUR, Technical University of Lisbon, 1992).

6 Anne Whiston Spirn, “Ian McHarg, Landscape Architecture, and Environmentalism:

Ideas and Methods in Context,” in Environmentalism in Landscape Architecture, edited

by Michel Conan, Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and

Collection, 2000, 97.

38

the creation of the Landscape School at Versailles where he was the director of the

Workshop Charles Rivière Dufresny.7

Richard Haag is an American landscape architect. He received his Bachelor's

degree and a Master's degree in landscape architecture. In 1958, Haag joined the

University of Washington faculty in Seattle, Washington, and in 1964, he founded the

landscape architecture design program at the university. The work of Haag is

internationally recognized for its creativity, sensitivity to the natural environment, and

adaptive re-use of existing structures and facilities.8

All of the proponents of the selected methods are well-known designers from

different disciplines. They had remarkable impact on the design profession. These

authors also have participated in founding many of landscape architecture programs; they

are educators, authors and practitioners. Their methods are taught in many of design

schools in the United States and other regions over the world.

The Technical Method

Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack

The Technical Method relies on the relationship between the natural categories of

a “site” and the social categories of a “user”. According to the Journal of Architectural

Education, Lynch and Hack's methodology in site analysis, presented in their book “Site

Planning”, has remained the only comprehensive source of information and recognized

system for over two decades that deals with all of the principal activities and concerns of

7 For more information visit Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection website:

http://www.doaks.org.

8 For more information, visit Richard Haag Association website.

39

arranging the outdoor physical environment.9 Lynch and Hack note that their method is

imported from other disciplines, "since this is an introduction to an old and well-

developed art, there is not much here that is original. These ideas come from many

sources and have been so condensed, reordered, and interpreted that they can hardly be

attributed to any single origin."10

As discussed before, Lynch and Hack define a site as "composed of many factors-

above, below, and on the ground-but these factors are interrelated."11

According to Lynch

and Hack, a site is a crucial aspect of the environment. A site has biological, social, and

psychological influences that are as important as the influence on cost and technical

function. Although the existing qualities of a site can limit what people can do, these

qualities can open new opportunities for them too. Lynch and Hack argue that the

complexity of the site's factors creates its uniqueness. Although these factors unusually

achieve the complete harmony, they still represent some approximate balance.

Site analysis, for Lynch and Hack, "is a basis for conservation and also a prelude

to successful revolution."12

Lynch and Hack's site analysis method focuses on the purely

formal, visual, and the aesthetic qualities of landscape. For Lynch and Hack, the realistic

projection of visual elements leads to create a grounded methodology that represents the

living environment as its users perceive it "to reconstruct their cognitive maps."13

They

9 Journal of Architectural Education: review of second edition of Site Planning, 1990.


1984), vi.

11

Ibid, vi.

12

Ibid, 32.

13

Alexander Tzonis and Liane Lefaiver, Paper on "Thinking in Forms as well as

40

consider the "image" and "cognitive mapping" as the main categories that develop a

successful "user-based" design methodology.

In the Technical method of site analysis, Lynch and Hack use simple vocabularies

(such as “site”, “user”, “place”, “climate”) which make their approach accessible for the

majority of users (students, architects, planners, ecologists... etc.). This accessible

approach invites different community members to participate in the developmental

process. Lynch and Hack's method can be understood publicly in a direct and non-

symbolic approach, and therefore unambiguous and unguarded terms.14

Lynch and Hack start the site analysis process with basic questions that identify

what the problem is: "For whom is the place being made? For what purpose? Who will

decide what the form is to be? What resources can be used? What type of solution is

expected? In what location will it be built?"15

They point out that by defining those

problems and providing possible solutions, a designer will create the base for the entire

process of site planning. They tend to transform complex problems into simple

appositions, theoretical problems into empirical issues, and social problems into technical

ones.16

Words." Kevin Lynch and the Cognitive Theory of the city. As cited in: Xiaodong Li,

“Meaning of the Site: A Holistic Approach toward Site Analysis on behalf of the

Development of a Design Tool Based on a Comparative Case-Study between FengShui

and Kevin Lynch's System”, (PhD diss. Universiteitsdrukkerij, Eindhoven,

The Netherlands, 1993).

14

Ibid.

15


1984), 3.

16

Ibid.

41

For Lynch and Hack, the main two sources for site analysis are the site itself and

the purpose that it will be used for, "site analysis has two branches, the one oriented to

our particular purpose and the other to the site itself."17

They argue that these two sources

are highly interrelated; in most situations, a site draws the limitations for the targeted

project. On the other hand, the purpose of a site can direct a designer toward a particular

approach and techniques in analyzing it. For Lynch and Hack, although sites are analyzed

for fitness of purpose, designers must consider existing occupants of sites and their

interests. Lynch and Hack argue that on-site experience allows designers to set realistic

purposes before finishing the analysis of a site. On the other hand, on-site experience can

help designers judge and evaluate sites before knowing the detailed purpose that a site

will serve.

Lynch and Hack point at the complexity of the nature of a site "the conditions

below ground, the surface form, activity and life, the structures and utilities, the ocean of

light and air that overlaps them, and the human meaning, rights and regulations."18

A

designer navigates between site data to organize them within a pattern that can support

and fit his/her design. Lynch and Hack argue that a convincing site pattern can only be

achieved by repeated analysis and trial of possibilities.19

The site analysis phase, for Lynch and Hack, branches into site analysis and user

analysis. Lynch and Hack's site analysis method relies on the relation between the

physical categories of the “site” and the social categories of the “user”. The “site” and the

17


1984), 29.

18

Ibid.

19

Ibid.

42

“user” are the central topics of their approach. The term “site” includes ecology, soil,

water table, landform, contour; climate, and orientation. On the other hand, the term

“user” includes: future users, clients, designers...etc. Lynch and Hack analyze sites by

emphasizing both as main objects. Their approach creates a balance between the interests

of different disciplines (architecture, landscape architecture, urban planning, and

engineering). Briefly, this research will discuss Lynch and Hack's method with its two

branches; site analysis and user analysis, and also the techniques that this method

proposes.

Site Analysis

Analyzing the natural categories of a site should lead to a comprehensive

understanding to the ecological and the behavioral systems. According to Lynch and

Hack, although it is hard to create a site that is completely mature and harmonious with

nature, designers must achieve some approximate balance between the ecological and the

behavioral systems.20

In some situations, site development may lead to negative effects to

a whole chain of living habitat. On the other hand, other designs can create new

connections and develop deeper meanings. Understanding how these components work

and interact with each other will create a scientific knowledge that can help designers

make informed decisions about future development.

Lynch and Hack's methodology in site analysis has a systematic outline. They

recommend designers follow these steps: (1) site visit (2) site history analysis (3)

preparing schedule for the required data (4) systematic survey (5) data synthesis (6) site

selection (7) best use (8) performance and relevance of data.

20


1984).

43

Site Visit. Due to the complexity of the picture of any site, Lynch and Hack note

that on-site exploration will help a designer recognize the main characters of a site, and

also to draw a mental image which can be used in the following steps of site analysis.

They also propose that a designer should study a site without knowing the targeted

purpose of it. According to Lynch and Hack, this approach of analysis will introduce

information and clues that are not expected, and also will avoid missing some important

data. Lynch and Hack also suggest that a designer should visit a site during different

occasions and varied circumstances of weather, light, and activity. This can generate

more accurate and useful information. According to Lunch and Hack, site visits are

useful when discussing preferences about places that are not established yet.

Site History Analysis. Lynch and Hack note that the understanding of site history,

ecology and image is always fundamental during site analysis phase. Designers must

investigate site's natural evolution, its former use and association. Designers should also

research the site’s image in the mind of its users and decision makers. It is useful for a

designer to understand how these participants think and feel about a site, how they

characterize it and what they expect it to be.

Preparing a Schedule for the Required Data. A designer precedes the site analysis

with a systematic collection of data. Lynch and Hack recommend designers, at the early

stage of the project, generate a list of the data required. This list should be short and it

will automatically develop with the progression of the site analysis. Lynch and Hack note

that this list differs from one site to another based on the purpose of the development, the

nature of the site and the resources available to make the survey. According to Lynch and

Hack, this list should aim at acknowledging the impact (negative and positive) of these

44

factors (specially the environmental impacts) on the site itself and the neighboring sites

and users. This list should investigate:

1. General site context,

2. Physical data, site and adjacent land,

3. Cultural data, site and adjacent land, and

4. Correlation of data.21

Systematic Survey. After visiting a site and taking an initial image about it, a

designer can start a systematic and detailed survey. In this stage, according to Lynch and

Hack, the survey is directed by the purpose that is meant to achieve the desired future

image. Lynch and Hack note that each site is unique in some way. Although some

information (such as topographic base maps, climate data, mapping of activity or

circulation) is always required for every site, other information is required only for

specific sites. Lynch and Hack argue that designers should not gather too much data at

the first stages of site analysis, "information is expensive to gather and expansive to

use."22

Starting with a short list of the required information will save time, effort, and

money.

Data Synthesis. At this stage, information gathered from the systematic survey

must be presented in a readable form (graphic and written). This representation should

reflect the essential of the site's nature and how it will be developed (such as major

constrain, problems, and potentials).

21

Refer to Appendix G in Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack Site Planning, 420-425.

22


1984), 63.

45

Site Selection. In some situations, a designer will be given certain objectives from

a client, and based on his/her analysis for multiple sites, the program will be developed.

According to Lynch and Hack, this type of analysis is more difficult than the traditional

site analysis; a designer must analyze different sites with more attention to the ongoing

social and ecological systems. A designer has also to examine the context of the locality

(ecology, circulation, behaviors, structures, and associated images) with equal care.

Comprehensively analyzing a site in this approach will develop the possibilities of future

plans.

Best Use. A choice can be made by evaluating and comparing different

alternatives. This comparison must balance ecology, market, and social purpose.23

At this

stage, a designer will provide the client with a comparative analysis, for each alternative,

that includes sketch layout, market analysis, and schedulable of estimated cost and

benefits. A designer is responsible to advise the client about which site can achieve the

targeted purpose more successfully.

Performance and Relevance of Data. Lynch and Hack note that site analysis, in

general, is generated for a particular purpose, but the analysis loses its benefits once a

development has been carried through.24

According to Lynch and Hack, site analysis is

not self-contained. This phase generates the first thoughts about the design. Site analysis

should be a continuing process, and information from site analysis should also be well

organized. Some of the previous information will be used through different phases of the

design and the developmental process. On the other hand, other information (such as a

23


1984).

24

Ibid

46

shifting market, ecology in transition, or a fluctuating behavior setting) can be critical to

the performance of future development. Lunch and Hack recommend that designers have

a framework that accepts and correlates changing data.25

User Analysis

According to Lunch and Hack, the main goal of site planning and, indeed, any

other design, is to fit the human needs and actions.26

Designers must understand how

site's users will interact and value transformed sites. Lynch and Hack define “users” as:

"all those who interact with the place in any way: live in it, work in it, pass through it,

repair it, control it, profit from it, suffer from it, and even dream about it."27

The

complexity that the term “user” reflects requires designers to consider different values

and considerations. Designers should find solutions that will satisfy divers and conflicting

requirements.

In many situations, future users do not have a direct voice in the developmental

process (because they are absence, voiceless, or unknown). A designer has the

responsibility to speak for these absence users' values, needs, and expectations. A

designer must have a deep understanding of the current and prospective users of the site.

Demographic analysis is the first step that investigates who will use a site and

how they are distributed among what classes of people.28

According to Lynch and Hack,

if users differ in culture and socioeconomic classes, designers should expect significant

25


1984).

26

Ibid.

27

Ibid, 67.

28

Ibid, 69.

47

differences in how these users will interact and respond to the site. They also note that

other differences may appear among people of different age, gender, personal history, life

style or ethnicity. The reaction generated by users toward a site will also vary if they own

or not, use it frequently or occasionally, or they depend on the site for their livelihood.29

Lynch and Hack point at the complexity of this variation within a large scale

project. In this case, the designer might not have the time or the resources to investigate

all the classes within a site. It will be also difficult to manage the political conflict

between these classes. Lynch and Hack argue that a designer, in this situation, will be

forced to choose certain classes of users to whose requirements he/she most closely

attend, but also he/she should keep in mind to provide the minimum requirements of

other groups. The designer's decision will be technical based on his/her past experience

from other projects. According to Lynch and Hack, this decision also will be influenced

by the political and ethical forces.30

User analysis, in Lynch and Hack's method, has five basic criteria: (1) habitability

or vital support of the place, (2) sense, (3) fit, (4) access, and (5) control. According to

Lynch and Hack, These criteria are the constant objectives that any design should aim at.

Although some detailed specifications might vary from a site to another, the basic

considerations are constant.31

Habitability or Vital Support of the Place. According to Lynch and Hack, any

environment might be judged based on its ability to support human vital function and

29


1984).

30

Ibid.

31

Ibid.

48

his/her body capability. Although the client might be concerned with just the minimal

standards of sensation and structural safety, a designer should carefully investigate

different qualities of a site (such as diseases, air pollution, noise, poor climate, glare, dust,

accidents, contaminated water, toxic waste, or unnecessary stress), and discover

biological and social threats that might affect a site and its users in the future.

Sense. When a place fit the human body structure and the way in which his mind

works, Lynch and Hack describe this criterion as "the sense of a place". This criterion

varies from a site to another based on the culture and personal experience. Lynch and

Hack argue that there are regularities in how users perceive a place based on the structure

of their senses and their brains. According to Lynch and Hack, places should have clear

perceptual identity that is recognizable, memorable, vivid, and engaging users'

attention.32

These sensuous characteristics are essential to achieve emotional security and

a sense of self. Designers must understand the meanings and the values of a site to

emphasize the identity of the users of this site. Designers need to carefully analyze the

function, the social structure, economic and political patterns, and human values in order

to create meaningful places.

Fit. While “sense” is related to human values and meanings, “fit” is related to

human activities. During site analysis, a designer should investigates users' activities and

consider behavioral issues. Lynch and Hack state some questions that can help the

designer to understand any site in this context and make a good fit with user actions; "is

there space to carry out that action? Is the site equipped and managed for it? Does the

setting reinforce its mood and structure? Is there other room to pile the snow, enough

32


1984).

49

light to see by?"33

A designer must know what people actually do and what their

experiences and expectations are. Lynch and Hack recommend designers rely on a

systematic study of behavior, or even to invite users of the site to participate in the

decision process.34

Access. Lynch and Hack define access as "the degree to which users can reach

other persons, services, resources, information and places."35

Based on user analysis, a

designer must pay attention to various groups of users that will access a site, and he/she

needs to investigate what are the considerations of site users and their preferences. New

design can encourage communication or decrease it (in order to decrease the sense of

safety, privacy and the prevention of conflictions).

Control. Lynch and Hack argue that, in ideal situations, a site should be controlled

by its users. However, this is not the case in the real environment due the reality of power

pattern and the absence of these users.36

Designers can encourage responsible control by

the users of a site through designs. In order to do that, designers must understand existing

conditions of the actual distribution of social and economic power.37

Techniques of Analysis

Lynch and Hack's approach provides different techniques that designers can use

while investigating sites. Lynch and hack classified these methods into four groups based

33


1984), 74.

34

Ibid.

35

Ibid, 75.

36

Ibid.

37

Ibid.

50

on their approach and applications: (1) indirect observation, (2) direct observation, (3)

direct communication, and (4) participant analysis. Lynch and Hack note that each

method of site analysis has its particular cost and benefits. Based on the context, each of

them can be relevant or irrelevant, practical or impractical and each of them inherent its

own problems with ethics and power.

Indirect Observation. In this method of analysis, a designer can use some record

of past behavior to explain the present and predict the future.38

According to Lynch and

Hack, this method is simple, economic, and easy to control, but also extracting the

implications of the data can be difficult too. This method is usually used if the design

center is distant, the user is unknown, or the time and the budget does not allow for direct

investigations.39

Many resources are available for the indirect observation; past choices,

precedents, archives, content analysis, traces, and formal studies.

The indirect observation method contains a whole set of techniques that can help

designers investigate a site. These techniques include: analyzing past choices, precedent

studies, archives, content analysis (such as newspapers, radio, televisions... etc.), traces

(such as worn steps, oaths in the dirt, streaks and scratches on walls, symbol displayed...

etc.), and formal studies.

Direct Observation. Lynch and Hack consider this method as one of the richest

sources for objective information during site analysis.40

Data is gathered on a site from

existing users. Data can be visual behavior or speech which can be recorded and

38


1984).

39

Ibid, 80.

40

Ibid.

51

documented using voice recorder, camera or even notebook. According to Lynch and

Hack, behaviorists consider this method to be the only reliable source of data. The two

main limitations of this approach are: first, it contains a massive amount of data including

irrelevant ones which make analyzing date tedious and may not lead to solid knowledge.

Second, it does not give information about the "inner experience: the feelings, the

images, attitudes, and values that accompany and motivate overt behavior and give it

human character."41

Lynch and Hack advise designers to study sites in "two-pronged"

ways which are direct observation and behavioral observation. They argue that when

these two approaches are combined they will generate more reliable data that can explain

how a site is functioning.42

Direct observation reveals information by analyzing different

characteristics such as behavior setting, movement pattern, behavior circus, selected

behavior and experiments.

Direct Communication. Lynch and Hack consider direct communication with the

users of a site as one of the most important source of data; it is not only analyzing what

people do, but also how they feel, conceive, and what they value. Although some

respondents may, consciously and unconsciously, hide certain things, highlight others,

and refine their memories to accord with proper attitude, this method remains one of the

most reliable and richest sources of information.43

In most situations, it is hard to interview all the users of a site, but there are some

statistical considerations in choosing the sample depending on the purpose of the

41


1984), 84.

42

Ibid.

43

Ibid.

52

research. The research might be a quantitative research that targets a wide array of

people, and this method is effective once the issues are clearly identified. On the other

hand, a qualitative research, which can be done on a relatively small group, can conduct a

in-depth interviews that focus on crucial items that need to be explained in a

comprehensive manner.

According to Lynch and Hack, descriptions of the daily life are relatively

accurate. Unlike the visual observations, interviews are centered on users and the purpose

of the project. Some surveys ask the respondents to identify the problems they have with

their environment and also to identify the good qualities of it. Respondents might be

asked to respond graphically or verbally. They might be asked to draw some images to

describe some places or actions. According to Lunch and Hack, although these drawings

might be simple and unprofessional, they can reveal a great deal of information44

(see

figure 5).

Respondents might be asked to describe their personal memories with the

surrounding environment. According to Lynch and Hack, personal memories are rich of

information, "early experience shapes present values."45

Lynch and Hack note that there

is evidence that many people wish to replicate the setting of their childhood. Such

memories need to be used with caution because they are “simplified idealizations”.

44


1984).

45

Ibid, 97.

53

Figure 5: A sketch of a neighborhood street by a resident of San Francisco: Kevin Lynch

and Gary Hack, Site Planning, 1984.

Participant Analysis. In this method, an investigator lives with a certain group and

tries to make himself/herself as much a part of their community. This approach is called

the “Participant Observation”. According to Lynch and Hack, this approach helps a

designer to understand "the underlying, inarticulate system of belief, the latent function

and the hidden agendas."46

Lynch and Hack note that this approach can be tricky; the

designer will be insider and stranger at the same time. Although he/she shares intimacies

with community members, he/she collects information that will be used by strangers. A

designer might lose trust with the community members.47

Another inside observation of a site is the “self-observation”. In this approach,

existing users of the environment will be trained to apply the observational techniques

46


1984), 100.

47

Ibid.

54

themselves. They will be in charge in analyzing their environment and configuring their

surroundings. According to Lynch and Hack, self-analysis is a new way of studying the

relations between people and place. This approach helps avoiding many political and

ethical considerations, and also encourages more participatory approach in design.48

Other techniques can be applied in investigating sites. The choice of what the

appropriate method to use, according to Lynch and Hack, is related to the nature of sites

and users. They note that each method of site analysis has its particular cost and benefits.

Based on the context, each method can be relevant or irrelevant, practical or impractical

and each of them inherits its own problems with ethics and power.49

The Scientific Systematic Method

Ian McHarg

The Scientific Systematic Method is based on deconstructing the components of

the environment into analytical layers to reduce the complexity of their relations. This

approach allows designers to see each component (such as geology, hydrology,

vegetation cover, surface waters, climatic conditions, etc.) as individual to investigate its

characteristics. It also allows designers to investigate these components as connected

parts of the whole system to understand their relations with each other. McHarg suggests

measuring, mapping, monitoring and modeling major factors of a local with different

lenses and by different specialists.50

This wide range of knowledge will allow designers

to gain better understanding of how these components work. McHarg's method proposes

48


1984).

49

Ibid.

50

Ian McHarg, Design with Nature (New York: The Natural History Press, 1969).

55

an integration of ecological knowledge into urban planning to emphasize the

environmental awareness approach to land use.

McHarg's method of site analysis reflects a scientific understanding of natural

processes. He argues that his method is rational and explicit that leads to scientific

conclusions. McHarg states that the scientific understanding of natural processes can help

designers navigate between different alternatives to effectively choose the most suitable

plan for future development.51

McHarg argues that his scientific method of site analysis

transforms site components into systems that interact with each other to create the urban

fabric, "such is the method- a simple sequential examination of the place in order to

understand it. This understanding reveals the place as an interacting system, a storehouse

and a value system."52

McHarg's main argument in his method is that "nature is a process that is

interacting, that it responds to laws, representing values and opportunities for human use

with certain limitations and even prohibitions to certain of these."53

Natural processes can

be interpreted into a value system, and these values can be measured and weighted so

they will have a rational response to a social value system. McHarg's method aims at

incorporating resource values, social values, and esthetic values in addition to the normal

engineering cogenerations about the physiographic criteria, "the best route is the one that

provides the maximum social benefit at the least social cost."54

51


52

Ibid, 151.

53

Ibid.

54

Ibid, 32.

56

McHarg proposes a guideline for site analysis that can be applied to different

projects with different scales and regions. This guideline has a systematic sequence that

proposes a rational understanding; (1) identify, (2) rank, (3) map, and (4) evaluate. To

clarify this method, let us use the process of selecting highway routes as McHarg

describes it.

First, a designer should identify the area of concern, and the major physical,

natural, and social processes. Traditional physiographic factors that are usually identified

are: slope, surface drainage, soil drainage, bedrock foundation, soil foundation, and

erosive capacity. Natural categories that should be identified are: water values, forest

values, tidal inundation, wildlife values, and scenic values. Social categories that should

be identified are: historic values, recreational values, residential values, institutional

values and land values. All these factors should be photographed on a transparent print.

Second, a designer should establish a value system to interpret the data. McHarg

proposes three grades of value (using hierarchy color and tonal intensity) to represent

these factors. For the physiographic values, a darker tone indicates greater costs. For the

natural and the social values, a darker tone indicates a higher value.

Third, a designer maps the interpretation values into a series of suitability maps.

In this stage, the transparencies of physiographic factors will be layered with each other

to produce the composite “physiographic obstructions” (see figure 6). Cultural and

natural factors will also be interpreted into a series of suitability maps. Natural and

cultural factors will be layered with each other to produce the composite “social values”.

Fourth, a designer overlay the suitability maps, the “physiographic obstructions”

and the “social values”. The relevant factors on the composite maps present the result of

57

the gross shades of gray for all the possible factors, and evaluate possible alignments.

After this systematic rational analysis, a designer can get a map that shows recommended

minimal-social-cost alignment (see figure 7).

McHarg's method proposes an integration of ecological knowledge into urban

planning to emphasize the environmental awareness approach to land use. He follows

three guiding principles of ecological planning: (1) degree of compatibility: land-use

patterns that complement each other (such as watershed protection and appropriate

buffers) will be given a higher value, (2) optimize multiple land uses which aims at

solving more than one problem with the same activity, and (3) know the physiographic

regions such as place geology, hydrology, and native vegetation at the beginning of the

planning process.55

McHarg reflects this method on different locations. Although he uses

different value systems for each site (based on the surrounding context), he still uses the

same overlaying method for every site.

McHarg applied his analytical method on the existing open spaces in Philadelphia

Metropolitan area. McHarg notes that this case study reveals the application of the

ecological view to the problem of selecting open spaces in metropolitan regions.56

He

argues that this model enhances the present mode of planning which ignores natural

processes. McHarg selects eight dominant aspects of natural process and ranks them

based on both value and intolerance to human use. These aspects are: (1) surface water,

(2) marshes, (3) flood plains, (4) aquifer recharge area, (5) aquifers, (6) steep slopes, (7)

55


56

Ibid.

58

forest and woodland, and (8) flat land. McHarg argues that reversing the order of these

aspects will reflect the gross hierarchy of urban suitability57

(see figure 8).

Figure 6: Composite “physiographic obstructions”: Ian McHarg, Design with Nature,

1969).

57

For more information about this case study refer to: Ian McHarg, Design with Nature

(New York: The Natural History Press, 1969), 43-65.

59

Figure 7: The recommended minimal- social- cost alignment: Ian McHarg, Design with,

1969.

Instead of using “blanket standard” for open spaces, McHarg suggests finding

discrete aspects of natural processes that carry their own values and prohibitions.

According to McHarg, analyzing these aspects individually and using the overlay system

60

leads to informed decisions about the suitable land-use. The understanding of these

processes should draw the pattern for future development.

Figure 8: Summary map of water and land features for part of the metropolitan area: Ian

McHarg, Design with Nature, 1969.

Another technique that McHarg uses to evaluate site analysis findings is an

evaluation matrix. This matrix, according to McHarg, summarizes the inter-compatibility

of land use, and it reflects the natural determinant for their occurrence and the outcomes

61

of their operation. He argues that if the results of this matrix are applied, this will lead to

the maximum potential conjunction of compatible land uses.

This is the method by which the nature of the place may be learned. It is

because... and so, it varies, it offers different resources. The place must be

understood to be used and managed well. This is the ecological planning

method.58

In his book, Design with Nature, McHarg uses the Potomac River Basin as a case

study to apply this approach of analysis. The value system that he used for this particular

case study includes: climate, geology (bedrock geology and historical geology),

physiographic (the Allegheny Plateau, the Ridge and Valley Province, the Great Valley,

the Blue Ridge, the Piedmont, and the Coastal Plain), hydrology, ground water, soil, plant

association, wildlife, water problems, interpretation, mineral resources, slope,

accessibility, water resources, and intrinsic suitabilities (agriculture, forestry, recreation

and urban).

According to McHarg, this method gives a simple sequential examination that

reflects a deep understanding of the place. This approach of understanding sites as

interacting systems "a storehouse and a value system" helps in proposing potential land

use as association between these values. McHarg argues that the ecological planning

method is rational, explicit and will always lead to the same conclusion. In “Ian McHarg,

Landscape Architecture, and Environmentalism: Ideas and Methods in Context”, Spirn

addresses that this method was not used just to understand how different sites were

formed, but also to identify problems and potentials that might be ignored. McHarg

method investigates how different sites function and evolve.

58


62

The Context-Sensitive Method

James A. LaGro

The Context-Sensitive Method59

is a diagnostic process that identifies the

opportunities and constraints for a specific land use program. It is systematic process

which sits within a sequence of steps of sustainable development. These steps include

programming, site selection, site inventory (physical, biological and cultural), site

analysis, conceptual design, design development, construction documentation and project

implementation (see figure 9). The first three steps are interrelated and can function in

reciprocity relations.

Figure 9: Site planning and design process: James A. LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual

Approach to Sustainable Land Planning and Site Design, 2007.

A context-sensitive approach, according to LaGro, helps to protect public health,

safety, and welfare. This approach acknowledges different issues of a site in order to

avoid inherent site problems or constraints, and also to capitalize on inherent site assets

or opportunities.60

LaGro argues that his method of site analysis can limit long-term

59

This method was labeled by its founder, James LaGro.

60



63

maintenance costs and reduce the risks to life and property from natural hazards.61

LaGro's main goal from applying context sensitive approach is to create sustainable

development that protects and celebrates each the ecological integrity and cultural

heritage of a site.

According to LaGro, building sites are the smallest units in a broad range of

spatial scales when performing site analyses. He states that the features of a site and the

project’s program determine the data that are collected for the site inventory.62

LaGro

classifies the contextual data sets of a site into three categories: physical, biological, and

cultural attributes (see table 3.2). In his position, these three attributes form a site and

need to be considered in site analysis in order to create suitable and sustainable design.

Table 3.2: Examples of physical, biological, and cultural attributes that may be mapped

at the site scale: James A. LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to Sustainable

Land Planning and Site Design, 2007.

Categories Subcategories Attributes

Physical Soils Bearing capacity

Porosity Stability

Erodibility

Fertility

Acidity (pH)

Topography

Elevation

Slope

Aspect

Hydrology Surface drainage

Water chemistry

Depth to seasonal water table

Aquifer recharge areas

Seeps and springs

61



62

Ibid.

64

Table 3.2 cont.

Categories Subcategories Attributes

Geology Landforms

Seismic hazards

Depth to bedrock

Climate Solar access

Winds (i.e., prevailing or winter)

Fog pockets

Biological Vegetation Plant communities Specimen trees

Exotic invasive species

Wildlife Habitats for endangered or threatened species Cultural

Land use

Prior land use Land use on adjoining properties

Legal Political boundaries

Land ownership

Land use regulations

Easements and deed restrictions

Utilities Sanitary sewer

Storm sewer

Electric

Gas

Water

Telecommunications

Circulation Street function (e.g., arterial or collector)

Traffic volume

Historic Buildings and landmarks

Archaeological sites

Sensory Visibility

Visual quality

Noise

Odors

LaGro divides site investigation into two main phases which are: site inventory

and site analysis (suitability analysis). In the site inventory phase, a designer collects the

physical, biological, and cultural data needed for this program-driven analysis (see figure

65

10). In the site analysis phase, a designer diagnoses and identifies the opportunities and

constraints for a specific land use program (see figure 11). According to LaGro, the

discovery of site constraints during the site analysis is a common reason for revising a

project’s program.

Figure 10: Site inventory: James A. LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to


Figure 11: Site analysis: James A. LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to


66

Site Inventory

The Context-Sensitive Method requires an understanding of relevant site's

contextual attributes. "Site inventory is a focused process of collecting and mapping

essential attribute data."63

As LaGro states, although one set of attribute data are needed

to analyze a site for the suitability of particular activity or land use, a different set of

attributes will be required for other activities or uses. LaGro considers site inventory a

fundamental step in understanding the character of any site and its physical, biological,

and cultural links with the surrounding landscape. LaGro also addresses the importance

of basic and applied research in understanding the physical, biological, and cultural

phenomena. LaGro recommends that designers consider the following four factors to help

them decide which attributes to map and analyze, and which attributes to ignore:

1. Proposed site uses (for example, project program),

2. Existing on-site and off-site conditions,

3. Requirements for permitting and approvals, and

4. Costs of data collection and analysis. 64

LaGro argues that these four factors dictate the scope of a site inventory and

analysis. He recommends that designers predefine the goals of the inventory to narrow

the scope of data collection effort which can save vast amounts of time, money, and

professional expertise.

63



64

Ibid, 99.

67

Physical Attributes. A site inventory of physical attributes, according to LaGro, is

driven by two main factors which are: the program of a project and the characteristics of

a site. Physical attributes on a site can have a broad impact on how a site is developed.

These attributes and their implementations vary from a site to another or even from one

season to another. They include parcel size and shape, topography (elevation, slope, and

aspect), geology, hydrology, soil, climate and natural hazards (see table 3.3).

Table 3.3: Selected physical factors to consider in site planning and design: James A.

LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning and Site

Design, 2007, 124.

Category Attribute Land Use Significance

Hydrology Depth to water table Suitability for building foundation excavations

Suitability for on-site wastewater treatment

Drainage patterns Flooding hazards

Stormwater management

Groundwater recharge

Geology Depth to bedrock Suitability for building foundation excavations


Fault lines Earthquake hazards

Landslide hazards

Soils pH

Porosity

Structure and texture

Plant selection and growth


Erosion potential

Topography

Slope gradient

Circulation system safety

Building design and construction complexity

Erosion potential

Stormwater management

Slope aspect Microclimate

Suitability for solar architecture

Elevation Visibility and visual quality

Drainage patterns

Climate Wind direction Location of outdoor activities

Windbreak location

Solar access Building design and placement

Location of outdoor activities

68

LaGro states that site inventory maps are very useful in documenting the spatial

distribution of a particular attribute. The physical attributes of a site, such as vegetation or

slope, are unevenly distributed over the landscape. Other attributes, such as average

seasonal temperatures and precipitation, show very little spatial variation at the site scale;

but they can vary dramatically throughout the year. This temporal variation, for instance,

might influence the use of a site from season to another.65

Biological Attributes. For LaGro, mapping the biological attributes in many sites

is a crucial part of the site inventory. He considers landscape ecology as one of the most

precious resources that provide a valuable conceptual framework for studying landscapes

and making environmental planning, restoration, and management decisions. LaGro

states that understanding environmental quality is fundamental in site analysis due to the

demands for acknowledging potential impacts of land development proposals on

environment. LaGro states that protecting existing native vegetation and wildlife

contributes to the unique sense of place of a site.66

Ecological community (habitat fragmentation, exotic species, and wetlands), trees

and wildlife species are the most critical biological attributes in addressing different

issues and potentials of a site. Trees, for example, can generate different ecological,

economic, and social benefits; they provide shade and can reduce heating and cooling

costs of nearby buildings. According to LaGro, existing trees on a site need to be

protected during the construction of buildings, utilities, and other site structures.67

Some

65



66

Ibid.

67

Ibid.

69

construction impacts (such as soil compaction of the root zone, scraping the bark from

trunks and branches, and grading within the root zone) might damage, kill, or lead to the

slow demise of these trees. Existing trees must be mapped during site analysis to avoid

these situations.68

Cultural Attributes. The Context Sensitive Method includes different cultural

contexts that need to be acknowledged during site analysis. Historical, legal, aesthetic,

and other socially significant attributes associated with land and landscapes are the main

topics for this set of attributes. According to LaGro, understating these attributes

contributes in acknowledging the values and meanings of a site to create or maintain the

“sense of place”.

Analyzing cultural attributes should include the followings: land use and tenure

(such as prior and current land use and land ownership), land use regulations (such as

federal and state regulations and local plans and regulations), property values, public

infrastructure (such as circulation and utilities), building and neighborhood characters,

historic resources, and sensory perception (such as visibility, visual quality, and noise and

odors). Land use controls, for example as LaGro notes, play a crucial role in limiting the

range and intensities of permitted uses. Historic resources also can be significant design

determinants if they are present on a site or adjacent to it. Visibility and visual quality

also influence land use preferences and real estate value.69

68



69

Ibid.

70

Site Analysis

LaGro defines site analysis as "a diagnostic process that identifies the

opportunities and constraints for a specific land use program."70

He considers site

analysis as an essential phase to the design of sustainable built environments. LaGro

refers to Frederick R. Steiner’s definition of the suitable design. A suitable design

according to Steiner is "the process of determining the fitness, or the appropriateness, of a

given tract of land for a specified use."71

LaGro summarizes that a suitable site for a

particular land use is a site that accommodates the proposed development with the

minimum amount of inputs or resources.

According to LaGro, a suitability analysis involves the following three steps:

1. Identify suitability criteria for each anticipated land use,

2. Collect and map the relevant site attribute data, and

3. Identify and map the site locations with attribute values that meet the suitability

criteria for the targeted land uses.72

LaGro argues that an important step in evaluating the suitability of a site for

specific uses is the selection of attributes, sources of data, and suitability criteria. A

designer should consider gathering relevance, reliable and available set of data that can

help him/her evaluate the suitability of a site.

70



71

Frederick R. Steiner, The Living Landscape: An Ecological Approach to Landscape

Planning (McGraw-Hill College, 2000), 188.

72

Ibid, 173.

71

Site attributes analysis branches into two main categories: (1) single attribute

analysis and (2) multiple attribute analysis. Single attribute analysis is the analysis of an

individual attribute layer. According to LaGro, this approach of analysis divides the

spatial distribution of attribute values. It might have several objectives, but in many

situations, the primary objective is to find locations that meet one or more specified

attribute conditions.73

This partitioning of attribute values can identity site areas that are

either:

1. Greater than a specified minimum (for example, elevations at least one meter

above sea level);

2. Less than a specified maximum (for example, slopes less than 20 percent); or

3. Within a specified range (for example, slopes with southwestern, southern, or

southeastern aspects).74

Multiple attributes analysis, on the other hand, involves overlaying two or more

layers of attributes (see figure 12). LaGro notes that the intersection and the union

analyses are two of the most common and useful algebraic functions for analyzing

multiple attribute layers.

Site suitability analysis should address constraints and opportunities of a site.

LaGro defines opportunities as "favorable, suitable, or advantageous locations on the

site."75

He also defines constraints as "locations that are unsuitable or restricted for a

73



74

Ibid, 174.

75

Ibid, 196.

72

particular use."76

Constraints like natural hazards are critical and affect the future of any

project. Ignoring or discounting potential hazards can lead to expensive or even deadly

disasters.

Figure 12: Overlay analysis using a linear combination approach: Source: Chrisman,

copyrighte1997, p. 132, Figure 5-11. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

As cited in James A LaGro. Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land

Planning and Site Design, 2007.

Site constraints analysis, in LaGro's method, also addresses the physiographic

constraints. He states that these constraints can cause social and environmental impacts

on the project, and can also affect its functional or land use feasibility, and it will

generate more financial requirements for construction, maintenance, and operation. A

designer must be aware of these constraints and acknowledge them during site analysis in

order to make a reasonable decision about the feasibility of a project.

LaGro also discusses the importance of analyzing urban structure that the project

will fit in. Analyzing pedestrian circulation, for example, within and around a site should

76



73

identify potential entrance locations, and should also identify problems such as lack of

walkway connectivity, (unfulfilled desire lines), inadequate capacity (congestion),

conflicts among vehicles, bicycles, and pedestrians (safety hazards), lack of seating and

other site furniture (amenities).77

Constraints analysis might reflect urban streetscapes problems such as the lack of

spatial enclosure, poor-quality materials (such as paving and seating), lack of

maintenance (such as curbs, walkways and plantings), no unifying design theme (such as

materials, forms, and proportions), insufficient or excessive lighting, and insufficient

seating and other site furniture (such as signs and trash containers).78

According to LaGro, site opportunities, such as natural features (water or

landforms), landmark buildings, or other significant cultural features, have social,

economic, ecological, and aesthetic value. He recommends designers acknowledge and

integrate significant site amenities in their plans to help them in preserving the sense of

place of a site and enhance the quality of life for future site users. LaGro argues that one

of the most important objectives of site analysis is to discover the special, interesting, and

valuable features of a site and its context. If a designer does not investigate a site within

its context, many of the existing qualities, which reflect unique natural areas and

culturally significant local places, might be overlooked.79

77



78

Ibid.

79

Ibid.

74

The Experiential Method

Bernard Lassus and Richard Haag

The Experiential Method translates the natural landscape into a poetical

experience. Both Lassus's approach and Haag's approach in reading sites propose an

innovative landscape methodology that aims at transforming the landscape design into a

viable practice. Lassus argues that a complementary perspective of discovering the

physical and the sensual, the real and the imagined, and the external and the internal

forces of a landscape is required to comprehensively understand the landscape and

transform it in a way that respects places identities.80

Lassus aims at reviving the sensual approach to its rightful place as means of

knowing the landscape. He argues that the sensory approach that makes both nature and

human nature visible is an indispensable way to reconcile science and the sensory word.

In this approach, Lassus suggests creating a harmonic balance between the nature of

culture and the culture of nature.81

Lassus considers landscape design as the set from which other site forces are

determined rather than seeing landscape design as a set of requirements that have to meet

the needs of other forces. Lassus addresses the importance of acknowledging

requirements that are related to the maintenance and enhancement of natural process, but

these requirements must serve the overall experience of landscape design.

In The Sensual Landscape of Bernard Lassus, Peter Jacobs discusses Lassus's

method in approaching the opportunities and the challenges of a landscape. Lassus starts

80

Bernard Lassus, the Landscape Approach (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania,

1998).

81

Ibid.

75

analyzing a site with a programmatic perspective based on the qualities of a site and brief

requirements of the project. Lassus develops a story that is derived from planning the

activities and the ecological, economic, and social processes of a site integrated into an

overall scenario of landscape development.82

Lassus's narrative approach is a unique

approach that searches for strategies of visually rendering cultural forces that participated

in forming the landscape.

Lassus calls his method of site analysis the “inventive analysis”.83

His method

consists of approaching a site in its singularity. He argues that in order to critically

understand a site and its qualities, a designer should visit a site with a “floating attention”

Lassus states that a designer must “immerse” himself/herself in a site in order to

understand its structure including the hidden ones. He advises designers to visit a site at

different times of the day, and under different circumstances. Multiple site visits will

generate different views, stories and memories about a site. Lassus notes that a designer's

main concern of visiting a site frequently should be "to live a few moments by and with it

in its shade and lights, to read and chat there."84

A designer should also discover the

discriminatory points of view in order to discover the micro-scale of a site, and find the

perspective that gather them in the image of a site. This step, according to Lassus, will

82

Peter Jacobs, “The Sensual Landscape of Bernard Lassus”, in the Landscape

Approach, by Bernard Lassus, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1998.

83

Bernard Lassus, the Landscape Approach (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania,

1998).

84

Ibid. 57.

76

help a designer to identify and test the visual and tactical scale in order to understand the

memories, the localities, the tales, the local legend, the stories, and the history of a site.85

Lassus also recommends that designers test new hypotheses about the past, the

present and the future of a site. He argues that this approach help designers to imagine

different “scenarios” about the future formal organization of the site.

Participatory experience for Lassus, as Riley addresses, is the start, the essence,

and the end of any design; every design is purposed to structure, serve and enhance

human experience.86

Lassus uses the term “experience” as Riley defines it: "is the gestalt

of a person's reaction to, involvement in, a landscape, and involves all of the

psychologically standard steps or states: perception, recognition, affect, evaluation ... on a

fantasy and behavior."87

Lassus distinguishes between the experience of someone who

knows a site very well and between someone who visits a site for the first time. Both

persons give significant imagination about a site and both generate different approaches

in understanding it. On the other hand, each person will develop a unique set of images,

stories, and memories.

Lassus's approach is built from his feeling of landscape, his theoretical ideas

about landscape and his passion for creating landscape that gives meanings and identities

to places and to the activities of the people that dwell this landscape. He reads the sensual

nature of a site such as its sounds, sights and smells, and develops a series of experiments

85

Bernard Lassus, The Landscape Approach (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania,

1998).

86

Ibid.

87

Robert B. Riley, “Experience and Time in the Work of Bernard Lassus,” in The

Landscape Approach, by Bernard Lassus, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania,

1998, 9.

77

with people and their relationships with the surrounding landscape. These experiments

help Lassus in understanding a site within its visible and invisible forces.

According to Jacobs, one of the most known and elaborated experiments that

Lassus has conducted is the “Red Dot”. This experiment was conducted for many public

sites. In 1971, for example, Lassus conducted this experiment in Kunstzone, Munich. He

placed a three wall white stand and a long table stacked with two sets of papers; one set is

photocopies of the experiment description, and the other set has sheets of drawing papers.

In the center of each drawing paper, Lassus printed an orange circle. Participants were

asked to draw with, on, from, against, around these circles, and then set these drawing on

the walls beside each other. The red dot was a symbol of the sun, traffic sign, human

face, etc. (see figure 13).

Lassus converts these drawings of red dots into two scales which are the visual

scale and the tactical scale. The visual scale reflects a pattern of red dot that form a grid

on a single sheet. On the other hand, the tactical scale is observed from the individual

sheets that have been touched by every participant in the experiment.88

Lassus

distinguishes between these two scales based on their meanings; the visual scale gives an

integrative perception of the overall image, and the tactical scale gives the sensory

knowledge of place derived by touch and smell.89

According to Riley, Lassus is one of few landscape architects who give the time a

heavy role in understanding sites. Lassus visualizes a site as “time-lapse film”, a

88

For more information about the Red Dot experiment refer to “The Game of Red Dots”

in The Landscape Approach by Bernard Lassus.

89

Peter Jacobs, “The Sensual Landscape of Bernard Lassus”, in The Landscape

Approach, by Bernard Lassus, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1998.

78

cinematic history of interventions and transformations past, present and future.90

Lassus

argues that the history and the present of the landscape will perpetuate the sensual

approach of the future, "for Lassus, the more we know about the gardens of the past, the

more we recognize their intimate within the poetical and cognitive concerns of their own

day."91

Analyzing existing sites, for Lassus, is to discover what qualities have been

hidden by the erosion of time. Acknowledging these qualities and understanding the

reasons for their disappearing is essential to create a design intervention that can be

maintained for the future.92

Similar to Lassus, Haag considers time as a powerful force that changes sites. He

argues that in order to understand the landscape, a designer has to understand work and

disposition of the nature. Haag's site analysis approach emphasizes the importance of

spirit, feeling, direct contact with sites, and informed intuition. Haag's approach,

according to Meyer, "opens up connection between both the environmental and cultural

histories of a particular place-Seattle and the Pacific Northwest- and phenomenological

response and ecological thinking."93

Haag's approach in site analysis aims at getting the absolute dissolution and the

very essence of a space to be able to manipulate it with minimum intervention and keep it

90

Robert B. Riley, “Experience and Time in the Work of Bernard Lassus,” in The

Landscape Approach, edited by Bernard Lassus, Philadelphia: University of

Pennsylvania, 1998.

91

Stephen Bann, “Afterward”, in Bernard Lassus, The Landscape Approach

(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1998), 184.

92

Ibid.

93

Elizabeth Meyer, “Seized by Sublime Sentiments”, in Richard Haag Bloedel Reserve

and Gas Works Park, edited by William S Saunders, Princeton Architectural Press; first

edition,1998.

79

as simple as it can be. He argues that life is very complicated, and gardens present

fantastic places for calming down and finding some “haven”. In this context, Haag

implies that the designers' role is to create some “places for retreat” in the universe that

anyone can fit himself/herself into away from the pressure of modern life style.

Figure 13: The Red Dot Experiment: Bernard Lassus. The Landscape Approach, 1998.

80

According to Haag, design intervention can come from altering or adjusting the

existing conditions of a site, editing, removing, managing, or gently shaping the

landscape.94

He always starts his site exploration by looking for the most sacred and

iconic condition or context about the site. Haag’s goal is not to ignore site's history but to

save it, preserve it, and adaptively use it again.

In the site analysis of Gas Work Park in Seattle, for example, Haag was looking

for the most significant iconic component of the site, and he eventually concluded that

the remains of the industrial plant are the most powerful icon with its historical heritage

among other contexts. Haag refused to destroy the remains of the industrial plant, and he

used these remains to reflect his adaptive reuse approach. He argues that a designer

should not ignore existing challenges in a site or even eliminate them from intervention

plans. Haag's unique intervention of the site of Gas Work Park makes this site one of the

most famous and appreciated landscape in the United States. Haag's intervention also

continues to influence many landscape architects to face different conditions and

challenges of a site.

Haag’s main argument about analyzing sites is that a designer should create

relations with the natural processes within the complex narratives of the site. Haag

believes that the complexity of the existing landscape provides a good resource to learn

from site history which can draw its potential futures. Haag's selective editing involves

the landscape to involve in a dialogue with its users to make them understand its history

of disturbance.

94

Gary R. Hilderbrand, “A Teacher's Teacher” , in Richard Haag Bloedel Reserve and

Gas Works Park, edited by William S Saunders, Princeton Architectural Press; first

edition,1998.

81

Summary

This research acknowledges the significance of the discussed methods, but it also

points at some of their limitations and biases that limit their abilities in giving a

comprehensive site analysis. The Technical Method of site analysis by Kevin Lynch and

Gary Hack focuses on the purely formal, visual, and the aesthetic qualities of landscape.

This method of site analysis has two main branches; site analysis and user analysis.

Lynch and Hack’s method relies on the relation between the natural categories of a “site”

and the social categories of “user”. The Technical Method is accessible for the majority

of users (students, architects, planners, ecologists, etc.); it invites different community

members to participate in the developmental process. The Technical Method can be

understood in direct and non-symbolic approach, and therefore, unambiguous and

unguarded terms.

Lynch and Hack's method is technical. Although it presents a significant set of

concepts and techniques that help in revealing great deal of knowledge about sites, Lynch

and Hack, briefly, mention the underlying values of a site, and they do not explore these

values in depth. They also do not discuss the importance of these values in forming

communities.

The Scientific Systematic Method of site analysis by Ian McHarg focuses on the

relation between man and nature. It proposes a rational scientific understanding of natural

processes. McHarg's method aims at incorporating resource values, social values, and

esthetic values in addition to the normal engineering considerations about the

physiographic criteria. The Scientific Systematic Method proposes an integration of

ecological knowledge into urban planning to emphasize the environmental awareness

82

approach. Although many researchers note that McHarg gives equally-weighted variables

for the different values (natural, physiographical, and social values), McHarg

recommends that during the inventory of a site, a designer should try not emphasize one

aspect of a site over the others. A designer should report and investigate most of the

components of a site with the same underlying values. When a designer starts to analyze

the data that he/she mapped, a new layer of values should appear in judging and

interpreting these data. McHarg clearly distinguishes between the collection of data and

between interpreting the relevant data.

McHarg's method has been criticized by some landscape architects because it

gives more weight to science rather than intuition. Others argue that it would be

expensive to generate this analytical process in many professional projects; especially for

urban planning projects.95

McHarg's method is more oriented toward large-scale site

analysis. Although his ideas can be reflected on small-scale sites, it would be hard, very

expensive, or even unnecessary to apply his techniques.

The Context-Sensitive Method by James LaGro is a diagnostic process that

identifies the opportunities and constraints for a specific land use program. It aims at

avoiding inherent site problems or constraints, and also to capitalize on inherent site

assets or opportunities. LaGro's goal from applying context sensitive approach is to create

sustainable development that protects and celebrates the ecological integrity and the

cultural heritage of a site.

95

Anne Whiston Spirn, “Ian McHarg, Landscape Architecture, and Environmentalism:

Ideas and Methods in Context”, in Environmentalism in Landscape Architecture, edited

by Michel Conan, Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and

Collection, 2000.

83

LaGro approaches site analysis from a diagnostic perspective that evaluates a site

for future suitability and sustainability. Although the meanings and the values of a site

are crucial for the suitability and the sustainability of any project, LaGro discusses the

tangible forces of culture and does not dig deep to understand underlying values.

The Experiential Method, presented both in Lassus's and Haag's approaches of

site analysis, proposes an innovative landscape methodology that aims at transforming

the landscape design into a viable practice. Lassus's approach is flexible; "He offers no

rules, no easy credit, certainly no stylistic convention, but rather exploration, journeys for

uncertain destination, into the nature of the landscape experience."96

Lassus refuses to

deal with the landscape with just its components; he points at the pleasure in its mystery,

incongruous, and critical aspects. Although Lassus addresses the importance of other

considerations (such as the ecological environmental confederations) in site analysis, he

did not discuss them in the sense of his approach.

Haag's approach connects both the environmental and cultural histories of a

particular place and phenomenological response with ecological thinking. He influences

designers to try to transform the limitations of a site into future potentials that can make

their designs significant with minimal disturbance to the landscape.

The Experiential Method adds a new dimension to the understanding of the

landscape; it translates the natural landscape into a poetical experience. Although Lassus

and Haag acknowledge the importance in analyzing the environmental and the physical

attribute of a site, they did not discuss them in cooperation with their ideas. It might be

hard for a designer to compromise between these aspects of perceiving a site. This 96

Robert B. Riley. “Experience and Time in the Work of Bernard Lassus”, in The

Landscape Approach, by Bernard Lassus, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania,

1998), 9.

84

conflict can create unsettled ground that might force a designer to choose between their

method and traditional site analysis methods.

All of the previous methods are significant; they all address critical aspects of the

notion of a site and approach site analysis from different perspectives. They all aim at

getting the most valuable information that enriches design process toward the most

suitable design. They all recommend engaging surrounding context (social, historical,

environmental, and economical, etc.) in acknowledging a site and its characteristics, and

they all argue that a site cannot be understood in isolation.

Although each of these methods has a set of values that they argue a designer

should cover the values and their meanings vary from one method to another, these

methods are oriented toward different scales of sites. The Scientific Systematic Method

targets regional planning projects and it would be unsuitable for small scale site analysis.

The Technical Method focuses more on the neighborhood scale of a site and analyzes it

within the neighboring context. The Context Sensitive Method navigates between

different scales but mainly focuses on the neighborhood scale and the site specific scale.

The Experiential Method is a site specific method that focuses on the existing iconic

qualities of the site itself and the identity and the sense of the place (see the matrix of the

different value systems proposed by each method).

One of the most significant differences among these methods is the role of the

designer within the site analysis phase. The Scientific Systematic Method tends to

eliminate the designer’s values and intuition. McHarg argues that his method can be

applied by different researchers and will always lead to the same conclusion.97

While the

97


85

Experiential Method acknowledges and emphasizes that each designer acts as a filter, and

embraces his/her unique ideas about the same site.

Each method has its own vocabulary, or even uses a similar term in various ways.

LaGro, for example, uses the term “suitability” in a very practical term that addresses

how a sustainable design can reduce the cost of maintaining site and create better

environment. On the other hand, “suitable” design for Haag is a design that maintains

nature and human values from the past and the present to the future.

It is crucial, to achieve the goals of this thesis, to acknowledge the inherent biases

of each method to critically understand, analyze, and evaluate them, and also to be aware

of these biases while using the concepts, the applications, and the techniques proposed by

these methods. The biases of these methods can be understood from different

perspectives. One way for analyzing their biases is to understand who benefits the most

from these methods and concepts of the site analysis process. In other words, who are the

audience and the clients (developers, landscape architects, the existing or the future users

of a site, etc.) that are targeted by the proponents of these methods?

The Technical Method by Lynch and Hack and the Context-Sensitive Method by

LaGro seem to be more oriented toward serving the goals of developers and finding

solutions and opportunities to minimize the cost in constructing projects and minimize

the future maintenance costs. Although these two methods generate site analysis in order

to find the best site for the best use, the criteria for the best site and the best use will be

stated by developers not by the existing or the future users of a site. Suitable outcomes

for Lunch, Hack and LaGro would be a design that meets the requirements of a developer

or a client.

87

The Scientific Systematic Method by McHarg is an idealistic method that is

concerned about the environment and what is suitable use that would serve the

environmental qualities. McHarg's method of site analysis reflects a scientific

understanding of natural processes. McHarg states that the scientific understanding of

natural processes can help designers navigate between different alternatives to effectively

choose the most suitable plan for future development.98

McHarg argues that his scientific

method of site analysis transforms site components into systems that interact with each

other to create the urban fabric.

Lassus and Haag try to serve the artistic version of landscape. They both try to get

the essence of a site. The suitable outcomes for Lassus and Haag are more personal and

focus more on how people recognize the experiential quality of a site. Lassus and Haag

privilege the individual experience of the place over the satisfactory contextual quality; a

context for Lassus and Haag is a linkage of ideas rather a physical context or geospatial

context.

Another significant differentiation between the methods is the set of techniques

and their implementations. Although on-site exploration, for example, is a common

technique between these methods, it differs in how it is applied from one method to

another. Site visits in the Technical Method and the Experiential Method is an act that

will be more useful if it is done without having any preconceived notions about the future

use of a site. This approach leads to uncovering more issues and to minimize the chance

of ignoring some crucial information. On the other hand, the Scientific Systematic

Method and the Context Sensitive Method consider site exploration as a program driven

98


88

act that orients the site analysis approach, and should be purposefully made for the

suitability of a site to a particular development.

Matrix 2: The Matrix of the Different Techniques Proposed by each Method

The Methods

Techniques

Flo

atin

g A

tten

tion

On-S

ite

Explo

rati

on

Par

tici

pat

ory

Exper

ience

Map

pin

g

Dia

gra

ms

Rem

ote

Sen

sing

Fie

ld S

urv

ey

Inte

rvie

ws

Pre

ceden

ts

Nar

rati

ve

The Technical

The Scientific Systematic

The Context-Sensitive

The Experiential

Having these differences in analyzing a site among these methods allow exploring

sites from different perspectives and different angles. It also gives students a wide

spectrum of tools and vocabulary that allow them navigate through their own value

system, and, in some situations, to create a hybrid method by overlaying these methods to

get the most useful tools of them to achieve the most comprehensive reading of a site. It

is useful for students to understand these methods, their overlapping and their conflicts to

increase the students' ability to decide which method to use, how to use it, and in what

particular context. It is very critical for students to understand what is missing in each

method and the inherent biases of each.

89

This research labels these methods based on their techniques and concepts. Other

labeling systems can be used in addressing these methods' approaches. For example, the

Scientific Systematic Method and the Context-Sensitive Method are diagnostic methods

that aim at evaluating the site in term of its performance. On the other hand, the

Technical Method is a descriptive method that re-acknowledges what is already known.

And the Experiential Method is an interventionist method that emphasizes the designer’s

role in understanding and transforming a site. These methods give critical ideas,

techniques, and tools that can help students in reading sites with different lenses. The

next chapter presents different teaching methodologies and tools of discovery that can

help instructors and students investigate sites. Chapter Four will also, briefly,

acknowledge biases of instructors and students as one of the most critical issues facing

students and instructors during the site analysis phase which influence their judgments

about the site.

90

CHAPTER IV

THE TEACHING OF SITE ANALYSIS

This thesis aims at establishing a teaching framework that can help students read

sites in depth and understand different components of a site in a comprehensive manner.

The previous chapters discussed the theoretical background of issues related to the terms

“site” and “site analysis” and how they are approached from different perspectives. This

chapter discusses different teaching methods that can enhance students' learning and

different “tools of discovery” that can help students investigating sites. This chapter also,

briefly, acknowledges both instructors' biases and students' biases as one of the most

critical issues facing students and instructors during the site analysis phase; which

influence their judgments about the site. Acknowledging biases will allow students

develop their critical thinking skills and a self-awareness of the role as individuals play

during the site analysis process.

Teaching Methods

Landscape architecture is a field of professional activity and it is also an academic

discipline. Landscape architecture combines science, theory and practice. This allows

different teaching methods to take place in the teaching of site analysis. Since this thesis

proposes a course for teaching site analysis (which is more likely to gather architects,

landscape architects, and urban planners in the same class), a strong interdisciplinary

philosophy is required in designing this course. Various teaching methods are used in

teaching landscape architecture; but this chapter will focus on some of the methods (such

as brainstorming, field trips, and case studies) that are more related to the teaching of site

analysis.

91

Brainstorming

Brainstorming is used frequently in the design field. It focuses on a particular

topic within a limited time frame. Although brainstorming might be generated

individually, it is more effective if an instructor applies it as a group task. This method is

usually used to solve problems and to find new and creative approaches to unsatisfactory

or inefficient procedures or systems.1

Brainstorming can be applied by forming different groups of students and giving

them a particular issue to find quick solutions or ideas. This approach encourages

students to present their instant ideas that come immediately after getting the issue.

Students' ideas generated from the brainstorming work as catalysts for new responses.

Applying this method within a group leads to more creative and effective discussions that

result in more critical and successful solutions and interventions.

Brainstorming, according to Rita S. Dunn, and Kenneth J. Dunn, provides varied

instructional approaches that encourage students (from different skills and abilities) to

participate in the group conversations. Dunn and Dunn argue that this method can

promote the spontaneity and the creativity of each group as well as of each member

within the same group; each member of the group begins to link his/her ideas with other

group member's ideas and generate a new set of more comprehensive ideas and

suggestions in an efficient and productive manner.2 Brainstorming provides ideas that can

be effectively used as a base for the entire project.

1 Rita, S. Dunn, and Kenneth J. Dunn, Approaches to Individualizing Instruction:

Contracts and Other Effective Teaching Strategies (New York: Parker Publishing

Company, Inc., 1972).

2 Ibid.

92

Field Trips

Field trips is a common learning method that requires students to use the

theoretical knowledge taught during lectures and to apply methods and techniques

presented during class exercises. Lynch and Hack consider this method as one of the

richest sources for objective information during site analysis.3 Data gathered during site

visit are based on personal experience. Students and their instructor can spend some time

on a site trying to conceptualize different issues, qualities, and factors. Data can also be

gathered on a site from existing users. Data can be visual behavior or verbal which can be

recorded and documented using voice recorder, camera, or even notebook.

Lassus notes that this method can approach a site in its singularity. He argues that

in order to critically understand a site and its qualities, a designer should visit a site with a

“floating attention.” Lassus states that a designer must “immerse” himself/herself in a site

in order to understand its structure including the hidden ones. He advises designers to

visit a site at different times of the day and under different circumstances. Multiple site

visits will generate different views, stories, and memories about a site. Lassus notes that a

main concern for a designer from visiting a site frequently should be "to live a few

moments by and with it in its shade, and lights, to read and chat there."4 A designer

should also discover the discriminatory points of view in order to discover the micro-

scale of a site and find the perspective that gathers them in the image of a site. This step,

according to Lassus, will help a designer identify and test the visual and tactical scale in


1984). 4 Bernard Lassus, The Landscape Approach (University of Pennsylvania, 1998), 57.

93

order to understand the memories, the localities, the tales, the local legend, the stories,

and the history of a site.5

Case Studies

Case studies are used in many professions; they present the collective record of

the progress and the development of information and knowledge in landscape

architecture. Mark Francis defines a case study as "a well-documented and systematic

examination of the process, decision-making and outcomes of a project that is undertaken

for the purpose of informing future practice, policy, theory and/or education."6 Case

studies is a well-established research method; it typically utilizes a variety of research

methods such as experimental, quasi-experimental, and historical analysis methods.

According to Francis, case studies are useful because they can provide practical

information on potential solutions to different issues. Case studies are also effective for

developing problem solving skills and useful evaluation strategies. Francis considers case

studies as a valuable way to build a body of criticism and critical theory.7 In the site

analysis process, case studies can open different perspectives in reading a site that can

help designers to analyze and evaluate the qualities of a site in reference to previous

experiences and approved knowledge.

There are multiple methods an instructor can use to teach site analysis; each

method generates different techniques, skills, and knowledge. The most important goal in

selecting among these methods can be used to encourage students to be active members

5 Bernard Lassus the Landscape Approach (University of Pennsylvania, 1998).

6 Mark Francis, Case Study Method for Landscape Architecture (Washington, D.C.:

Landscape Architecture Foundation, 1999), 9.

7 Ibid.

94

in the teaching process. Engaging students in active learning allows them to bring their

experiences and knowledge to the classroom discourse.

Tools of Discovery

Landscape architects use different tools during site analysis that can help them

understand the surrounding factors and conditions. These tools can help a designer

uncover what already exists and generate new ideas and knowledge about a site. These

tools (such as diagrams, maps, digital imagery, audio/video recordings, audible and visual

media, and human body and senses) can also play a significant role in documenting,

communicating, and reflecting designers' creative thinking.

Diagrams

Diagramming is a useful tool in representing spatial and physical relationships.

The main purpose of a diagram is to transform a complex idea into a simple and powerful

visual statement. Diagrams can analyze different issues on different scales. Figure/ground

diagrams, for example, generate urban scale analysis, nodes and landmarks diagrams

generate a neighborhood scale analysis, and site materials and site axes diagrams

generate a site-specific scale analysis (see figure 14).

Maps One of the main tools that landscape architects use are maps. Maps can help an

investigator gain a better understanding of a site on different scales and for different

qualities. Maps can give designers a power to control the scale and investigate a site in a

comprehensive manner. Maps (such as political maps, historical maps, topographic maps,

climate maps, economic or resource maps, and thematic maps) can uncover what an

95

investigator cannot see during the site visit, and they are rooted in and essential to power

and knowledge.8

Figure 14: Different diagramming scales to explain different site's qualities: Gordon

Cullen, The Concise Townscape, 2009.

Mapping is a common technology and language that different disciplines use and

read. Thompson Waterman states that these days, maps have become more accurate and

rich in information that can reflect different layers of discovery, “mapping shows not

only what exists, but also what possibilities exist. They offer a way of testing different

possibilities for design.”9

Mapping is a wide and rich science. It would be hard to cover all the mapping

techniques and tools in this section. Therefore, this section will focus on two well-known

and used mapping techniques called “mental maps” and “geographic information systems

(GIS) maps”. These two techniques of mapping vary between each other in their

8 Brian Harley, "Maps, Knowledge, and Power," in the Iconography of Landscape edited

by Denis Cosgrove and Stephen Daniels, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

1988).

9 Thompson Waterman, The Fundamental of Landscape Architecture (Fairchild Books,

2009), 57.

96

complexity, applications, and purposes. Mental maps and GIS maps are used in different

scales, different context, and for different information sets.

Mental maps. Mental maps are one of the first maps that people used to locate

themselves in some place in the city. Mental mapping is a simple technique that allows

designer to draw his/her initial understanding of a site. These maps are based on a

designer perception and feeling about a place (see figure 15). Mental maps reflect a

designer’s understanding of a site and his/her way of interacting and dialoguing with

different forces and components of a site. Information from mental maps can address

circulation routes, human behavior, site context, events and other site specific qualities.

Figure 15: Mental map: Problems of the Boston image. Kevin Lynch, The Image of the

Cit, 1960.

In The Image of the City, Lynch focuses on the power of mental maps as a tool for

discovering a place. The mental map is an image held by an individual reflecting his/her

97

way of remembering a place.10

A designer can use this map to help him/her recall

information or even memories; mental maps are the designer’s way of placing

him/herself in the context. A good mental map can create a harmonious relation between

a site and a designer which will enrich his/her on-site experience. Although the

technology in creating maps has been evolved very significantly, mental maps remain

one of the most useful methods in re-discovering a site.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Maps. GIS is one of the most useful tools

in mapping different attributes of a site. GIS maps represent logical collections of

individual features with their geographic locations and shapes in addition to descriptive

information about each feature stored as attributes (see figure 16). Businesses,

governments, educators and scientists, environmental and conservation organizations,

natural resource groups, and utilities benefit from using GIS.

GIS combines software, hardware, and information for analyzing, managing, and

recording all geographical forms to set reference information. GIS is a useful tool in

organizing large amount of data into special maps and tables supporting the strategic

decision-making process. GIS allows designers view, understand, question, interpret, and

visualize data in many ways that reveal relations, patterns, and trends in the form of

maps, globes, reports, and charts.11

GIS maps can be very accurate and subjective, and a designer does not have any

personal inputs in formulating these maps. GIS maps can generate science based

knowledge that can be used to support an argument and to understand social and

10

Kevin Lynch. The Image of the City (Cambridge Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1960).

11

RUP Data Solutions. Accessed March 23, 2013,

http://www.rupdata.com/Geographic_Information_System.html

98

environmental issues. Information from GIS maps can address environmental issues,

ecological information, natural and physical qualities, and social structures. However,

GIS may appear subjective but designers must be reflective on what information they

select and how it is to be used.

Figure 16: GIS map for the recreational facilities at Globeville and Elyria Swansea-

Denver.

Digital imagery

Landscape architects rely on digital imagery during site analysis because it

provides much of the site documentation and it can save moments, details, or even time.

Photography can help a designer in reading sites at two levels. At the ground level they

99

understand the human experience of the landscape at the scale of walking. At the sky

level, such as the aerial photography, different details that might be unseen at ground

level can be revealed. Spirn considers photography as a powerful tool that can be used for

various issues during the design process, "photography can be a way of thinking about

landscape, a means to read a landscape, to discover display processes and interactions,

and to map out the structure of ideas."12

Audio/Video Recordings

A designer can use audio and video recordings as a tool for documenting certain

events, actions, and behaviors. Recording is helpful when conducting interviews with site

users. Site users might share their feelings, memories, needs, and expectations about a

site. Audio and video recordings allow a designer to revisit and reread data. They also

give a livable image about a site within a particular time frame or event.

Audible and Visual Media

According to Lynch and Hack, newspapers, radio, television, novels, paintings,

popular songs, political speech, and advertisements can be helpful in understanding a site;

these tools record images and positions about the environment and the culture of a site in

a certain period.13

Although audible and visual media can provide different information

about different issues, different scales, and different urban and social settings, a designer

must be aware of the contexts and the biases of the generator of a particular media.

Narratives

12

Anne Whiston Spirn, “Reading and Telling Landscape: Photography as a Tool of

Discovery and Design”, A lecture at ASLA annual meeting, Phoenix 2012.

13


1984).

100

Narratives help designers express their site reading in a condensed way. If a

designer uses narratives as a tool in discovering and documenting a site, he/she will

engage his/her personal experience, feelings, and perceptions. Although narratives can be

a poetical tool to talk about a site including some sensual qualities, it might reveal less

explicit information that cannot be understood by some readers with different knowledge

and backgrounds.

Human Body and Senses

The human body and senses are powerful tools that can help a student understand

a site. A student can use his/her body as a mean for measuring a site and its components

(see figure 15). A student should know, for example, his/ her standing height, standing

eye height, height to shoulders, seated height, seated eye height, back of knee down to

back of foot, legs: hips to floor, arm span: lateral reach, tip-to-tip of fingers, arm

overhead: floor to tip of finger, forward reach: shoulder to tip of finger, elbow to tip of

fingers, length of hand, width of hand, one inch on hand, length of foot, and his/ her pace.

It is important for students to understand the dimensions and proportions of the human

body in order to design public and private spaces that respect human convenience,

comfort, and satisfaction. In addition, this technique helps students think about the

different people who will be using these spaces.

Human senses, as well, are essential tools for a designer when reading sites.

Human senses can assist a designer in understanding the visual and the sensual qualities

of a site such as light and shadow, smell, sounds, and texture. In the Islamic landscape

design, for example, creating a dialogue between human senses and the landscape is the

essential goal of any design. When a designer uses his/her senses in understanding a site

101

he/she starts to develop a sensual relation that links him/her to the site. This unique

sensual relation can lead to a better understanding of the underlying forces and values of

a site, and also can create new opportunities to discover some qualities that cannot be

seen or evaluated by using traditional tools.

Figure 15: Le Modular, Le Corbusier, 1948.

Different tools should be selected and used with awareness of the different

purposes or situations. A site, a designer, and resources (such as budget, time and

availability) can determine what tools can be used in investigating sites. It is useful for

students to demonstrate a good knowledge about the tools that are available, where to use

them, and in what particular context. All these tools and others such as drawings,

matrices, and hand sketching can help students explore, read, and document sites in a

comprehensive manner.

102

Understanding Biases

Understanding biases is one of the most critical issues that faces students during

the site analysis phase which can affect their judgments related to a site. Instructors and

students are humans; they have their own beliefs and values. They must be aware of their

cultural and societal biases about certain groups or certain issues about a site. Their self-

awareness will promote the educational experience and eventually enhance students'

learning, "self-awareness plays a prominent role in the development of cultural

competence, improving classroom dynamics, and the results of classroom discussions."14

According to Maribel V. Bird, if instructors and students are aware about their own

biases, they will be more open and receptive to different positions.15

The self-awareness

of different biases from instructors and students will generate a productive conversation

that aims at generating the most useful outcomes during the site analysis phase.

In “Empowering Education: Critical Teaching for Social Change”, Ira Shor

argues that teaching is biased because instructors are not “impartial entities”. Their

personalities have been shaped through their personal experiences. Instructors

(consciously or unconsciously) reflect their past influences, values, and traditions

inherent to their cultures.16

Bird also argues that an instructor who recognizes his/her own

biases will be able to approach ideas and arguments from different angles which in turn

will encourage students to think more critically and have more valuable conversations.

14

Maribel V. Bird, “Exposing Cultural Bias in the Classroom: Self-Evaluation as a

Catalyst for Transformation” in Analytic Teaching and Philosophical Praxis, Vol. 32

Issue 1, 18.

15

Ibid. 16

Ira Shor, Empowering Education: Critical Teaching for Social Change (Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1992).

103

On the other hand, an instructor must be aware of the biases of his/her students. Bird

notes that understanding different biases generated by students will turn the classroom

into inclusive discourse that discusses different topics that are relevant to student's value

systems.17

Bird proposes two techniques to minimize the effects of the biases of an instructor

during the teaching process. For Bird, instructors should teach out of their comfort zone,

and second they should consider themselves as learners equally to their students. Bird

argues that an instructor, in general, is more open to discuss, argue and question if he/she

is teaching a topic that he/she is familiar with (the “comfort zones” for the instructor).

Teaching out of their comfort zone, according to Bird, could become the best opportunity

for an instructor to make some adjustments to remove the discomfort which will require

an instructor to modify or change behavior or even to gather knowledge or rationalization

instead of taking a defensive position, "teachers should be open to their own

transformations by challenging their own biases and assumptions."18

Another technique that Bird proposes is that an instructor considers

himself/herself as a learner equally to his/her students. This technique encourages

students to be active members in the teaching process. If students are engaged in the

teaching process they will bring their experiences and knowledge to the classroom

discourse. This interactive teaching method eliminates the possibility of generating

17

Ira Shor, Empowering Education: Critical Teaching for Social Change (Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1992).

18

Brian Harley, "Maps, Knowledge, and Power," in Denis Cosgrove and Stephen Daniels

(eds.) The Iconography of Landscape (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988).

104

passive learning.19

Creating connections between an instructor and his/her students

benefit both the instructor and the students; it potentially reveals a higher level of

engagement and much more meaningful interaction. 20

The proposed site analysis course, presented in Chapter Five, targets first year

students in architecture, landscape architecture and urban planning programs. As Bird

notes, first year students arrive at the environment of a university with existing set of

biases; students come with preconceptions, prejudices, assumptions, and expectations. In

the teaching of site analysis, the conflicts between different biases (instructors’ biases and

students’ biases) are very common. Site analysis combines instructor biases, students'

biases, and the inherent biases of the method of site analysis. The instructor and the

students must be aware of these different biases in order to evaluate site issues in a

critical manner. An active dialogue between students and their instructor minimizes the

effects of different biases and opens new perspectives in approaching site issues.

Summary

Different methods can take place in teaching site analysis in order to enhance

students' learning experience; each method generates different techniques, skills and

knowledge. As well, different tools can be used for different purposes or situations. A

site, a designer, and resources (such as budget, time and availability) can determine the

most effective tools that can be used in investigating sites. It is useful for students to

19

According to Bird, passive learning is a direct result of not engaging students in the

classroom discourse. The students are not actually learning but collecting information

that most likely will never be critically analyzed, but simply used again in the same

form and shape as it was originally received from the instructor.

20

Maribel V. Bird, “Exposing Cultural Bias in the Classroom: Self-Evaluation as a

Catalyst for Transformation” in Analytic Teaching and Philosophical Praxis, Vol. 32

Issue 1, 18.

105

demonstrate a good knowledge about the available tools, where to use them, and in what

particular context. The most important goal of choosing among different methods and

techniques is to encourage students to be positive members in the teaching process to

allow them bring their experiences and knowledge to the classroom discourse.

This chapter also acknowledges the biases of instructors and students as one of

the most critical issues students face during the site analysis phase which can affect their

judgments about the site. The instructor and the students must be aware of these different

biases in order to evaluate site issues in a critical manner. This self-awareness generates

an active dialogue between students and their instructor minimizes the effects of different

biases, and open new perspectives in approaching site issues. Acknowledging this issue

will enhance the students’ learning and develop their critical thinking skills. Chapter

Five, will use all the information discussed in the previous chapters to establish a

framework for teaching site analysis that assists students in understanding how to read

sites in a comprehensive manner.

106

CHAPTER V

THE PROPOSED FRAMEWORK FOR TEACHING SITE ANALYSIS

This chapter proposes a framework for teaching site analysis which is based on

the theories, the methods, and the tools of discovery presented in the previous chapters.

The proposed teaching framework will be the structure for developing a course for

teaching site analysis for first year students in architecture, landscape architecture and

urban planning programs.

The proposed framework reflects the interaction between the knowledge

generated from the methodologies of site analysis presented in chapter three and the

experience generated by applying and using the teaching methods and the tools of

discovery presented in chapter four. This framework represents an integrative method


methods of the evaluation and the documentation of sites.

The Concept of the Teaching Framework

The concept of the framework follows Christophe Girot's concepts of reading the

landscape presented in “The Four Trace Concepts in Landscape Architecture”. Girot's

framework consists of four operating concepts which he calls “Trace Concepts”. These

concepts are landing, grounding, finding, and founding. Girot argues that these concepts

help designers have better understanding of the surrounding context; these concepts are

clustered around issues of memory: marking, impressing, and founding.1

According to Girot, each concept of the four trace concepts focuses on a particular

“gradients” of discovery, inquiry, and resolution, and each concept requires specific



107

attitude and action. Girot argues that to achieve the comprehensive understanding of any

site, the Four Trace Concepts should be followed in the same order. Girot notes that this

highly intuitive approach will enrich the ability of a designer to combine the physical

experiences with the local research.

Landing is the first moment when a designer arrives at a site; it is the first act of

reading a site. Landing describes the very first moment when a designer is transferred

from the unknown to the known. Landing only occurs once and requires a particular state

of mind. Girot encourages designers to land on a site with a complete sense of

displacement be more effective. A site should be approached with “wonderment” and

“curiosity”. Girot notes that every single detail in a site is very important and nothing is

allowed to be considered to be obvious or neutral. According to Girot, the sense of

landing is personal; a designer's initial landing draws impressions and insights that will

stay with him/her through the whole design process.2

Grounding, the second step in reading a site, is less personal and relates to the

careful research and analysis. A designer starts to understand a site by overlaying

different analytical layers and recognizing the visible and the invisible forces. When

grounding, a designer investigates a site from different angles and uses different lenses.

Grounding is when a designer starts collecting the required data (different environmental,

social, and cultural attributes) and examining, mapping, and evaluating different aspects

of a site. Grounding can occur several times during the reading of a site (depending on

the required information as a designer progress in his/her investigation of a site), and in

each time, it can reveal a new set of information.



108

During the finding stage, a designer will put his/her ideas together. Finding

combines the process of searching as well as the outcomes. Finding gives the evidence to

support the designer’s initial intuitions about a site. Findings are unique because they

belong to a place and contribute to its identity.3 While finding, a designer starts the

brainstorming process. He/she starts to link the information together and draw some

conclusion about a site. Finding has a correlated relation with grounding; although

grounding has to occur before finding for the first time, some findings require a designer

to go back to a site and re-investigate different aspects of it to draw more clear and

accurate conclusions.

The last stage of Girot’s concepts is founding. In this step, a designer brings

his/her intervention to the site by importing something new or even working with the

existing. Founding is the result of analyzing the other three steps (landing, grounding, and

finding) "the act of founding is always a reaction to something that was already there."4

In the founding step, a designer starts using information and conclusions that have been

developed from the previous steps (landing, grounding, and finding) and reflects them

into real act toward a site development. Founding is the step when a designer starts to

make decisions about a site and transforming them into design actions.

The Four Trace Concepts defined by Girot will be the guideline for the proposed

teaching framework. This framework, as mentioned earlier, will be the structure used to

develop a course for teaching site analysis for first year students in architecture,

landscape architecture, and urban planning programs. First year design students are



4 Ibid, 64.

109

targeted by this course because they represent a raw material with more ability to learn

and less discipline biases that they more likely will develop as they proceed in their

programs. This course also proposes joining students from the three programs in the same

course in order to introduce them to a wider spectrum of ideas, and also to give them the

opportunity to experience how they can collaborate with different disciplines in

approaching the same issue (which is one of the main goals of this thesis).

The Structure of the Teaching Framework

The course structure will be divided into lectures, on-site explorations,

assignments, and a final project. The academic semester consisting from sixteen weeks,

that will be divided in half into two main sequences. The first sequence will build up the

knowledge, skills, and techniques required to read a site in a comprehensive manner, and

also will develop students' skills in investigating sites. The second sequence will be the

opportunity for students to apply what they have learned during the first sequence.

During this course students will be introduced to weekly assignments that will

follow the four trace concepts in landscape architecture.5 In the first sequence of the

semester the instructor will require the students to follow the first three concepts (landing,

grounding, and finding) with one week to investigate each topic. The second sequence

will have two sets of assignments; the first will be very similar to the assignments during

the first sequence and the second set of the assignment will require the students to follow

“founding”, the fourth concept of the Trace Concepts, to produce programs for different

sites.

5 See appendix B.

110

It is important here to note that the choice of the site/sites to be investigated

during this course will be based on specific criteria that will meet the requirements of

different methods of site analysis discussed in Chapter Three. Each site has to have

significant qualities (natural, cultural, social, etc.) which allow different methods to take a

place in analyzing this site.

Sequence One (Weeks One to Eight)

This sequence aims at building the required knowledge, skills, and the techniques

that can assist students during his/her reading of sites. A single site will be chosen to be

investigated. Visiting one site several times has many benefits to students learning. First,

analyzing the same site allows the students to apply different methods and techniques on

the same conditions and context. This approach can help them critically evaluate these

methods and techniques to eventually be capable of deciding which method to use, how

to use it, and in what particular context. This approach will also help the students

navigate through their own value system and, in some situations, create a hybrid by

overlaying these methods to achieve more comprehensive reading of a site.

Another main benefit of visiting one site several times is what Lynch, Hack, and

Lassus emphasis about the importance of visiting a site at different times and under

different circumstances. According to them, multiple site visits will generate different

views, stories, and memories about a site that will help a designer identify and test the

visual and tactical scale in order to understand the memories, the localities, the tales, the

local legend, the stories, and the history of the site.6


1984).

111

In each week of this sequence (from week one to six), the instructor and his/her

students will meet twice. In the first class meeting, the instructor will lecture and

introduce a specific topic and then invite the class into an open discussion. The second

meeting will be an on-site exploration. When students arrive at the site, the instructor will

give them an assignment which aims at exploring the site individually. At the end of this

class, the instructor will generate an open discussion about the site and the assignments

will be collected (students are not allowed to save copies of the assignments). In the

seventh week, students will be introduced to McHarg's method and they will be required

to do some computer-based analysis. The Instructor will also introduce midterm

assignment.

In the eighth week, students are required to visit the same site individually and

produce a comprehensive analysis for this site. Students are allowed to navigate between

the methods, the techniques, and the tools that were presented in the previous weeks.

Students are also allowed to propose new techniques and tools that were not discussed

previously in the class. At the end of this week, students are required to produce a

presentation discussing their site analysis and findings. Students will be asked to explore

what methods were used and why, tools and the techniques they used, and also the biases

they discovered. The instructor will provide students with their previous assignments to

assist students in comparing between the two sets of findings.

Sequence Two (Weeks Nine to Sixteen)

This sequence gives the students the opportunity to apply what they have learned

during the first sequence. In this sequence, the students will be divided into small groups.

Each week of the first four weeks of this sequence will focus on a different site. In the

112

first meeting of each week, the instructor will meet students on a site. Each group will be

required to analyze the site and produce a comprehensive reading of it. Each group will

present their findings on the second meeting of each week.

At the end of the group presentations in the twelfth week of the semester, the

instructor will introduce the final project. The final project will require the groups to

develop a design program for each site of the four sites. Groups are also required to

support their ideas with case studies. Each week (from week thirteen to week sixteen)

will be dedicated to one site.

At the end of the semester, the instructor will require the students to generate an

open discussion about what values they developed during the course of the semester and

how their understanding about the surrounding contexts and their impacts on the reading

of a site has been transformed. Students will also be required to discuss different biases

they faced during their investigating of the sites and what approaches they followed to

critically analyze these sites with minimal understanding biases.

This course aims at providing students with the required knowledge to develop

and refine their abilities to effectively evaluate relevant natural, social, and cultural

characteristics of a site and its context. Students are expected to demonstrate an

understanding of the existing methods of site analysis, and also to demonstrate an

understanding on what might be missing in each method and identify inherent biases.

Students are expected to comprehensively explore site's issues based on research and

analysis of multiple theoretical, social, political, economic, cultural, and environmental

contexts before formulating design decisions.

113

Student Learning Outcomes

The most prevalent methods of site analysis and different tools of discovery for

students to use in reading sites in a comprehensive manner are presented in this chapter.

The information documented in the previous chapters provides students with the required

knowledge to develop and refine their abilities to effectively evaluate relevant natural,

social and cultural, characteristics of a site and its context. This teaching method aims at

the following students learning outcomes:

1. Students are expected to demonstrate an understanding of the existing methods of site

analysis and to evaluate each method for biases and limitations.

2. Students are expected to demonstrate an awareness of their own values and biases and

to develop techniques and tools that develop their critical thinking skills.

3. Students are expected to comprehensively explore site's issues based on research and

analysis of multiple theoretical, social, political, economic, cultural, and

environmental contexts before formulating design decisions.

4. Students are expected to understand a set of cognitive, effective, and behavioral skills

and characteristics that support effective and appropriate interaction in a variety of

cultural contexts.

5. Students are expected to demonstrate an understanding of how different disciplines

(architecture, landscape architecture, urban planning, ecology, etc.) interact in the

same discourse of site analysis in terms of their climatic, ecological, technological,

socioeconomic, public health, and cultural factors.

6. Students are expected to develop their investigative skills to be able to gather, assess,

record, apply, and raise critical questions, interpret information, consider diverse

114

points of view, and comparatively evaluate diverse environmental, social, and cultural

issues.

At the end of the proposed course, students are expected to acquire the required

knowledge and skills that can help them in comprehensively read different sites within

different context. Students are expected to generate an integrative understanding that

combines the experience-based methods of on-site exploration and the academic methods

of the evaluation and the documentation of sites.

Summary

This chapter presented a proposed framework for teaching site analysis which is

based on the theories, the methods, and tools of discovery presented in the previous

chapters. The concept of the framework is inverted from Christophe Girot's “Trace

Concepts” of reading the landscape presented in “The Four Trace Concepts in Landscape

Architecture”. These concepts are landing, grounding, finding, and founding. Students

will be introduced into weekly assignments that will follow these concepts in order to

apply them during different site investigations.

The proposed framework is lucid and adaptable to various levels, various

purposes, and various students with different backgrounds, knowledge, and skills. Based

on the proposed teaching framework, a course for teaching site analysis for first year

students in architecture, landscape architecture, and urban planning programs was

developed. The course is divided into two main sequences. The first sequence will build

up the knowledge, the skills, and the techniques that are required to read a site in a

comprehensive manner, and also will develop students' skills in investigating sites. The

115

second sequence will be the students' opportunity to apply what they have learned during

the first sequence.

At the end of the proposed course, students are expected to acquire the required

knowledge and skills that help them comprehensively read different sites within different

context. Students are expected to generate an integrative understanding that combines the

experience-based methods of on-site exploration and the academic methods of the

evaluation and the documentation of sites.

116

CHAPTER VI

CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION

The information provided in the preceding chapters demonstrates the importance

of the comprehensive reading of sites during the site analysis phase of the design process.

To draw the most comprehensive image of a site, this thesis examined different methods

used in analyzing sites over the past few decades. This research also discussed different

teaching methodologies and tools of discovery that assist instructors and students during

the reading of sites. In addition, this research acknowledges both instructors' biases and

students' biases as one of the most critical issues facing students and instructors during

the site analysis phase which influence their judgments about the site.

Based on the information, ideas, and insights discussed in this research, this thesis

presents a framework for teaching site analysis. This framework is lucid and adaptable to

various levels, various purposes, and various students with different backgrounds,

knowledge and skills. The proposed teaching framework is the structure for the designed

site analysis course which aims at assisting students to acquire the required knowledge

and skills that can help them in comprehensively reading different sites within different

contexts. Students are expected to generate an integrative understanding that combines

the experience-based methods of on-site exploration and the academic methods of the

evaluation and the documentation of sites.

Research Summary

The findings state that although the notion of “site” has already been studied in

various methods, no single method gives a comprehensive image of a site. Each method

117

has developed a discourse oriented toward highlighting one perspective of understanding

a site and eliminates or underestimates the others.

The findings also reveal that the term “site” cannot be precisely defined, but a

whole set of variables and factors and their relations need to be considered. If each

discourse or discipline discusses the notion of a site without taking into account other

considerations of the different discourses, they will uncritically iterate their own

conceptions of sites which will leave a great deal of knowledge unarticulated.

This research uses the term “reading sites” to distinguish between traditional site

analysis and the targeted comprehensive site analysis. To read a site in a comprehensive

manner, this research argues that designers must look and comprehend the meanings and

the underlying values of a site. They also must discover the information that is visible and

invisible, and then critically understand them to obtain the most comprehensive image of

a site.

The information provided in chapter two demonstrates that the most obvious

benefits of a comprehensive approach in site analysis are the technical ones (such as

topography, climate, hydrology, and soils). The review of related literature found that the

careful analysis of sites and their contexts can lead to higher-quality built environments.

If the existing conditions of a site are poorly understood, the development of this site can

result in detrimental environmental, social, and economic impacts.1 Acknowledging

different issues about a site can help avoiding inherent site problems. Accurate

information from reading the physical features of any site leads to more suitable projects.

A designer also can orient his/her design concept based on site analysis findings; these

1 James A LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning


118

findings give a designer a rational scientific base for spatial organization and orientation

of buildings, structures, and outdoor spaces. These informed decisions can reduce energy

consumption for heating and cooling buildings and create more pleasant environment.

Besides the technical considerations of sites, this research argues that designers

must be aware of how a site is socially and culturally constructed. Sites feature a multiple

of interests. Conflicts between underlying goals and values must be precisely understood

and reflected through design decisions. Designers play a significant role in bridging the

gap between stakeholders and community members. The literature review presented in

chapter two points out that a designer should understand which parts of the community

are inter-connected; how small-scale things people care about reflect big changes

affecting the community system as a whole.

It was useful for the goals of this research to understand how site analysis is

approached in different methods to demonstrate an understanding of these methods, and

to be able to discover what is missing in each method and the inherent biases in each of

them. This thesis focused on the most prevalent site analysis methods in the design

professions. These methods reflect different perspectives and approaches in site analysis,

and the proponents of these methods are from various disciplines; architects, landscape

architects, planners, educators, researchers, and theorists.

The methods discussed in Chapter Three are: the Technical Method by Kevin

Lynch and Gary Hack, the Scientific Systematic Method by Ian McHarg, the Context-

Sensitive Method by James A. LaGro, and the Experiential Method by Bernard Lassus

and Richard Haag. The findings of this research acknowledge how all of the four

previous methods are significant; they all address critical aspects of the site phenomenon

119

and approach site analysis from different perspectives. They all aim at getting the most

valuable information that enriches design process toward the most suitable design. They

all recommend engaging surrounding context (social, historical, environmental, and

economical, etc.) in acknowledging a site and its characters, and they all argue that a site

cannot be understood in isolation.

Discussion

This research acknowledges the significance of the discussed methods, but it also

points at some of their limitations and biases that limit their ability to lead the designers

to a comprehensive site analysis. All of these methods have a set of values that their

proponents argue a designer should cover most of them. These values and their meanings

vary from one method to another. These methods are oriented toward different scales of

sites and use different vocabulary and they also use some similar term in various ways.

Another significant differentiation among the methods is the set of techniques and their

implementations. Although on-site exploration, for example, is a common technique

among these methods, it differs in how it should be applied from one method to another.

Although all of these methods are significant and influence the designers’

research in different fields, no single method gives a comprehensive image of the site.

Each method has developed a discourse oriented toward highlighting one perspective of

understanding the site and eliminates or underestimates the others. Having these

differences in analyzing a site among these methods allow exploring a site from different

perspectives and different angles. It also gives students a wide spectrum of tools and

vocabulary that allow them to navigate through their own value system, and in some

situations, creating a hybrid by overlaying these methods to get the most useful tools of

120

them to achieve the most comprehensive reading of a site. It is useful for students to

understand these methods, their overlapping, and their conflicts to increases students'

ability to decide which method to use, how to use it, and in what particular context.

The methods of site analysis discussed in this research presented critical ideas

about the theoretical background of issues related to the terms “site” and “site analysis”.

It was also fundamental for achieving the goals of this thesis to discuss different teaching

methods that can enhance students' learning experience and different “tools of discovery”

that can assist students in investigating sites.

Different methods can take place in teaching site analysis in order to enhance

students' learning experience; each method generates different techniques, skills, and

knowledge. As well, different tools can be used for different purposes or situations. A

site, a designer, and different resources (such as budget, time, and availability) can

determine what the most effective tools to be used in investigating sites are. It is useful

for students to demonstrate a good knowledge about the available tools, where to use

them, and in what particular context. This thesis presented some teaching methods and

tools of discovery that focus on encouraging students to be positive members in the

teaching process and to allow them bring their experiences and knowledge to the

classroom discourse.

This thesis also acknowledges both instructors' biases and students' biases as one

of the most critical issues facing students and instructors during the site analysis phase

which influence their judgments about a site. The instructor and the students must be

aware of these different biases in order to evaluate site issues in a critical manner. This

self-awareness will generate an active dialogue between students and their instructor in

121

order to minimize the effects of different biases and to open new perspectives in

approaching site issues.

The proposed teaching framework, in its concept and structure, aims at

emphasizing the awareness of these different qualities and issues (in the methods of site

analysis, the teaching methods, and the teaching biases discussed in this thesis). This

awareness can increase the opportunity to understand different sites in an objective

perspective that aims at achieving the most suitable intervention that fits within the given

context. The proposed framework, through its systematic process, argues that the design

program should be generated from the site itself and based on the findings of reading the

site. Another critical concept that this teaching framework points at is the cooperation

between different design disciplines (architecture, landscape architecture, urban planning,

ecology...etc.) within the same investigation. The proposed framework gives students the

opportunity to get closers to different disciplines engaged in the design process. The

argument here is that this approach will create more open discussions that generate more

critical ideas and insights; which eventually will enhance the decision making process

and students’ knowledge and skills.

Future Research

The politics of sites is one of the topics that this research did not cover.

Understanding the political forces and their impacts on forming the community is very

fundamental. Discussing this topic within its wide dimensions will need an extensive

research and review for related literature and legal documents in various discourses.

Based on the limited time of this research and its core targets and goals, this research

acknowledged this issue in general without exploring it in depth. Future research should

122

discuss the political impacts on the decision-making process and also how political trends

contribute to forming communities and transforming social and cultural values.

This thesis also presented a framework based on the existing methodologies of

site analysis, and it is not proposing a new method. This thesis is more oriented toward

the teaching of site analysis rather than the professional practice. Future research related

to this thesis would aim at structuring a new methodology of site analysis that gives a

comprehensive reading of site taking onto account all the critical issue that existing

methods have discussed within one comprehensive method.

Another critical piece that needs more research and discussion is the inherent

individual's biases which are understood by individual's cultures. As mentioned earlier,

this thesis briefly acknowledged instructors' and students' biases as one of the most

critical issues students face during the site analysis phase. Teaching biases is a

complicated topic and, in many situations, cannot be avoided. Future research might aim

at developing new teaching methods that are oriented toward limiting the effects of

different biases can be useful tools to enrich the learning experience and to demonstrate a

successful student learning.

As noted earlier, the choice of the site/sites to be investigated during this course

will be based on specific criteria that will meet the requirements of different methods of

site analysis discussed in Chapter Three. Each site has to have significant qualities

(natural, cultural, social, etc.) which allow different methods to take place in analyzing

this site. Future research can also include evaluating different findings about the different

sites (with different scales and qualities) that are investigated during different version of

the proposed course to understand and compare the results generated by teaching the

123

course in different approaches. This evaluation can help the instructor decide on the

limitations and the potentials of each approach in order to enhance students’ learning and

develop the teaching strategies used during the proposed course.

124

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allen, Stan. “Infrastructural Urbanism.” On Landscape Urbanism (Austin TX: Center for American Architecture and Design University of Texas at Austin School of Architecture, 1999), 174-181.

Appleton, Jay. The Experience of Landscape (Wiley; revised edition, 1996).

Bell, Simon. Elements of Visual Design in the Landscape (London: Spon Press, 2004).

Bell, Simon, ed. Exploring the Boundaries of Landscape Architecture (Taylor & Francis, 2012).

Bird, Maribel V. “Exposing Cultural Bias in the Classroom: Self-Evaluation as a Catalyst for Transformation.” Analytic Teaching and Philosophical Praxis, Vol. 32 Issue 1, 18-21.

Braae, Ellen, and Tietjen, Anne. “Constructing Sites on a Large Scale: Towards New Design Methods.” Nordic Journal of Architecture (Copenhagen: The Danish Architectural Press, 2011).

Brandenburg, Andrea M, and Carroll, Matthew S. “Your Place or Mine: The Effect of Place Creation on Environmental Values and Landscape Meanings.” Society and Natural Resources: An International Journal, Volume 8, Issue 5, (January1995): 381-398.

Burns, Carol, and Kahn, Andrea. Site Matters: Design Concepts, Histories, and Strategies (New York: Routledge, 2005).

Burns, Carol. “On Site: Architectural Preoccupation.” in Drawing Building Text, edited by Andrea Khan, 146-167, New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2005.

Corner, James. “Ecology and Landscape as Agents of Creativity.” In Ecological Design and Planning, edited by Georg Thompson, and Steiner Frederick, 80-108, New York: Willy, 1997.

Corner, James. “The Agency of Mapping: Speculation, Critique, and Invention.” in On Landscape Urbanism, edited by Dean J. Almy, Michael Benedik, and Christine Wong, 148-173, Austin TX: Center for American Architecture and Design University of Texas at Austin School of Architecture, 1996.

Corner, James, Alex S MacLean, and Denis Cosgrove. Taking Measures across the American Landscape (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996).

Corner, James. “Recovering Landscape as a Critical Cultural Practice.” In Recovering Landscape. Essays in Contemporary Landscape Architecture, edited by James Corner, 1-26, New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999.

Cosgrove, Denis E, Social Formation and Symbolic Landscape (University of Wisconsin Press, 1984)

125

Cresswell, Tim. Defining Place: Place: A Short Introduction (Wiley-Blackwell; first edition, 2004).

Cullen, Gordon. The Concise Townscape (Oxford: Architectural Press, 2009).

Dunn, Rita, S., and Dunn Kenneth J. Approaches To Individualizing Instruction: Contracts and Other Effective Teaching Strategies (New York: Parker Publishing Company, Inc., 1972).

Foxley, Alice. Distance and Engagement: Walking, Thinking and Making Landscape. Vogt Landscape Architects (Baden: Lars Muller Publishers, 2010).

Francis, Mark. Case Study Method for Landscape Architecture (Washington, D.C.: Landscape Architecture Foundation, 1999).

Girot, Christopher. The Four Trace Concepts in Landscape Architecture (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999).

Hauxner, Malene. Drawing and Reading: Theory and Method in Landscape Architecture (Copenhagen: University of Copenhagen, Forest & Landscape, 2010).

Harley, J. Brian. "Maps, Knowledge, and Power." in The Iconography of Landscape, edited by Cosgrove Denis and Daniels Stephen, 277-312, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988.

Harvey, David. “From Space to Place and Back Again: Reflections on the Condition of Postmodernity”, in Mapping the Future: Local Culture, Global Change, edited by Joy Bird, Curtis Barry, Tim Putnam, George Robertson and Lisa Tickner, 3-29, London: Routledge, 1993.

Higuchi, Tadahiko. The Visual and Spatial Structure of Landscapes (Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1975).

Hilderbrand, Gary R. “A Teacher's Teacher.” in Richard Haag Bloedel Reserve and Gas Works Park, edited by William S Saunders, 73-76, Princeton Architectural Press; first edition,1998.

Jacobs, Peter. “The Sensual Landscape of Bernard Lassus”, in The Landscape Approach, edited by Bernard Lassus, 1-8, (University of Pennsylvania, 1998),

Jakle, John A. The Visual Elements of Landscape (The University of Massachusetts Press Amherst, 1987).

Kahn, Andrea. From the Ground Up: Programming the Urban Site (The Harvard Architecture Review, 1998), 54–71.

Kahn, Andrea. “Overlooking: A Look at How We Look at Site or … Site as “Discrete Object” of Desire.” In Desiring Practices. Architecture, Gender and the Interdisciplinary, edited by Katerina Ruedi, Duncan McCorquodale and Sarah Wigglesworth, 174-185, London: Black Dog Publishing, 1996.

126

Kaplan, Rachel. The Analysis of Perception via Preference: A Strategy for studying How the Environment is Experienced (Landscape Planning, Volume 12, Issue 2, 1985), 161–176.

Kaplan, Rachel and Herbert, Eugene J. “Familiarity and Preference: A Cross-Cultural Analysis.” In Environmental Aesthetics: Theory, Research, and Applications, edited by Jack L Nasar, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988.

Kwon, Miwon, One Place after Another: Site Specific art and Locational Identity (Cambridge, London: MIT press, 2002).

LaGro, James A. Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning and Site Design (Wiley, Second Edition, 2007).

Lassus, Bernard. The Landscape Approach, (University of Pennsylvania, 1998).

Lewis, Peirce K. “Axioms for Reading the Landscape.” In The Interpretation of Ordinary Landscapes, edited by Donald W Meinig, 11-32, Oxford University Press, 1979.

Li , Xiaodong, “Meaning of the Site: A Holistic Approach Toward Site Analysis on Behalf of the Development of a Design Tool Based on a Comparative Case-Study between FengShui and Kevin Lynch's System”, (PhD diss. Universiteitsdrukkerij, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, 1993).

Lynch, Kevin and Gary, Hack. Site Planning (Cambridge Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1984).

Lynch, Kevin. The Image of the City (Cambridge Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1960).

Massey, Doreen B. Space, Place and Gender (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994). McHarg, Ian. L, Design with Nature (New York: The Natural History Press, 1969).

Meinig, Donald. W. “The Beholding Eye: Ten Versions of the Same Scene”, In The Interpretation of Ordinary Landscapes: Geographical Essays, edited by Donald. W. Meinig and John B Jackson, 33-50, New York: Oxford University Press, 1979.

Meyer, Elizabeth. “Seized by Sublime Sentiments.” in Richard Haag Bloedel Reserve and Gas Works Park, edited by William S Saunders, 5-28, Princeton Architectural Press; first edition,1998.

Meyer, Elizabeth. “Site Citations: The Grounds of Modern Landscape Architecture.” In Site Matters: Design Concepts, Histories, and Strategies, edited by Carol Burn and Andrea Kahn, 92-129, New York: Routledge, 2005.

Norberg-Schulz, Christian. Genius Loci: Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture (New York: Rizzoli, 1979).

127

Shor, Ira. Empowering Education: Critical Teaching for Social Change (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).

Saunders, William S. ed. Richard Haag Bloedel Reserve and Gas Works Park (Princeton Architectural Press; First Edition, 1998)

Spirn, Anne Whiston. “Ian McHarg, Landscape Architecture, and Environmentalism: Ideas and Methods in Context.” in Environmentalism in Landscape Architecture, edited by Michel Conan, 97-114, Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 2000.

Spirn, Anne Whiston. The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design (New York: Basic Books, 1985).

Spirn, Anne Whiston. The Language of the Landscape (Yale University Press, 1998).

Stegner, Wallace. A Sense of Place (New York: Random House, 1992).

Steiner, Frederick R. The Living Landscape: An Ecological Approach to Landscape Planning (McGraw-Hill College, 2000).

Todd, Kim W. Site, Space, and Structure (New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1985).

Tuan, Yi-Fu. Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience (University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1977).

Tuan, Yi-Fu. Topophilia: a Study of Environmental Perception, Attitudes, and Values (New York: Columbia University Press, 1974).

Tylor, Edward B. Primitive Culture (New York, NY: Gordon Press Publishers, 1973).

Waterman, Thompson. The Fundamentals of Landscape Architecture (Fairchild Books, 2009).

Internet Sources

Briggs, Xavier de Souza. Rethinking Community Development: Managing Dilemmas about Goals and Values (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2007), accessed February 2, 2014. http://web.mit.edu/workingsmarter/media/pdf-ws-kia-brief-0701.pdf.

Merriam-Webster.com. "Read," accessed September 23, 2013. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/read.

Merriam-Webster.com. "Site," accessed September 23, 2013. http://www.merriam-

webster.com/dictionary/site.

128

Oxforddictionaries.com. "Read," accessed September 23, 2013. http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/read?q=read.

Oxforddictionaries.com. "Site," accessed September 23, 2013.

http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/site?q=site.

129

APPENDIX A

THE USE OF THE TERMS “SITE”, “SITE ANALYSIS”, AND “READ” OVER

TIME

Use over time of: “site”: Google Books Ngram viewer, 2013.

Use over time of: “site analysis”: Google Books Ngram viewer, 2013.

Use over time of: “read”: Google Books Ngram viewer, 2013.

130

APPENDIX B

READING SITES: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH FOR SITE ANALYSIS

COURSE SYLLABUS

A site is a set of environmental and social relations that form human communities

and influences human actions and behaviors. Each site has its unique set of historical,

natural, and cultural values that determines how a site is evaluated. According to

Christophe Girot in “The Four Trace Concepts in Landscape Architecture”, a designer

understands a site by overlaying different analytical layers and recognizing the visible

and the invisible forces. In this context, designers should go beyond the tangible forces;

tangible forces provide designers with a partial image that does not reflect what is in a

site and how it should be transformed. On the other hand, sites have problems and issues

that are highly interrelated. In many situations, the solution for one problem requires

designers to solve other site's issues. Few, if any, issues can be treated effectively in

isolation from other site's issues. According to Girot, the designer understands a site by

overlaying different analytical layers and recognizing the visible and the invisible forces.1

The careful analysis of sites and sites’ context can lead to higher-quality built

environments. If the sites' existing conditions are poorly understood, sites development

can result in detrimental environmental, social, and economic impacts.2

1 Christopher Girot, the Four Trace Concepts in Landscape Architecture (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999). 2 James LaGro, Site Analysis, A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning and Site Design (John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 2008).

Introduction

131

This course aims at providing students with the required knowledge to develop

and refine students' ability to effectively evaluate relevant natural, social, and cultural

characteristics of a site and its context. Students are expected to demonstrate an

understanding of the existing methods of site analysis, and to evaluate each method to be

able to discover what is missing in each method and what the inherited biases in each of

them are. Students are expected to comprehensively explore site's issues based on

research and analysis of multiple theoretical, social, political, economic, cultural, and

environmental contexts before formulating design decisions. At the end of this course,

students are expected to acquire the required knowledge and skills that help them

comprehensively read different sites within different context. Students are expected to

generate an integrative understanding that combines the experience-based methods of on-

site explorations and the academic methods of the evaluation and the documentation of

sites.

This course presents the most prevalent methods of site analysis and different

tools of discovery to help students read sites in a comprehensive manner. The methods,

tools and technique targeted by this course will provide students with the required

knowledge to develop and refine students' abilities to effectively evaluate relevant

natural, social and cultural characteristics of a site and its context. By the end of this

course students should be able to:

1. Demonstrate an understanding of the existing methods of site analysis and to

evaluate each method for biases and limitations.

Student Learning Outcomes

Course Objectives

132

2. Demonstrate an awareness of their own values and biases and to develop techniques

and tools that develop their critical thinking skills.

3. Comprehensively explore site's issues based on research and analysis of multiple

theoretical, social, political, economic, cultural, and environmental contexts before

formulating design decisions.

4. Understand a set of cognitive, effective, and behavioral skills and characteristics that

support effective and appropriate interaction in a variety of cultural contexts.

5. Understand how different disciplines (architecture, landscape architecture, urban

planning, ecology, etc.) interact in the same discourse of site analysis in terms of

their climatic, ecological, technological, socioeconomic, public health, and cultural

factors.

6. Develop their investigative skills to be able to gather, assess, record, apply, and raise

critical questions, interpret information, consider diverse points of view, and

comparatively evaluate diverse environmental, social, and cultural issue.

The course structure will be divided into lectures, on-site explorations,

assignments and a final project. The academic semester consists of sixteen weeks which

will be divided in half into two main sequences. The first sequence will build up the

knowledge and the techniques required to read a site in a comprehensive manner, and

also will develop students' skills in investigating sites. The second sequence will be the

students' opportunity to apply what they have learned during the first sequence.

The Structure of the Course

133

Sequence One (Weeks One to Eight)

In each week of this sequence (from week one to six), the instructor and the

students will meet twice. In the first meeting, the instructor will lecture and introduce a

specific topic and then invite the students into an open discussion. The second meeting of

each week will be an on-site exploration. In the seventh week, the students will be

required to do some computer-based analysis. The Instructor also will introduce midterm

assignment. On the eighth week, the students will be required to visit the same site

individually and produce a comprehensive analysis for this site.

Sequence Two (Weeks Nine to Sixteen)

In this sequence, students will be divided into small groups. Each week of the first

four weeks of this sequence will focus on a different site. In the first meeting of each

week, the instructor will meet the students on a site. Each group will be required to

analyze the site and produce a comprehensive reading of it. Each group will present their

findings on the second meeting of each week. At the end of the group presentations on

the twelfth week of the semester the instructor will introduce the final project.

• Attendance: You are expected to be on time for the class and prepared to fully

participate.

• Readings: Each week, you will be assigned to read particular texts about a

specific topic. The readings will be emailed and/or posted on the course website at

least three days before the class.

• Field assignments: These assignments will be completed on the site individually.

We will visit the same site several times. The instructor will present each

Requirements

134

assignment to the students at the beginning of the class. Assignments will be

collected at the end of the class, and the students are not allowed to keep a copy of

the assignments for themselves.

• Midterm project: Each student will be required to produce a comprehensive

reading of the same site that we were exploring in the previous weeks. Students

will also be required to present their findings to the class.

• Site analysis and presentation assignments: These assignments will be completed

on the site in small groups. Each week, we will visit a different site. The instructor

will present each assignment to the students at the beginning of the class. Each

group will be required to analyze the site and to produce a comprehensive reading

of it. Each group will present their findings during the second class of each week.

• Final project: Students will be divided into small groups. The final project will

require the groups to develop a design program for each site of the four sites.

Groups are required to support their ideas with case studies. Each week (from

week thirteen to week sixteen) will be dedicated for one site.

Date Topic Assignment Readings Week 1 - Introduction

- Syllabus + Schedule - Survey - What is a Site?

Assignment 1: Body Measurements

TBD

Week 2 - What is Site Analysis? - Why is important to understand site in a comprehensive manner? - Site visit: Landing

Assignment 2: Landing TBD

Course Schedule

135

Week 3 - Tools of Discovery - Site visit: Grounding and Finding

Assignment 3: Sensual Qualities of Sites

TBD

Week 4 - The Experiential Method by Bernard Lassus and Richard Haag - Site visit: Grounding and Finding

Assignment 4: Visual Qualities of Sites

TBD

Week 5 The Technical Method by Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack - Site visit: Grounding and Finding

Assignment 5: Cultural Attributes and Issues

TBD

Week 6 - The Context-Sensitive Method by James A. LaGro - Site visit: Grounding and Finding

Assignment 6: Social Attributes and Issues

TBD

Week 7 - The Scientific Systematic Method by Ian McHarg - Computer-based analysis: Grounding and Finding - Introduction for the Midterm assignment

Assignment 7: Environmental Attributes and Issues of sites

TBD

Week 8 Midterm DUE: In-class presentation

None

Week 9 - On-site Exploration. - Site One Analysis Presentation

Landing, Grounding, and Finding Assignment: DUE: In-class presentation

None

Week 10 - On-site Exploration. Site Two Analysis Presentation


None

Week 11 - On-site Exploration. - Site Three Analysis Presentation


None

Week 12 - On-site Exploration. - Site Four Analysis Presentation


None

136

Week 13 - No class. - Site One Programming Presentation

Founding: DUE: In-class presentation

None

Week 14 - No class. -Site Two Programming Presentation


None

Week 15 - No class. Site Three Programming Presentation


None

Week 16 - No class. Site Four Programming Presentation


None

Attendance and participation 10%

Field assignments: 20%

Midterm project: 20%

Site analysis and presentation assignments: 25%

Final project: 25%

Absences, tardiness, assignments and papers

Except for documented health or disability reasons and family emergencies, or

other life incidents, I will not accept excuses for absences, tardiness, missed or papers not

submitted.

Please contact the instructor as soon as possible if you know that you might miss a class

or not meet a deadline so that we can discuss arrangements.

Policies, rules, and regulations

Grading scheme

137

Classes begin and end on time. Two unexcused absences will be allowed before

an academic penalty of one half-grade reduction is imposed. Papers, projects, or any

other required assignments that are turned in late will receive one half grade reductions

for every day they are late. Any student who fails to turn in a papers or an assignment

will receive either a zero for the work missed.

Plagiarism

Sadly, plagiarism is a serious concern in academia. Students are expected to

know, understand, and comply with the ethical standards of the university, including

rules against plagiarism. Plagiarism is the use of another person’s ideas or words without

acknowledgement. The incorporation of another person’s work into yours requires

appropriate identifications and acknowledgement. Instructors expect students to be

familiar with and use proper citation formats, such as MLA, Chicago Manual of Style,

APA, etc.

The following are considered to be forms of plagiarism when the source is not

noted: word-for-word copying of another person’s ideas or words; the “mosaic”

(interspersing your own words here and there while, in essence, copying another’s work);

the paraphrase (the rewriting of another’s work, while still using their basic ideas or

theories); fabrication (inventing sources); submission of another’s work as your own; and

neglecting quotation marks when including direct quotes.

The use of precedent in design projects is not just legitimate, but oftentimes

necessary and will greatly enhance the quality of your projects. Project precedents will

need to be referenced properly, similar to textual sources. Instructors will report cases of

138

plagiarism to the appropriate departmental, college, and university committees and assign

a failing grade to the paper or the assignment.

If there are any questions or uncertainty regarding plagiarism and proper

referencing practices, please contact any of the course instructors immediately.

Decorum

The following ground rules apply to all students and are designed to ensure a

classroom environment conducive to learning for all students:

1. Pagers, beepers, cellular telephones, and handheld internet devices must remain

deactivated throughout lectures, discussions and presentations. Outside of those times and

within studio, they should only be used for communications pertinent to or necessary for

the studio work.

2. Students who engage in disruptive classroom behavior will be reported to the

concerned authorities at the university. Disruptive behavior includes, but is not limited to,

arriving late to class without explanation or apology; leaving class early without

explanation or apology; reading a newspaper or magazine; reading a book with no

connection to the content of the course; engaging in prolonged private conversations;

sleeping in class; eating, drinking, and/or gum chewing; passing notes; harassment or

verbal or physical threats to another student or to the instructor; failing to deactivate

pagers, beepers, cellular phones, and/or handheld internet devices; bringing children to

class.

139

APPENDIX C

SAMPLES OF THE PROPOSED ASSIGNMENTS

Intent

This assignment is the fourth assignment in the reading sites series.

In this assignment, you are expected to analyze one or more of the site's visual qualities

during your on-site exploration. It is important for a designer to understand different

visual qualities of a site in order to generate a realistic projection of visual elements that

represent the living environment as its users perceive it.

Requirements

Students are required to explore the visual qualities of the site in depth in order to

discover and understand what these qualities are, how these qualities are constructed and

maintained, and why these qualities draw the structures, the organization, and the identity

of the site.

Format

Students are expected to apply different visual means to record, document,

measure, explore, and discover different visual qualities through: diagrams, mental maps,

drawings, sketches, photographs, matrices, and collage. This assignment must be

completed during the class period and it must be submitted to the instructor at the end of

the class. (Students are not allowed to keep copies of the assignment for themselves).

Assignment 4: The Visual Qualities of Sites

140

Intent

This assignment is the students' opportunity to apply what they have learned

during the first sequence. Each student is required to visit the same site we have been

exploring during the last few weeks in order to produce a comprehensive analysis of this

site. Students are allowed to navigate between the methods, the techniques, and the tools

that were presented in the previous weeks. Students are also allowed to propose new

techniques and tools that were not discussed previously in the class. At the end of this

week, each student is required to produce a presentation discussing his/her analysis

findings and pointing at what methods, tools and the techniques he/she used during

his/her reading of the site and why they decided to use them.

Requirements

Students are required to analyze different site's values and forces such as (but not

limited to) the following:

Aesthetic Values (visual and sensual):

• Spatial organization and relationships • Visual quality • Visibility • Focal points and landmarks • Memories • Place Identity • Underlying values and meanings

Cultural-Social Values

• History • Social structure • Politics • Public infrastructure • Demographics • Economy

Midterm Assignment: Landing, Grounding, and Finding.

141

• Land use • Behavior system • Utilities • Circulation • Neighborhood and building characters

Environmental Values (physical and biological)

• Geography • Topography • Hydrology • Geology and soil • Climate • Vegetation • Wildlife • Water • Habitability • Natural hazards

Format

Students are expected to apply different means to record, document, measure,

explore, and discover different site's values through: diagrams, mental maps, drawings,

sketches, photographs, matrices and collage. This assignment must be presented as in

class presentation. Make sure that your presentation reflects an integrative understanding


methods of the evaluation and the documentation of sites.

iii this thesis for the master of landscape architecture...

Documents