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IMPACTS OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT ON SURFACE AND
GROUNDWATER IN DISTRICT PESHAWAR, PAKISTAN
By
ATTAULLAH KHAN
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY
UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR-PAKISTAN
(2018)
IMPACTS OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT ON SURFACE AND
GROUNDWATER IN DISTRICT PESHAWAR, PAKISTAN
By
ATTAULLAH KHAN
This research thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment for the requirements of Doctor
of Philosophy in Geography
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY
UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR-PAKISTAN
(2018)
DEDICATED TO
My late parents & teachers who have always encouraged
me at every step of life
19/03
i
Acknowledgement
In the name of Allah the most Merciful and compassionate the most gracious and
beneficent. First of all I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to Almighty Allah,
the most merciful and beneficent, who bestowed upon me the potential and ability to
successfully complete this research work. I also owe all the possible tributes to the Holy
Prophet Hazrat Muhammad (S.A.W) who is a source of knowledge and symbol of
guidance for all humanity. I acknowledge and express the deepest and affectionate
gratitude to my research supervisor, Dr. Atta-ur-Rahman Associate professor,
Department of Geography, University of Peshawar, for his encouragement, cooperative,
valuable guidance and supervision during this research work.
I would like to acknowledge specifically Dr. Samillah Lecturer Department of
Geography, University of Peshawar for his help, cooperation and support during the
entire research work. I am also thankful with the core of my heart to Prof. Dr. Iffat
Tabassum, Chairperson, Department of Geography, for her honest and professional
efforts. I would also like to thank my respected teachers, Prof. Dr. Mahmood-ul-Hassan,
Prof. Dr. Amir Nawaz Khan, Prof. Dr. Fazlur Rahman, Dr. Ihsanullah Khattak, Dr. Jamal
Nasir, Dr. Anwar Saeed, Dr. Shehla Gul and Mr. Janas Khan, whose valuable guidance
enabled me to complete this research work.
My thanks are due to Mr. Muhammad Ayub Assistant Professor, Higher Education
Department Khyber Pakhtunkhwa who helped and accompanied me during my research.
I am cordially thankful to Mr. Israr Khan Lecturer in English, Higher Education
Department Khyber Pakhtunkhwa for reviewing my thesis. I also express a sense of
gratitude to Shakil Mahmood Lecturer Department of Geography, Govt. College
University Lahore, for giving me advices and valuable inputs in my research work. I am
also thankful to Mr. Ghani Rahman Lecturer Department of Geography, University of
Gujrat and Mr. Tahir Waqas (M.S student), Ripah International University Rawalpindi,
for helping me in mapping. I am also thankful to Dr. Javid Akbar Director ARI, Mr.
Abdul Aziz Assistant Director PHED and Mr. Khalil-ur-Rahman PHED for helping me
in data collection.
ii
I am also thankful to Higher Education Department, Govt. of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
for providing me financial support for this study which enabled me to complete this
research work successfully. I am very thankful to all the ministerial staff of the
Department of Geography, University of Peshawar for their cooperation during my
studies. Lastly, I owe a debt of gratitude to all my family members whose support and
fortitude served as a driving force during the entire course my research.
Attaullah Khan
iii
Abstract
This study analyses the spatio-temporal impact of built environment on surface and
groundwater in district Peshawar, Pakistan. The population of district Peshawar has
increased from 0.556 million in 1981 to 4.269 million in 2017. Similarly, the built-up area
also increased from 3.7 % in 1981 to 16.27 % in 2014 and the projected figure is 22 % by
2030. In the study area, water supply system is fetched almost exclusively from
groundwater with over 1400 public and more than 3000 private tube wells, dug wells and
hand pumps. In order to achieve the study objectives, data were collected from various
sources. For analysis of groundwater status, data were collected from all the union councils
(UCs). However, for detailed analysis, eleven union councils were selected from six
drainage basins within the district. Parallel to this, 140 tube wells were selected randomly
for detailed and intensive analysis of stratigraphy and groundwater. In addition, individual
household survey and Focused Group Discussions (FGDs) with stakeholders were
conducted in the sample UCs. Structured interviews were also conducted with the officials
of the concerned line agencies to cross check and validate the results.
Secondary data were acquired from Public Health Engineering Department, Water and
Sanitation Services Peshawar, Provincial Irrigation and Drainage Authority, Geological
Survey of Pakistan, Soil Survey of Pakistan, Pakistan Meteorology Department,
Agriculture Research Institute Tarnab, Provincial Disaster Management Authority,
Population Census Organization and Peshawar Development Authority. Multi-spectral
Landsat images of 1981 and 1991 were acquired from open source, whereas SPOT images
for the year 2009 and 2014 were obtained from SUPARCO and the same were spatio-
temporally analyzed for land use land cover classification and mapping. To delineate
watershed of rivers and streams, SRTM images were used. The spatial databases were
developed in ArcGIS and ERADAS imagine. Curve Number (CN) techniques and models
were used for surface runoff and volume calculation. All the six drainage basins were
delineated and the watersheds within the district were marked as the urban drainage basins.
The analysis revealed that natural groundcover has been gradually replaced by Impervious
Surface Cover (ISC) and this steady change is mainly at the cost of consuming fertile
agricultural land. In district Peshawar, socio-economic, infrastructural and physical
iv
developments are the major intervening factors of land take and surface cover changes.
The analysis further revealed that the urban watersheds of rivers and streams have recorded
remarkable growth and expansion in term of built environment. This continuous increase
in ISC within the urban drainage basins of rivers and streams have further escalated surface
runoff and reduced infiltration, seepage and percolation to groundwater. Consequently, in
district Peshawar the frequency and intensity of urban and riverine floods have been
increased and expected to aggravate in future. Average daily demand of fresh water has
been increased from 56 million liters per day (ml/day) in 1981 to 213 ml/day in 2017 which
will further rise to 310 ml/day by 2030. The analysis also revealed that the fresh water
sources are under constant pressure. Increased rate of extraction from groundwater will
have serious implications and can lead to urban drought. The multiplication of soil sealing
in the form of built-up areas have halted the aquifers recharge and posed a potential threat
to fresh water sources. It was also calculated that the recharge rate through rainwater has
been reduced from 108.75 mm/year in 1981 to 91.35 mm/year in 2014, whereas the
groundwater discharge is 105 mm/year. This indicates that the rate of groundwater
discharge is more than the recharge, which clearly indicate the groundwater depletion
especially in the corporation limits. Analysis further reveals that in old city, a number of
tube wells have been dried up and deep drilling has been done for the extraction of fresh
water. This calls upon the decision-makers to supply fresh water from the rivers, to
minimize pressure on the existing groundwater sources and to check the unprecedented
conversion of natural ground into impermeable land covers.
v
List of Acronyms
ARI Agriculture Research Institute
BCM/A Billion Cubic Meters/Annum
C & W Communication and Works
CCRI Cereal Crops Research Institute
CN Curve Number
DCR District Census Report
DEM Digital Elevation Model
FATA Federally Administered Tribal Areas
FDE Finite Difference Equation
FFWC Flood Forecasting and Warning Cell
FGD Focus Group Discussion
GDP Gross Domestic Products
GIS Geographical Information System
GSP Geological Survey of Pakistan
ha Hectare
HBV Hydrologiska Byrans Vattenavdelning
HEC-RAS Hydrologic Engineering Centre River Analysis System
HRU Hydrologic Response Unit
vi
HSG Hydrological Soil Group
IDPs Internally Displaced Persons
IDW Inverse Distance Weighted
ISC Impervious Surface Cover
KP Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
LULC Land Use Land Cover
ml/day million liters per day
mm Millimeter
NRSC National Resource Conservation Service
PDA Peshawar Development Authority
PDMA Provincial Disaster Management Authority
PHED Public Health Engineering Department
PIDA Provincial Irrigation and Drainage Authority
PMD Pakistan Meteorology Department
RS Remote Sensing
SCRI Sugar Cane Research Institute
SCS Soil Conservation Service
SMLC Supervised Maximum Likelihood Classification
SOP Survey of Pakistan
vii
Sq.km Square kilometer
SRTM Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission
SSP Soil Survey of Pakistan
SUPARCO Space and Upper Atmospheric Research Commission
SWAT Soil and Water Assessment Tool
SWM Stanford Watershed Model
UC Union Council
UPU Urban Policy Unit
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
USGS United States Geological Survey
VIC Variable Infiltration Capacity
WAPDA Water and Power Development Authority
WSSP Water & Sanitation Services Peshawar
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements ....................................................................................... i
Abstract .......................................................................................................... iii
List of Acronyms ........................................................................................... v
Table of Contents .......................................................................................... viii
List of Tables ................................................................................................. xiii
List of Figures ................................................................................................ xv
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION……………………………………………… 1
1.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 1
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem ......................................................... 3
1.3 Significance of the Study ......................................................................... 4
1.4 Research Questions .................................................................................. 4
1.5 Research Hypotheses ............................................................................... 5
1.6 Purpose of the Study ................................................................................ 5
1.7 Objectives of the Study ............................................................................ 5
1.8 Research Variables................................................................................... 5
1.9 The Study Area ........................................................................................ 6
1.9.1 Location: Absolute and Relative .......................................................... 6
1.9.2 Soil and major Landforms .................................................................... 7
1.9.2.1 Alluvial Plains .................................................................................... 9
1.9.2.2 Piedmont Plains ................................................................................ 10
1.9.2.3 Loess Plains ....................................................................................... 10
1.9.2.4 Stabilized Sand Dunes ...................................................................... 10
1.9.3 Industries ............................................................................................... 10
1.9.4 Climate .................................................................................................. 11
1.9.5 Demography………………………………………………………….. 14
1.9.5.1 Urbanization ...................................................................................... 15
1.9.5.2 Factors of Urbanization ..................................................................... 18
1.9.5.3 Urban Policies .................................................................................... 19
1.9.6 Status of Surface and Groundwater ..................................................... 20
ix
1.9.7 Initiatives Regarding Water Resources ................................................. 22
1.10 Organization of the Thesis…………………………………………… 22
Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 23
2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 23
2.2 Land Use Land Cover and Trend of Built Environment……………… . 24
2.3 Rainfall - Runoff and Built Environment……………………………….. 25
2.4 Population Growth and Built Environment…………………………… 26
2.5 Built Environment and Surface Runoff ................................................... 27
2.5.1 Characteristics of Runoff Models ........................................................ 28
2.5.2 Types of Runoff Models ....................................................................... 29
2.5.2.1 Empirical or Data Driven Models ...................................................... 29
2.5.2.2 Conceptual or Parametric Models ...................................................... 29
2.5.2.3 Physically Based or Mechanistic Models .......................................... 30
2.5.3 Important Hydrological Models ............................................................ 30
2.5.3.1 Soil and Water Assessment TOOL (SWAT) ..................................... 31
2.5.3.2 Mike SHE (Systeme Hydrologique Europeen) Model ...................... 31
2.5.3.3 HBV (Hydrologiska Byrans Vattenavdelning) Model ...................... 32
2.5.3.4 Top Model………………………………………………………….. 32
2.5.3.5 Variable Infiltration Capacity (VIC) Model ...................................... 32
2.5.3.6 Hydrologic Engineering Centre River Analysis System (HEC-RAS)
Model ............................................................................................................. 33
2.5.3.7 Rational Method…………………………………………………… 33
2.5.3.8 Curve Number (CN) Model ............................................................... 35
2.5.4 Calculation of Surface Runoff in the urban Drainage Basins of the
study area ....................................................................................................... 37
2.6 Built environment and Groundwater fluctuation ..................................... 38
2.6.1 Factors of Recharging Groundwater………………………………… 39
2.6.2 Techniques for Estimation of Groundwater Recharge.......................... 41
2.6.3 Approaches to quantify Surface Water……………………………… 42
2.6.3.1 Physical Techniques........................................................................... 42
x
2.6.3.2 Channel-Water Budget…………………………………………….. 42
2.6.3.3 Seepage Meters Technique ................................................................ 43
2.6.3.4 Base Flow Discharge Method ............................................................ 43
2.6.3.5 Tracer Technique (Heat Tracer) ......................................................... 45
2.6.3.6 Isotopic Tracers Technique ................................................................ 45
2.6.3.7 Numerical Modelling ........................................................................ 45
2.6.4 Unsaturated Zone and Soil-Water balance ........................................... 46
2.6.4.1 Lysimeters .......................................................................................... 46
2.6.4.2 Darcy’s Law ...................................................................................... 47
2.6.4.3 Numerical Modelling ......................................................................... 47
2.6.5 Techniques of Saturated Zone Studies .................................................. 48
2.6.5.1 Water Table Fluctuation (WTF) Method ........................................... 48
2.6.6 Quantification of Groundwater Recharging ......................................... 49
2.7 Pakistan: Built environment and its impacts on water resources ............. 50
2.7.1 Pakistan: An overview of Water Resources .......................................... 52
2.8 Theoretical and Conceptual Framework of the present study ................. 54
2.9 Conclusion ............................................................................................... 56
Chapter 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................. 58
3.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 58
3.2 Data collection: Tools and Techniques .................................................... 58
3.3 Data Analysis ........................................................................................... 60
3.3.1 Land Use Land Cover and extraction of built-up areas ....................... 61
3.3.2 Spatial analysis of groundwater sources ............................................... 61
3.3.3 Rivers and Streams: Watershed delineation ......................................... 62
3.3.4 Preparation of Curve Number (CN) Grid Map .................................... 63
3.3.5 Curve Number (CN) method: Surface Runoff and Quantification of Volume 66
3.3.6 Nexus of built environment, surface runoff and groundwater .............. 66
3.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................... 67
Chapter 4: SPATIO-TEMPORAL ANALYSIS OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT 69
4.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 69
xi
4.2 District Peshawar: Spatio-temporal growth of built environment ........... 69
4.3 District Peshawar: Drainage Basins ........................................................ 75
4.3.1 District Peshawar: Spatio-temporal land use land cover in urban drainage
basins.............................................................................................................. 77
4.3.1.1 Analysis of Built environment in the Drainage Basin of River Budhni 77
4.3.1.2 Analysis of Built environment in the Drainage Basin of River Bara 81
4.3.1.3 Analysis of Built environment in the Drainage Basin of River Zindai 84
4.4 Streams: Basin-wise analysis of built environment ................................. 87
4.4.1 Analysis of built environment in the drainage basin of Mera stream… 87
4.4.2 Analysis of built environment in the drainage basin of Kala stream .... 89
4.4.3 Analysis of built environment in the drainage basin of Garhi stream .. 92
4.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................... 94
Chapter 5: IMPACT OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT ON SURFACE RUNOFF 96
5.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 96
5.2 Analysis of Surface Runoff using Curve Number method ..................... 96
5.3 Temporal analysis of Surface Runoff in the urban drainage basins of
major Rivers .................................................................................................. 98
5.3.1 River Budhni, Surface Runoff within the urban drainage basin ........... 99
5.3.2 River Bara, Surface Runoff within the urban drainage basin .............. 101
5.3.3 River Zindai, Surface Runoff within the urban drainage basin ........... 103
5.4 Temporal analysis of Surface Runoff in the urban drainage basins of Streams 105
5.4.1 Mera Stream, Surface Runoff within the urban drainage basin ........... 105
5.4.2 Kala Stream, Surface Runoff within the urban drainage basin ............ 106
5.4.3 Garhi Stream, Surface Runoff within the urban drainage basin .......... 108
5.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................ 110
Chapter 6: IMPACT OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT ON GROUNDWATER 111
6.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 111
6.2 Groundwater sources in District Peshawar .............................................. 111
6.2.1 Status of Groundwater sources ............................................................. 112
6.2.2 Groundwater Recharging ..................................................................... 113
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6.2.3 Zones of Groundwater Recharging ...................................................... 114
6.2.3.1 Major Groundwater Recharging Zone ............................................... 116
6.2.3.2 Urban Watersheds ............................................................................. 116
6.2.3.3 Spatio-Temporal Growth of Built-up areas within Major Groundwater
Recharging Zone ............................................................................................ 117
6.2.4 Minor Groundwater Recharging Zones ................................................ 119
6.2.4.1 District Peshawar: Minor Recharging Zone in the Northwest .......... 119
6.2.4.2 Spatio-Temporal Growth of Built-up areas within Minor Recharging
Zone of Northwest ........................................................................................ 119
6.2.4.3 District Peshawar: Minor Recharging Zone in the Southeast ........... 120
6.2.4.4 Spatio-Temporal Growth of Built-up areas within Minor Recharging
Zone of Southeast ......................................................................................... 121
6.3 Fresh water supply and requirements in District Peshawar ..................... 123
6.3.1 Population growth and the abstraction of Groundwater ....................... 123
6.4 The increasing trend of Built environment and Groundwater depletion… 124
6.4.1 Relationship between groundwater discharge and infiltration from rain 125
6.4.2 Depletion of water table ....................................................................... 126
6.5 Hypothesis Testing ................................................................................... 126
6.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................... 128
Chapter 7: FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .... 130
7.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 130
7.2 Major Findings ......................................................................................... 130
7.3 Summary and Conclusion ........................................................................ 131
7.4 Policy Recommendations......................................................................... 137
References .......................................................................................... 140
Annexure – I Household Questionnaire……………………………………. 166
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 Peshawar, Mean monthly Precipitation, Temperature & Relative
Humidity (1985-2015) ................................................................................... 12
Table 1.2 Tarnab, Mean monthly Precipitation, Temperature & Relative Humidity
(1985-2015) ................................................................................................... 13
Table 1.3 District Peshawar, Temporal Population growth (1951-2030) ...... 14
Table 1.4 Peshawar, Urban & Rural population, % share & density of urban
Population ...................................................................................................... 16
Table 1.5 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Population, % share & Ranking of urban centres
(1961-2017) ................................................................................................... 17
Table 2.1 Runoff Coefficients for Rational Equation modified after Ponce, 1989 35
Table 2.2 Pakistan, Urban-Rural Population, % Share and Temporal growth of
urban population (1951-2017) ....................................................................... 50
Table 2.3 Top ten countries of the world with high Impervious Surface Cover 51
Table 2.4 Top ten groundwater abstracting countries of the world ............... 53
Table 3.1 Land Cover and Hydrological Soil Group under Fair drainage condition 64
Table 3.2 Nature of Surface Cover and water flow ....................................... 67
Table 4.1 District Peshawar, Temporal change in Built environment, 1981-2014 71
Table 4.2 District Peshawar, Current status of land use land cover, 2014 ..... 73
Table 4.3 River Budhni, Temporal change in Built-up areas within urban drainage
basin (1981-2014) .......................................................................................... 79
Table 4.4 River Bara, Temporal change of Built-up areas within urban drainage
basin (1981-2014) .......................................................................................... 83
Table 4.5 River Zindai, Temporal change of Built-up areas within urban drainage
basin (1981-2014) .......................................................................................... 86
Table 4.6 Mera stream, Temporal change of Built-up areas within urban drainage
basin (1981-2014) .......................................................................................... 89
Table 4.7 Kala stream, Temporal change of Built-up areas within urban drainage
basin (1981-2014) .......................................................................................... 91
Table 4.8 Garhi stream, Temporal change of Built-up areas within urban drainage
xiv
basin (1981-2014) .......................................................................................... 93
Table 5.1 River Budhni, temporal increase in Surface Runoff within urban drainage
basin using CN method (1981-2014) ............................................................. 100
Table 5.2 River Bara, temporal increase in Surface Runoff within urban drainage
basin using CN method (1981-2014) ............................................................. 102
Table 5.3 River Zindai, temporal increase in Surface Runoff within urban drainage
basin using CN method (1981-2014) ............................................................. 104
Table 5.4 Mera Stream, temporal increase in Surface Runoff within urban drainage
basin using CN method (1981-2014) ............................................................ 106
Table 5.5 Kala Stream, temporal increase in Surface Runoff within urban drainage
basin using CN method (1981-2014) ............................................................. 107
Table 5.6 Garhi Stream, temporal increase in Surface Runoff within urban drainage
basin using CN method (1981-2014) ............................................................. 109
Table 6.1 District Peshawar, Temporal growth of Built-up areas within Major
Recharging Zone (1981-2014) ....................................................................... 118
Table 6.2 District Peshawar, Temporal growth of Built-up areas within Minor
Recharging Zone of Northwest (1981-2014) ................................................ 120
Table 6.3 District Peshawar, Temporal growth of Built-up areas within Minor
Recharging Zone of Southeast (1981-2014) .................................................. 121
Table 6.4 District Peshawar, Daily demand of fresh water of the citizens
(1981-2030).................................................................................................... 124
xv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1, Location of District Peshawar (The Study Area) ........................ 7
Figure 1.2, District Peshawar, Surface Terrain .............................................. 8
Figure 1.3, District Peshawar, Major Landforms and surface deposits ......... 9
Figure 1.4, Peshawar, Mean monthly Precipitation and Temperature (1985-2015) 12
Figure 1.5, Tarnab, Mean monthly Precipitation and Temperature (1985-2015) 13
Figure 1.6, District Peshawar, Temporal Population growth (1951-2030) .... 15
Figure 1.7, District Peshawar, urban and rural population share (1972-2017) 16
Figure 1.8, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa urban centres and their population comparison
(1961-2017).................................................................................................... 17
Figure 1.9, District Peshawar, Surface Hydrology ........................................ 21
Figure 2.1, Components of Curve Number equation ..................................... 37
Figure 2.2, Factors affecting the recharging process and groundwater flow after
Winter, 2001 .................................................................................................. 40
Figure 2.3, Early modeling studies of recharge in groundwater flow systems 41
Figure 2.4, Pakistan Temporal growth of rural and urban Population (1951-2017) 51
Figure 2.5, Top ten countries of the world with high Impervious Surface Cover 52
Figure 2.6, Top ten groundwater abstracting countries of the world….. ....... 54
Figure 3.1, Research Model ........................................................................... 59
Figure 3.2, Systematic process for LULC analysis........................................ 61
Figure 3.3, Systematic process for Groundwater mapping ............................ 62
Figure 3.4, Systematic process for Watershed Delineation ........................... 63
Figure 3.5, Systematic process for the preparation of CN Grid Map ............ 66
Figure 4.1, District Peshawar, Spatio-temporal growth of built environment 72
Figure 4.2, District Peshawar, temporal growth of built environment .......... 73
Figure 4.3, District Peshawar, Land utilization 2014 .................................... 74
Figure 4.4, District Peshawar, Land use Land cover 2014………………… 74
Figure 4.5, Drainage basins of major Rivers and Streams ……………… .... 75
Figure 4.6, Drainage basins of major Rivers and Streams ………………. ... 76
Figure 4.7, District Peshawar, drainage basins of major Rivers and Streams 76
xvi
Figure 4.8, Total Drainage Basin of River Budhni ........................................ 78
Figure 4.9, Drainage basin of River Budhni within District Peshawar …. ... 79
Figure 4.10, River Budhni, Spatio-temporal increase of built-up areas …… 80
Figure 4.11, Total Drainage Basin of River Bara…. ..................................... 82
Figure 4.12, Drainage basin of River Bara within District Peshawar …… ... 82
Figure 4.13, River Bara, Spatio-temporal increase of built-up areas …… .... 83
Figure 4.14, Total Drainage Basin of River Zindai ....................................... 85
Figure 4.15, River Zindai within District Peshawar ...................................... 85
Figure 4.16, River Zindai, Spatio-temporal increase of built-up areas .......... 86
Figure 4.17a. Total Drainage Basin of Mera stream ..................................... 88
Figure 4.17b. Mera stream within District Peshawar .................................... 88
Figure 4.18, Mera stream, Spatio-temporal increase of built-up areas ......... 89
Figure 4.19a. Total Drainage Basin of Kala stream ...................................... 90
Figure 4.19b. Kala stream within District Peshawar ..................................... 90
Figure 4.20, Kala stream, Spatio-temporal increase of built-up areas .......... 91
Figure 4.21, Drainage Basin of Garhi stream ................................................ 93
Figure 4.22, Garhi stream, Spatio-temporal increase of built-up areas ......... 94
Figure 5.1a. District Peshawar, Built-up areas (2014) ................................... 97
Figure 5.1b. Curve Numbers .......................................................................... 97
Figure 5.2, District Peshawar, Surface Runoff Spatial distribution ............... 98
Figure 5.3, River Budhni, temporal increase in Surface Runoff within urban
drainage basin ............................................................................................... 100
Figure 5.4, River Bara, temporal increase in Surface Runoff within urban drainage
basin .............................................................................................................. 102
Figure 5.5, River Zindai, temporal increase in Surface Runoff within urban drainage
basin ............................................................................................................... 104
Figure 5.6, Mera Stream, temporal increase in Surface Runoff within urban drainage
basin ............................................................................................................... 106
Figure 5.7, Kala Stream, temporal increase in Surface Runoff within urban drainage
basin ............................................................................................................... 108
xvii
Figure 5.8, Garhi Stream, temporal increase in Surface Runoff within urban drainage
basin ............................................................................................................... 109
Figure 6.1, Sample Tube wells…………………………………………… .. 112
Figure 6.2, District Peshawar, Water Table .................................................... 112
Figure 6.3, District Peshawar, Groundwater Depth ...................................... 113
Figure 6.4, District Peshawar Surface water flow ........................................ 114
Figure 6.5, District Peshawar, Groundwater Recharging Zones .................... 115
Figure 6.6, Urban watersheds of major River and Streams in Major Groundwater
Recharging Zone ........................................................................................... 117
Figure 6.7, District Peshawar, Spatio-temporal growth of Built-up areas within Major
Recharging Zone ............................................................................................ 118
Figure 6.8, District Peshawar, Spatio-temporal growth of Built-up areas within
Minor Recharging Zone (Northwest) ............................................................. 120
Figure 6.9, District Peshawar, Spatio-temporal growth of Built-up areas within Minor
Recharging Zone (Southeast) ......................................................................... 122
Figure 6.10, District Peshawar, Daily demand of fresh water of the citizens
(1981-2030).................................................................................................... 124
SECTION ONE
Introduction and Literature Review
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Globally, urban expansion and infrastructural developments have caused
irreversible impacts on the urban environment and altered land use land cover, drastically.
Such interventions have often resulted increase in the built-up areas and sealed the ground
surface by replacing the natural land cover with impermeable surfaces (Breuste, 2011).
Such Impervious Surface Covers (ISC) and soil sealing have subsequently increased
surface temperature, accelerated surface runoff and reduced rate of infiltration, seepage
and percolation to groundwater (Paul & Meyer, 2001; Haase & Nuissl, 2007; Niemelä et
al., 2010; Myint et al., 2013). In addition, the urban expansion encroached mainly over
farmland and engulfed the fertile agricultural land that often triggered urban flooding
particularly in cities of the less developed countries (Burghardt, 2006; Montanarella, 2007;
Yuan & Bauer, 2007; Imhoff et al., 2010).
In the context of urban planning, urbanization is advantageous as well as
challenging, but its adverse consequences are less addressed especially in the context of
cities of the developing world (McGranahan & Satterthwaite, 2003; Redman & Jones,
2005). In urban areas, rapid population growth, socio-economic and infrastructural
developments have increased the uses and abstraction of groundwater sources. Similarly,
the consistent reduction in infiltration rate and increasing trends of groundwater abstraction
is leading to diminish fresh water sources and put the future of cities at stake (Samiullah
2013; Myint et al., 2013). Parallel to this, gradual conversion of farmland into built-up
environment poses implications to food security and shortage of water resources and affect
biodiversity in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem (Pimentel et al., 2004). Besides, in
less developed countries, urbanization is consistently consuming prime agricultural land
(Xiao et al., 2013). Studies revealed that cities of less developed world frequently face
problems of population pressure and urbanization and poses threat to water resource (Putra
& Baier, 2008).
2
In urban areas, land take, changes in surface cover and expansion in built
environment are the major factors contributing to ISC. It is estimated that in 2009, the
world urban population was 3.5 billion (50 %), and by 2030 it is projected to mark the
figure of 5 billion (Zhu et al., 2012) and 6.4 billion by 2050 (UN, 2010). Similarly, in 2000
global urban land cover was 0.6 million square km (sq.km), whereas the projected figure
for 2030 is 1.25 million square km and by the end of 2050 it will mark the figure of 2
million square km (Angel et al., 2011). The situation is much serious in cities of the less
developed countries and its impacts are multiplying day-by-day. Such increasing trend in
urban population and land cover calls the urban planners and decision makers to take
sustainable utilization of land and water resources and cope with its unforeseen
implications.
Like other developing countries, Pakistan also experiences rapid urbanization with
an average annual growth rate of 3 % (GoP, 1999) and it is challenging as well as promising
(Ghani, 2012; Kugelman, 2014). In rural areas, settlements have also been reshaped
following the trends in urban areas (Arif & Hamid, 2009). Currently, in Pakistan over 50
million (one third) of the country population is residing in cities and towns and projected
to further increase and mark the figure of 130 million (50 %) by the end of 2030 (Haider
et al., 2006; Haider & Badami, 2010). In Pakistan, the urban economic share to the Gross
Domestic Products (GDP) is 78 %, indicating high dependency on urban economies
(Qadeer, 2014).
District Peshawar (the study area) is a provincial capital located in the north-
western part of Pakistan (Figure 1.1). It is a provincial hub of industrial and commercial
set-up, experiencing rapid rate of population growth, expansion in urban areas,
infrastructural, socio-economic and industrial developments (Khan, 2001; Samiullah,
2013; Khan et al., 2014; Rahman et al., 2016; 2019). This excessive population and
infrastructural development have put tremendous pressure on scarce groundwater.
Similarly, urban developments and expansion in built environment has not only consumed
the agricultural land in and around the city, but also increased the conversion of natural
ground by Impervious Surface Covers (ISC) resulting into consistent land taking and
surface sealing. As a result, it has halted water infiltration, seepage and percolation to the
3
groundwater, and accelerated surface runoff and urban floods. Consequently, the
groundwater recharge is far below the rate of extraction and leading to gradual diminishing
of aquifers. According to population census of 1998, the population of district Peshawar
was 2.019 million which gradually increased to 4.2 million in 2017 and projected to mark
the figure of 6.2 million by 2030 (GoP, 2017). District Peshawar has experienced rapid
spatio-temporal increase in population. It was found from the analysis that in the study
area, built-up area has increased from 4,635 ha (hectares; 3.7 %) in 1981 to 20,451 ha
(16.27 %) in 2014. This growing trend in population and consistent increase in built
environment attributed to the problems of ground and surface water.
The uses and application of Geographical Information System (GIS) and Remote
Sensing (RS) gaining importance and widely applied to monitor the spatio-temporal urban
land use land cover (LULC) changes and analyze its impact on surface and groundwater
sources. In a rapidly growing district of Peshawar, uses and application of GIS and RS are
helpful in monitoring the changes in LULC and ISC and their probable impacts on surface
runoff and groundwater infiltration.
This chapter is divided into ten sections. Section one deals with the chapter
introduction and background of the study. Section two describes the statement of the
research problem, whereas significance of the study has been elaborated in section three.
Research questions, hypotheses and purpose of the study are given in section four, five and
six, respectively. Objectives of the study are given in section seven, whereas the research
variables are described in section eight. Ninth section has enumerated the detailed overview
of the study area, while final section of the chapter is given to the organization and structure
of the thesis.
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem
District Peshawar has been rapidly expanding in terms of population size, physical,
socio-economic and infrastructural developments, which have resulted increase in the
built-up environment. These modifications are consistently replacing the surface cover by
human induced impervious materials. Such interventions have serious implications on
surface and groundwater by escalating surface runoff and fluctuation in the potentials of
groundwater. In the study area, rapid population growth is not only responsible for the
4
expansion in built-up areas but also increasing the abstraction from groundwater sources
and producing serious threats to the potential of fresh water.
1.3 Significance of the Study
Peshawar is the provincial capital of the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP).
It is the largest urban and economic centre of the province. District Peshawar is located
near historic Khyber Pass and historically proved its geostrategic significance. As a result,
the district of Peshawar has been experiencing rapid population growth, physical,
infrastructural, industrial and socio-economic developments. The city has been rapidly
expanding at the expense of fertile agriculture land.
The population of district Peshawar has increased from 1.113 million in 1981 to
3.8 million in 2014. During the same period, the study area has also witnessed rapid
increase in the built environment from 4,635 hectares (ha) in 1981 to 20,451 ha in 2014.
It has been modeled that if the same pace continued then by the end of 2030 the built-up
areas of the district will be more than 22 %. According to the population census
organization, in 2017 the district population was 4.269 million while the projected figure
is 6.2 million by 2030. Rapid population growth has not only increased the area under built
environment but also multiplied surface runoff and augmented the abstraction of fresh
water from ground sources. Consequently, there is a gradual increase in frequency and
intensity of urban floods and reduction in infiltration rate to aquifers. It is therefore, this
study is of prime significance that focuses on analyzing the factors of increasing built
environment and comprehend its impacts on accelerated surface runoff, groundwater
depletion and water table fluctuation in district Peshawar.
1.4 Research Questions
i. What are the determining factors and pace of built environment in District
Peshawar?
ii. What are the impacts of built environment on surface runoff and groundwater
fluctuation in District Peshawar?
5
1.5 Research Hypotheses
i. The rapidly growing population has increased groundwater abstraction and reduced
the potential of fresh water sources.
ii. In District Peshawar, built environment has escalated surface runoff and may
further intensify the flooding events.
iii. Increase in built environment has reduced water infiltration rate that might deplete
the groundwater.
1.6 Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of this study is to explore and analyze the impacts of rapid
population growth, physical and infrastructural developments and the resultant impacts of
built environment on surface runoff and groundwater fluctuation in district Peshawar,
Pakistan.
1.7 Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the study are:
i. To find out the spatio-temporal trend and factors of built environment in the study
area.
ii. To explore the relationship between surface runoff and built environment in District
Peshawar.
iii. To analyze the population growth and groundwater abstraction in District
Peshawar.
iv. To evaluate the nexus of built environment and groundwater in the study area.
1.8 Research Variables
1.8.1 Independent Variables
i. Land Use Land Cover
ii. Rainfall
iii. Population Growth
iv. Surface Runoff
v. Lithology
vi. Groundwater
1.8.2 Dependent Variable
i. Built Environment
6
1.9 The Study Area
Historically, Peshawar is known as a frontier town located at the entrance of famous
Khyber Pass and holds the important key to the gateway of the Indo-Pak subcontinent. Its
history dates back to 400 A.D and was called by different names matches the variants of
the present name (Samiullah, 2013). Chinese traveler Fa-Hien visited the area about 400
A.D and gave it the name of Fo-Lu-Sha. However, the oldest name given to the city was
Poshapura derived from Sanskrit meaning “the city of flowers” (GoP, 1999). Even today,
flowers are grown in and surrounding of the city throughout the year. Baber (the Mughal
Empire) has also given the description of the flowers of Peshawar in his memoirs
(Samiullah, 2013). In the 10th and 11th centuries, the two famous Muslim scholars
mentioned the name as Parshawar in their travel pieces. This name was retained by the
city until the King Akbar period who changed it to Peshawar. Peshawar is the combination
of two Persian words Pesh and Awar meaning artisans, as the city has hosted large number
of skilled artisans (GoP, 1999). Since 2001, the district of Peshawar is declared as the City
District and presently consist of four towns and a cantonment.
1.9.1 Location: Absolute and Relative
The district of Peshawar has remarkable historic, socio-economic and geostrategic
significance. The former Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA), is now part of the
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. Relatively, district Khyber lies to the west of district
Peshawar, Mohmand to the northwest and Kohat is located to the south, whereas districts
of Charsadda and Nowshera are located to its north and east, respectively (Figure 1.1).
Geographically, district Peshawar lies between 33° 44′ to 34° 15′ North latitudes and 71°
22′ to 71° 42′ East longitudes. Total area of the district is 1,257 square km, which is about
1.69 % of the total area of the KP province (GoP, 1999).
7
Figure 1.1, Location of District Peshawar (The Study Area)
1.9.2 Soil and major Landforms
District Peshawar is part of the Peshawar vale. It is a broad and fertile plain,
whereas its central part consists of fine alluvial deposits. The cultivated part of the district
consists of a rich, light and porous soil, composed of mixture of clay and sand texture. It is
suitable for the cultivation of a number of crops grown mainly during Kharif (summer
cropping season) and Rabi (winter cropping season) seasons. The average elevation of
district Peshawar is 358 meters above the mean sea level (Figure 1.2). In the study area,
Tarakai has the maximum elevation of approximately 700 meters located in the south of
district Peshawar (GoP, 1999).
8
Figure 1.2, District Peshawar, Surface Terrain
Geomorphologically, district Peshawar is an integral part of Peshawar valley and
geologically it constitutes the north-western part of the Indo-Gangetic synclinorium, which
was a depression filled with alluvial material (Samiullah, 2013). Stratigraphically, deposits
of running water, piedmont and lake alluvium filled the depression followed by the loess
deposits during the middle and late Pleistocene period. However, the erosional processes
have gradually removed some of the exposed material. Later on, running water has made
deposition throughout the valley. Physically, major landforms and geological formation
include the alluvial, piedmont, loess plains and sand dunes (Figure 1.3).
9
Figure 1.3, District Peshawar, Major Landforms and surface deposits
1.9.2.1 ALLUVIAL PLAINS
Recent and active floodplain stretches along the River Kabul and mostly represent
the lower parts of the study area and often-subjected to severe river flood (Samiullah,
2013). The soils formation on alluvial plains are in levees and point bars in stratified form
and is characterized by layers of silty loam consisting of Fine sand/sandy soil, moderately
deep/deep and shallow over gravels and sands. Sub recent level to nearly level flood plain
at relatively higher in position (GoP, 1999). Alluvial plains have well drained, deep,
calcareous, silty loam soils. Color of such soils are olive gray.
10
1.9.2.2 PIEDMONT PLAINS
Piedmont plain occupy the southern part of the district. Its older part has nearly
level to gentle gradient sloping (Samiullah, 2013). Soils of these piedmont plains are well-
drained, very deep, calcareous, silty clay loam, which is brown, reddish brown to dark
brown in color (GoP, 1999). Soil of the Sub recent part of the area has been dissected by
torrents from the western mountainous parts.
1.9.2.3 LOESS PLAINS
Loess plains mainly occupy southern parts of district Peshawar, which is mainly
recognized by two distinct landforms. In which original loess plain has been dissected
nearly to level sloping. Soil is mainly deep, weakly structured, brown to dark brown, silty
loam, calcareous with a Kanker zone at a depth ranging from 25 - 45 cm (Samiullah, 2013).
While the redeposited loess plains occupy level and nearly level relatively higher areas as
well as basin and channel infills. The soils found in the higher positions are well drained,
deep loamy and calcareous (GoP, 1999). Whereas, soils of the basin or channel infills are
moderately well drained, very deep, and often having a texture of silty clay loam. Such
soils, within a depth of five feet do not have zone of lime accumulation.
1.9.2.4 STABILIZED SAND DUNES
Stabilized sand dunes mainly occur in the south eastern part of the district. Ancient
Pleistocene sands have been exposed which were blown by wind. Fine materials of silt and
sand have been eroded as well as deposited at the foot of sand dunes. The soils developed
in nearly level to gentle sloping positions. Such soils are well drained, deep and have a
texture of sandy loam.
1.9.3 Industries
In district Peshawar, there are hundreds of small and medium scale industrial units.
There are two industrial estates at Hayatabad and Kohat road. In addition to this, numerous
small industries are randomly distributed throughout the district manufacturing hosiery,
small arms, leather, footwear, garments, ghee and soap. Recently, few chemical and
pharmaceutical industries have also been established (GoP, 1999). The south eastern part
11
of the study area has rich clay-loamy soil favorable for brick kiln industries, which are also
found at different localities. Similarly, in the surroundings of the district, a number of crops
including sugarcane is grown and a sugar mill at Khazana is also functioning in the district
(Samiullah, 2013). Apart from these industries match factories, flour mills, marble and
steel re-rolling and processing units are also operating in the study area.
1.9.4 Climate
Climate of Peshawar can be classified into sub-tropical continental type, where both
summer and winter seasons have recorded their severity. Mean maximum and minimum
temperature during summer is over 400C and 250C, respectively (Samiullah, 2013). Mean
maximum temperature during winter is 18.350C, while mean minimum recorded
temperature falls below 50C. The average winter’s recorded rainfall remains higher than
the summer monsoon. Average annual rainfall of the district is more than 400 millimeters.
Wind speed varies throughout the year from 5 knots in December to 24 knots in June.
Maximum relative humidity in August remains higher than 65 %.
In Peshawar valley, a number of Metrological stations are functioning. Peshawar
Regional Meteorological station was established in 1886 and has been recording weather
and climatic data. Another important Agro-metrological station has been functioning since
1908 at the suburbs of the district at Tarnab. Similarly, at Pakistan Air base-Peshawar, a
weather station has been installed to record weather data mainly used for aviation purposes.
Agriculture University Peshawar has recently established a weather station. Data obtained
from all these met stations reveals that a considerable variation exist due to their location
in the city centre and suburbs where the built environment has always been affecting the
weather elements to a considerable extent (Table 1.1; 1.2; Figure 1.4; 1.5). Apart from
these weather stations located within the district there are also some other met stations in
the surrounding of district Peshawar. In Nowshera district two Met stations are functioning
one at Risalpur (Pakistan Air Force Academy), record weather data. At Cherat, another
station has been established by Pakistan Meteorology department. Recently, at Takht Bhai
(district Mardan), Pakistan Meteorology department has installed a met station and a
weather RADAR system. Besides, weather stations at Sugar Cane Research Institute
(SCRI) Mardan, Cereal Crops Research Institute (CCRI) Pir Sabaq Nowshera and at
12
Tarbela Swabi have been functional. Weather and climate data for this study was acquired
from Peshawar and Tarnab met stations due to availability of long-term data, its location
in city centre and at the suburb, respectively.
Table 1.1 Peshawar, Mean monthly Precipitation, Temperature & Relative Humidity
(1985-2015)
Source: Pakistan Metrological Department, Peshawar
Figure 1.4, Peshawar, Mean monthly Precipitation and Temperature (1985-2015)
Months
Mean
precipitation
(mm)
Temperature (0C) %
Relative Humidity
(12:00 UTC) Mean Maximum Minimum Highest
Maximum
Lowest
Minimum
January 29.5 11.3 18.5 4.1 26.5 -1.6 47.6
February 46.0 13.2 20.0 6.5 30.0 -1.0 40.9
March 84.0 17.2 23.8 11.1 36.0 3.0 42.2
April 46.6 23.6 30.6 16.7 41.5 7.0 38.3
May 23.0 29.3 36.9 21.7 47.2 12.0 29.2
June 14.5 33.0 40.2 25.4 50.0 17.0 29.1
July 46.6 32.1 37.7 26.6 46.6 18.0 47.9
August 74.0 30.9 35.9 25.8 46.0 20.0 55.8
September 21.7 29.0 35.2 22.7 42.0 12.0 49.7
October 18.8 23.8 31.5 16.0 38.0 10.0 46.2
November 12.1 17.9 26.1 9.6 35.0 1.5 52.2
December 16.6 13.0 20.7 5.3 29.0 -1.3 54.7
Annual 433.2 22.9 29.8 16.0 50.0 -1.6 44.5
13
Table 1.2 Tarnab, Mean monthly Precipitation, Temperature & Relative Humidity
(1985-2015)
Source: Agriculture Research Institute, Tarnab
Figure 1.5, Tarnab, Mean monthly Precipitation and Temperature (1985-2015)
Months
Mean
precipitation
(mm)
Temperature (0C) Mean
Relative Humidity
%
Mean Maximum Minimum Highest
Maximum
Lowest
Minimum
January 36.8 10.3 18.4 2.1 25 -3.0 65.98
February 46.7 12.4 20.1 4.6 28 -1.0 64.60
March 68.9 17.6 26.7 9 33 2 67.10
April 46.6 22.4 30.6 14.2 38 6 64.60
May 20 27.6 36.1 19.1 42 11 54.90
June 17.2 30.7 39.2 22.3 48 15 53.70
July 49.7 30.5 36.5 24.5 43 17 67.10
August 75.5 29.6 35 24.2 42 18 72.60
September 32 27.9 34.2 21.6 40 11 69.80
October 14.7 22.7 30.7 14.6 35 9 64.00
November 10.8 16.3 25.2 7.4 33 0.0 63.30
December 16.9 11.6 20.6 3.1 25 -3.0 66.70
Annual 435.79 21.6 29.4 13.9 48 -3.0 64.53
14
1.9.5 Demography
According to the population census organization of Pakistan, in 1951 total
population of the district was 0.391 million which increased to 2.019 million in 1998 and
further increased and marked the figure of 4.269 million in 2017 (GoP, 1951; 1999; 2017;
Table 1.3; Figure 1.6). The projected figure for the year 2030 is 6.2 million. From 1951 to
1998 population has increased more than 5 times from 0.391 million to 2.019 million in 47
years. During the inter censual period of 1951 to 1961 the increase in population was 35.29
% with annual growth rate of 3.08. While from 1961 to 1972, the cumulative increase was
52.55 %, with an average annual growth rate of 3.70. The average annual growth rate of
the district population during the inter censual period of 1972-81 was 3.89 %. Population
of the district has increased by 81.40 % during the inter censual period of 1981-1998, and
grew at an average annual growth rate of 3.56. Similarly, from 1998 to 2017 the population
of Peshawar has further recorded more than 100 % increase.
Table 1.3 District Peshawar, Temporal Population growth (1951-2030)
Source: GoP 1952; 1962; 1972; 1983; 1999; 2017
Year Population
(Million)
Inter-censual increase (%) Annual growth rate
1951 0.391 - -
1961 0.529 35.29 3.08
1972 0.807 52.55 3.70
1981 1.113 37.92 3.89
1998 2.019 81.40 3.56
2014 (Est.) 3.6 51.11 3.56
2017 4.269 18.58 3.56
2030 (Proj.) 6.2 - 3.56
15
Figure 1.6, District Peshawar, Temporal Population growth (1951-2030)
1.9.5.1 URBANIZATION
In district Peshawar urbanization is taking place at a very rapid pace (Khan, 2001).
Urban population of the district has increased from 0.273 million (34.8 %) to 0.566 million
(52.2 %), during the inter censual period of 1972-1981. According to 1998 census, urban
population was 0.983 million (48.69 %), which increased to 1.97 million (46 %) in 2017
(GoP, 2017). Density of urban population has also increased more than 6 times in 45 years
i.e. from 1972 to 2017, from 217 persons/sq.km to 1567 persons/sq.km and has made
Peshawar as an overcrowded city. Bulk of the urban population in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is
concentrated in ten cities, where Peshawar ranked first in terms of urban population share
and accounted for 218,691 persons (28.8 %) in 1961. District Peshawar has retained its
position in 1998 and 2017 with a remarkable increase in share of urban population. The
share of the city population in the province increased to 982,816 persons (1998) and
crossed the figure of 1,970,000 in 2017 (32.8 %; Table 1.4; 1.5; Figure 1.7; 1.8).
0.391 0.5290.807
1.113
2.019
3.6
4.269
6.2
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1951 1961 1972 1981 1998 2014 2017 2030
Po
pu
lati
on
(M
illi
on
)
Population
16
Table 1.4 Peshawar, Urban & Rural population, % share & density of urban population
(1972-2017)
Source: GoP 1972; 1983; 1999; 2017 and GoKP 2011; 2012; 2013; 2014
Figure 1.7, District Peshawar, urban and rural population share (1972-2017)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
1972 1981 1998 2011 2012 2013 2014 2017
Popula
tion (
Mil
lion)
Year
Urban Rural
Year
Population
(Million)
Urban Population
(% Share)
Urban Population
Density (P/sq.km) Total Urban Rural
1972 0.784 0.273 0.512 34.8 217
1981 1.084 0.566 0.518 52.2 450
1998 2.019 0.983 1.036 48.69 782
2011 3.219 1.515 1.704 47.06 1207
2012 3.334 1.565 1.768 46.94 1245
2013 3.452 1.617 1.835 46.84 1286
2014 3.575 1.670 1.905 46.71 1329
2017 4.269 1.97 2.299 46.15 1567
17
Table 1.5 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Population, % share & Ranking of urban centres
(1961-2017)
Source: GoP 1962; 1999; 2017
Figure 1.8, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, urban centres and their population comparison (1961-2017)
1
10
100
1,000
10,000
100,000
1,000,000
10,000,000
Log 1
0 S
clae
Popula
tion i
n N
um
ber
s
Population 1961 Population 1998 Population 2017
Urban
Centre
Population 1961 Population 1998 Population 2017
(Million) %
Share
Rank
(Million)
%
Share
Rank
(Million)
%
Share
Rank
Peshawar 0.219 28.8 1 0.983 32.8 1 1.970 34.38 1
Mardan 0.0811 10.7 3 0.295 9.9 2 0.439 07.66 3
Nowshera 0.0834 11.6 2 0.227 7.6 3 0.339 05.92 5
Charsadda 0.0588 10 5 0.193 6.4 4 0.270 04.71 9
Swabi 0.0247 3.3 8 0.179 6.0 5 0.276 04.82 6
Mingora 0.0159 2.1 10 0.174 5.8 6 0.696 12.15 2
Abbottabad 0.0447 5.9 7 0.158 5.3 7 0.293 05.11 7
Kohat 0.0499 6.6 6 0.152 5.1 8 0.270 04.71 8
D.I.Khan 0.0579 7.6 4 0.126 4.2 9 0.362 06.30 4
Haripur 0.0192 1.3 9 0.083 2.8 10 0.127 02.23 10
All other
urban
centres
0.0917 12.1 - 0.425 14.1 - 0.688 12.07 -
Total 0.759 100 - 2.995 100 - 5.73 100 -
18
1.9.5.2 FACTORS OF URBANIZATION
Peshawar is a city of the developing country. The causes of urbanization can be
attributed to mainly natural increase followed by migration of people from rural areas to
the largest urban centre of the province, area annexation and reclassification. As people are
moving to cities because of their perception that urban areas provide better facilities of
quality healthcare, education and other basic services together with the natural increase in
urban population and the conversion of villages into towns (Arif & Hamid, 2009;
Kugelman, 2014).
In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, during the past decade, 63 % of all the internal migrants
have moved to urban centres either from rural areas or from other urban centres, in which
about 56 % have settled in Islamabad and Peshawar (UN, 2014). The same period has
also witnessed rapid urban growth in the province due to militancy, military operations
and natural disasters in the former Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) and
Malakand division. These migrants and Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) have moved
to the safer urban centres of Peshawar, Mardan, Kohat, Bannu, Lakki Marwat and
D.I.Khan and creating socio economic problems to these urban centres. As Peshawar is
not only the largest city of the province, but also as a provincial capital and administrative
and financial hub of the whole province, as a result of migration from rural areas and
other urban centres of the province, urban population is rapidly increasing.
It was found from the analysis that rapid increase in urban population of the
district is mainly due to the natural increase. According to the 1998 population census,
more than 1 million urban population of the province was in age groups of 15-49 and
more than 2 million urban population was in the age group from 15-54 years, whereas
0.11 million of urban population was in the age group of 55-64 years, indicating a high
proportion of productive population (GoP, 1999). In district Peshawar the proportion is
even higher, where more than 1 million of population is in the productive age groups of
15-64 years and for urban population of the district the proportion of the productive age
groups is even more higher, where nearly 0.5 million population is in the productive age
groups of 15-64 years.
19
1.9.5.3 URBAN POLICIES
The district of Peshawar has been rapidly growing on the expanse of fertile
farmland. In the study area, Government has already initiated certain steps for the
conservation of farmland and to check haphazard urban expansion several policies have
been formulated (Samiullah, 2013; Rahman et al., 2016; 2019). In this connection, the first
step was taken in 1965 when Master Plan for Peshawar was developed. Its main theme was
to control the unplanned physical growth of the city. Similarly, another step taken was the
approval of Urban Planning Act of 1975 to direct the city’s expansion in an orderly manner.
In 1981, the status of the Municipal Committee Peshawar was changed into Municipal
Corporation. However, the major step was taken in 1986 when Structural Plan for the city
was constituted (Samiullah, 2013). The main objective of the plan was the provision of
guide line for the plan development of the city with respect to its surrounding areas.
The implementation of the Structural Plan in its true spirit and to uplift the
metropolitan area, in 1987 Peshawar Development Authority (PDA) was establishment. To
stop-off the unplanned urban expansion, PDA has already developed two townships, Regi
Lalma and Hayatabad in the northwest and west of the city. However, its major concern
was to anticipate the fertile agricultural land in the north and east and to develop the open
spaces within the city.
Another major initiative related to urban policies was taken by the government in
2013 in the form of instituting Urban Policy Unit (UPU). The main objectives of the UPU
are, the framing of a strategic urban policy and urban institutional and legal management.
Similarly, the provision of technical support to the concerned departments for the
management of urban affairs, to formulate specific strategies for urban economic growth
and regeneration of urban centres and capacity building for the city are also included in its
objectives.
Other initiatives taken so far are the Housing and Settlement policies, Physical
Planning and Housing Sectors and provision of the five-year Plans. However, due to the
presence of multiple line agencies working in the district and nonexistence of coordination
among them, such policies couldn’t be fully implemented. As a consequence,
20
encroachment over the prime agriculture land still continues, which produces problems to
the environment and water resources.
1.9.6 Status of Surface and Groundwater
Surface water is an important natural resource of fresh water used for agricultural,
industrial, domestic and other purposes. Major sources of surface water of the study area
are rivers and streams. All rivers and streams flow into River Kabul which enters the district
from northwest at Warsak. After its entry into the study area it is divided into three branches
namely Sardaryab, Shah Alam and Naguman (Figure 1.9). Sardaryab is the northern most
branch and forms boundary between Charsadda and Peshawar districts. As River Kabul is
snow fed it starts rising in spring and reaches the highest discharge level in the month of
July, when it is supplemented by rain water from the summer monsoon.
River Budhni is located in the south of River Kabul and receives drainage from a
number of non-perennial streams, which are often flooded during the rainy seasons. It
originates from Jamrud tehsil of Khyber district and flowing through some parts of the
study area it finally joins Shah Alam River. Flood plain has been formed between
Sardaryab and River Budhni. Over a large area of the flood plain water table is close to
surface and varies from 10 to 30 feet. However, in the southern parts of the district water
table is relatively deep, where it exceeds 250 feet. Meander flood plain forms the upper
northern part of the study area, which extends from Warsak in the northwest towards the
southeast.
River Bara enters the study area from the west in the south of Jamrud fort and flows
toward the northeast. On its journey to River Kabul it is joined by a number of streams
including Zindai which is considered as an important river and is joined by almost all the
streams of the south in the district. Slope of the study area is from southwest towards the
Kabul River, which receive the entire drainage of the area. These rivers and streams as well
as canals taken out from them are very important regarding urban hydrology. They are not
only the recharging sources of groundwater but also collect drainage and storm water of
the city.
21
Rivers and streams of Peshawar have their watersheds, which crosses the district
boundary. However, these waterbodies also derive water from the areas within the district
and considered as their urban drainage basins. Among the urban watersheds of River
Budhni and River Bara receive both rain and urban drain water of the built-up areas of
Peshawar city. Spatio-temporally, the impermeable surfaces within the urban watersheds
of these rivers and streams have shown considerable increase. Consequently, surface runoff
has rapidly escalated as water flows over the impervious surfaces and are unable to go
through them causing pluvial as well as flash floods and fluctuating groundwater.
Figure 1.9, District Peshawar, Surface Hydrology
22
1.9.7 Initiatives Regarding Water Resources
The growing population and expansion in the built environment in the district of
Peshawar has increased the pressure on groundwater sources and led to gradual depletion
(Rahman et al., 2016; 2019). In the study area, a limited supply of fresh water from surface
sources fulfill partial requirements of the cantonment area from Bara treatment plant built
on River Bara since 1918. Apart from the Bara treatment plant the supply of fresh water to
the citizens is exclusively fulfilled from the groundwater sources. To reduce the increasing
pressure on groundwater, government has planned to supply fresh water from the major
rivers. In this regard, an initiative was taken in 2008. It was decided to supply water from
Warsak dam and to minimize the excessive usage of groundwater. However, the proposed
project is still pending not yet been operationalized. Nevertheless, groundwater still acts as
a major contributor of fresh water supply.
1.10 Organization of the Thesis
This research thesis comprises of seven chapters. Chapter one is about the
introduction of the study. Statement of the research problem, significance of the study,
research questions, hypotheses, purpose of the research and objectives of the study are
described in this chapter. Research variables, background of the study area and
organization of the thesis are also discussed in the introduction chapter. Review of literature
and theoretical framework have been described in chapter two. Chapter three deals with
the research methodology adopted for undertaking this study. Spatio-temporal analysis of
built environment has been discussed in chapter four, whereas the increasing trend in built
environment within the urban watersheds and drainage basins of each river has been
analyzed. Chapter five focuses on the impact of built environment on surface runoff in
district Peshawar. The impact of built environment on the groundwater and testing of
research hypothesis are elaborated in chapter six. Major findings, conclusion and
recommendations have been enumerated in the final chapter.
23
Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 Introduction
This chapter has discussed scientific literature related to the present study and
classified into eight sections. Land Use Land Cover (LULC) changes and the growing
trend of built environment and its possible impacts on water resources has been discussed
in section one. Rainfall characteristics associated with built environment is elaborated in
section two. Population growth and the resultant expansion in built environment has been
explained in section three. Surface runoff associated with built environment has been
discussed in section four, whereas relevant hydrological models have been discussed for
runoff calculation and to explore suitable model for calculation of surface runoff. Section
five of the chapter has highlighted the impact of built environment on groundwater
fluctuation as well as factors affecting groundwater recharging rate and different models
used for estimation of groundwater recharging. Similarly, the selection of an appropriate
method for the estimation of groundwater recharge in the study area is also given in this
section. Increasing trend of built environment associated with urbanization and its impacts
on water resources in Pakistan has been given in the sixth section. Theoretical and
conceptual frameworks have been discussed in section seven. Conclusion of the chapter
has been elaborated in the final section.
The increasing trend of built environment is leading to numerous problems. In this
regard, increasing intensity and frequency in surface runoff and poor infiltration is
commonly associated with urban development (Shuster et al., 2005). The process of
urbanization is mostly concerned with the replacement of natural ground and vegetation
cover by impermeable surfaces. The changing urban environment always disturb the
natural hydrological cycle. Such alteration in human usage system is on one hand
interrelated to satisfy needs and demands of human population (Jones et al., 2000;
Wickham et al., 2002). In this context, the urban growth and expansion is considered as
advantageous. However, in urban environment fresh water sources have been threatened
by the increasing trend of soil sealing in and around the major settlements especially in
the less developed countries.
24
2.2 Land Use Land Cover and Trend of Built Environment
Historically, the intensive land utilization has resulted significant changes in Land
Use Land Cover (LULC; Bronstert, 2004). Globally, any change in land use directly affect
the hydrology of the catchment areas (Bhaduri et al., 2000; Tang et al., 2005). Regional
hydrological and climatic changes are mainly associated with large scale LULC changes
(Serneels, 2001; Zhang et al, 2001). However, the impact of LULC changes on water
resources and hydrological processes need to be properly investigated. Keeping these facts
into consideration, the changing pattern of LULC and its impacts on the water resources
of the catchment has become an important field of hydro-Geography (Hoff, 2002).
Urban areas are hub of the commercial and socio-cultural activities. Urban areas
pull population due to improved transportation, communication services, access to
amenities, industrial infrastructure and places of administrative set-up. Consequently,
attract large share of population and experiences rapid growth. Such areas also offer
opportunities for physical, socio-economic, industrial and infrastructural developments,
which most often increases the built environment and seal the surface by artificial
impermeable materials (Burghardt, 2006; Breuste, 2011). The sealing of soil may be total,
partial, subsurface or vertical which results loss of the fertile soil (Shuster et al., 2005).
The impacts of soil sealing are usually observed on soil properties, urban climate and
water balance by increasing urban temperature, accelerating surface runoff and reducing
infiltration into the ground to recharge the aquifers (Hsu et al. 2000; Paul & Meyer, 2001;
Gainsborough, 2002; Hey, 2002; Pauleit et al., 2005; Gill et al., 2007; Haase & Nuissl,
2007; Niemelä et al., 2010; Jacobson, 2011; Myint et al., 2013). These variations
adversely affect human life, urban environment, micro climate, water balance as well as
its quality. In some cases which is both challenging as well as advantageous, however its
adverse effects are more than its positive impacts.
LULC changes which are usually associated with urban areas, produce
hydrological as well as ecological problems within the urban watersheds. Any change in
LULC have largely impacted urban watersheds. The total global Impervious Surface
Cover (ISC) is 0.579,703 million square kilometers (km²) with an average of 93 m² per
person. (Elvidge et al., 2007). In the year 2000, global urban land cover was approximately
25
0.6 million km². The projected figure for 2030 is 1.25 million km², while in 2050 urban
land cover will cross the figure of 2 million km² (Angel et al., 2011). When a particular
catchment includes urban land cover, it is largely affected by the increasing trend of built
environment (Schueler, 1994; Arnold & Gibbons, 1996, Elvidge et al., 2007). The widely
recognized scale that ISC impact a particular watershed is that, 1 - 10 % sealed surfaces
stress a watershed, it is impacted when the built-up areas increase by 10 - 25 % and is
degraded when the impermeable surfaces become more than 25 % of a watershed.
Urban flood is usually triggered by heavy rainfall or by the excessive urbanization
particularly in flood prone areas (Mostert & Junier, 2009; Kundzewicz et al., 2017;
Matczak et al., 2018). The probabilities and consequences of flood hazard are affected by
LULC in various ways. Elements of water balance such as evaporation, surface
temperature and its interception are largely affected by land cover (Stonestrom et al.,
2009). LULC also affect local climate which changes the characteristics and frequency of
rainfall (Cornelissen et al., 2013; Mitsova, 2014). Runoff from any rainfall event is
directly affected by LULC (Kundzewicz et al., 2010; Tellman et al., 2015).
2.3 Rainfall - Runoff and Built Environment
Among the adverse effects of Impervious Surface Covers (ISC), the common
characteristic is that water from precipitation, runoff over these surfaces and unable to
percolate and infiltrate through them. Thus, increase surface runoff volume and reduce
infiltration rate. The increase trend of built environment is constantly reducing the
infiltration volume, increasing surface runoff and deteriorating water quality.
Subsequently, urban areas often face the problems of frequent flash flooding, groundwater
depletion and water pollution. Flash floods in such cases have negative impacts on human
life, physical infrastructure, social institutions and economy of urban areas (Brun & Band
2000; Lange et al., 2001; Weng, 2001; Konrad, 2003; Ashley et al., 2005; Brandes, et al.,
2005; Burghardt, 2006; MEA, 2005; Veldhuis & Clemens, 2009; Niemelä et al., 2010;
Wada, et al., 2010; Archer & Fowler, 2018).
ISC associated with built environment always affect surface runoff,
evapotranspiration and infiltration (Arnold & Gibbons, 1996). When it rains over a natural
ground the runoff generation is only 10 %, 40 % of water leaves the ground as
26
evapotranspiration, while 50 % seep into the ground. However, the 25 % of shallow
infiltration is unable to reach the aquifer and thus only 25 % water infiltrate into the
ground. When ISC are increased by 10 - 20 %, runoff generation is accelerated by two
folds, while shallow and deep infiltration are reduced by 4 % each (USEPA, 1993).
Surface runoff generation is further augmented with the increasing trend in sealed
surfaces, on the contrary both evapotranspiration and infiltration have shown reduction.
Urban growth and expansion usually lead to flood risk which is produced by the
increasing trend of direct runoff resulted by greater release of rain water from the
impermeable surfaces within the urban system (Lee & Heaney, 2003; Haase, 2009). The
increase in impervious surfaces accelerate surface runoff which may rise to such an extent
that locally as well as down the streams flood events are produced (Harbor, 1994; Hamdi
et al., 2011). However, recharging rate of groundwater is reduced to a considerable extent
which always create problems to the water table and aquifers.
2.4 Population Growth and Built Environment
Worldwide, urban growth and expansion in built environment have been increasing
with a rapid pace. Demographic as well as economic factors are responsible for the
development of built-up areas. In less developed countries, hydrological imbalances have
been created by the growing population, change in land use pattern and the resultant
increasing trend in ISC (Haase & Nuissl, 2007; Mishra et al., 2014). The increasing
population and the growing trend of impermeable surfaces always disturb the natural
hydrological cycle. Globally, both surface and groundwater sources are affected by the
changing pattern of LULC associated with growing human population (Meyer & Turner,
1992). Rapid population growth increases the demand for fresh water supply
(Shiklomanov & Rodda, 2004; Gleeson et al., 2010). While the increasing trend of
impervious surface covers accelerate surface runoff and reduce water infiltration into the
ground (Paul & Meyer, 2001; Haase & Nuissl, 2007; Niemelä et al., 2010)
The global urban population in 2016 was about 4 billion (54.5 %) as against 1950
when it was only 746 million (30 %) and in 1990 it has increased to 2.3 billion (43 %). In
2000, almost half of the world population was urban (Kuprianov, 2009). It has already
crossed the figure of 3.5 billion (50 %) at the end of the year 2009 (UN, 2010; Zhu et al.,
27
2012; UN, 2014; 2016). However, the projected urban population for 2030 is 5 billion (60
%) which will further increase to 6.4 billion (66 %) by the end of 2050. Similarly, the
current 0.6 million Sq. km of ISC is expected to be increased with the growing population
(Elvidge et al., 2007). Urban areas experience rapid multiplication and development of
sealed surfaces than the surrounding rural and less developed suburbs.
The most obvious effects of impermeable surfaces resulted by the growing
population are observed on urban water balance (Grimm et al., 2008). However, it has also
negative impacts on environmental degradation and social segregation (Johnson, 2001;
Burchell et al., 2002; Squires, 2002; Kasanko et al., 2006). Urban population growth and
the resultant land consumption has also affected water balance as well as water regulation
all over the globe (Dierkes et al., 2001; Whitford et al., 2001; Interlandi & Crockett, 2003).
Both developed and developing nations suffer equally from such menace.
2.5 Built Environment and Surface Runoff
When it rains over the earth surface water either evaporate or infiltrate into the
ground, excess of water moves over the surface as runoff. Each of these processes are
influenced by the type of land cover. If rainfall intensity exceeds than infiltration and
evaporation rates, then surface runoff starts. On Impervious Surface Covers (ISC) surface
runoff is usually greater. In urban areas flooding problems are often caused by surface
runoff. As population density in cities increases it generally results in high proportion of
built environment and sealed surfaces. Natural ground cover has the capacity to absorb
more water than the impermeable surfaces.
Surface cover changes and the development of built environment have always been
responsible for fluctuating surface runoff since human evolution and revolution. Attempts
have been made to quantitatively measure the relationship between Land Use Land Cover
(LULC) changes with runoff generation. However, no general and reliable model has been
developed to predict the LULC effect with surface runoff (Kokkonen & Jakeman, 2002).
Historically, different studies have been carried out to know the relationship between urban
LULC changes and its possible impacts on hydrological imbalance. Small frequently
28
occurring floods are mainly triggered by urban development rather than rare larger floods
which are not too much affected by surface cover changes (Hollis, 1975).
Lumped calibrated models have been used in which for a reference period the
observed and modeled runoff were compared (Schreider et al., 2002). It has been
investigated that any change in the land use has affected catchment’s runoff generation.
Similarly, a number of approaches have been adopted to correlate runoff generation with
land use changes (Braud et al., 2001; Fohrer et al., 2001, De Roo et al., 2001; Wooldridge
et al., 2001). The essence of all these approaches is that changes in the land use pattern
have impacted runoff generation. After following different methodologies, it has also been
predicted that the increasing trend of built environment has also accelerated surface runoff.
The application of different approaches and models are more probably helpful on
micro as well as meso scale. However, on large scale these methods become impractical
due to the problems in acquisition of the required data for which other approaches could
be adopted (Hundecha & Bárdossy, 2004). To assess the impact of land use change on
meso scale catchments certain hydrological models have been described by Bronstert et
al., 2002; Brath et al., 2003 and Ranzi et al., 2002. The main theme of these approaches is
that any change in land use and the development of built-up areas have been accelerating
the runoff generation.
2.5.1 Characteristics of Runoff Models
The reality of the world system is often represented in a simplified way known
as model (Sorooshian et al., 2008; Salarpour et al., 2011; Devia, et al., 2015; Kumar &
Tiwari, 2015). In hydrology models are considered as important tools for water resource
management. A good model gives results which are very close to the actual conditions and
uses minimum of parameters to overcome the complexity. Various models have been used
for prediction of hydrological processes. Estimation of runoff is usually represented by
using certain equations to predict different parameters of the watershed and its
characteristics. Important factors and inputs for runoff models are drainage area and rainfall
data. However, other characteristics of watersheds such as properties of soil and its
moisture contents, vegetation cover, topography and groundwater are also required.
29
2.5.2 Types of Runoff Models
Most of the runoff models are classified on the basis of inputs and parameters as
well as the physical principles applied to the models (Devia, et al., 2015; Kumar & Tiwari,
2015). On the basis of parameters used as function of space and time, they may be classified
as distributed and lumped models. However, on the basis of other criteria runoff models
are categorized into stochastic and deterministic. Stochastic models give different output
values which are produced for a single set of inputs. Whereas, deterministic models may
give the same output values for a single input. Similarly, in lumped models the spatial
variability is ignored, the entire basin is considered a single unit and the outputs are
produced by disregarding spatial processes. In distributed models, the spatial variability is
given due consideration for which the catchment is divided into several smaller units
(Moradkhani & Sorooshian, 2009). The inputs and outputs also show spatial variation.
Models are also classified on the basis of time factor into dynamic and static. In
dynamic models, time is included while static models exclude time. Another classification
of models is continuous and event based (Sorooshian et al., 2008). Continuous models give
continuous output while, event-based models produce results for specific time periods.
However, one of the best classification of hydrological models are empirical, conceptual
and physical based (Kumar & Tiwari, 2015).
2.5.2.1 EMPIRICAL OR DATA DRIVEN MODELS
Empirical or data driven models are based on the observation of the existing data
by ignoring processes and features of the hydrological system (Devia, et al., 2015). These
models use mathematical equations which are not based on the physical processes of the
catchment and are resulted from inputs and outputs of time series. Unit hydrograph is one
of the empirical model. Regression and correlation models are statistically based which are
used for finding the functional relation between inputs and outputs.
2.5.2.2 CONCEPTUAL OR PARAMETRIC MODELS
Conceptual or Parametric models describe almost all the components of
hydrological processes (Devia, et al., 2015). These consist of several connected reservoirs
the recharging of which are represented by the physical elements of the catchment
30
including rainfall, percolation and infiltration. Similarly, draining of these reservoirs are
also characterized by runoff, evaporation and drainage. In such methods, usually semi
empirical equations are used. The model parameter uses not only field data but also
correction made through calibration. However, calibration need a large number of
hydrological and metrological records. The effect of land use change by calibration is also
difficult to be reliably predicted as it involves curve fitting and making the interpretation
very difficult. A number of conceptual models with varying degree of complexity have
been developed over time. The first ever such major model developed was Stanford
Watershed Model - IV (SWM; Crawford & Linsley, 1966). In which 16 to 20 parameters
were used.
2.5.2.3 PHYSICALLY BASED OR MECHANISTIC MODELS
In Physical based models, the real phenomenon is ideally represented
mathematically (Devia, et al., 2015). Such models are based on the principle of physical
processes. They use measurable variables of the functions of space and time. Finite
Difference Equation (FDE) represent the movement of water in hydrological processes.
The calibration of these models do not require extensive metrological or hydrological data,
however their evaluation need a large number of parameters by which physical
characteristics of catchment can easily be described (Abbott et al., 1986). The required data
in these methods are topology, topography, river’s network dimensions, initial depth of
water and constituents of soil and its moisture contents. Physically based models are often
opted over the other hydrological models due to fact that they uses the parameters which
have physical interpretation. The common example of the physically based models is
MIKE SHE (Abbott et al., 1986).
2.5.3 Important Hydrological Models
Earlier the impacts of land use on runoff generation were speculated through
catchment experiments and often the results obtained were opposing the studies previously
conducted (Hundecha & Bárdossy, 2004). In modern period different approaches
especially, hydrological models are commonly used to predict and assesses the relationship
between LULC changes and water balance. Important hydrological models used are
SWAT, MIKE SHE, HBV, TOPMODEL, VIC, HEC-RAS, Rational and CN methods.
31
2.5.3.1 SOIL AND WATER ASSESSMENT TOOL (SWAT)
Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) is a physical based model, which was
designed for testing and forecasting the circulation of water and sediment and agricultural
productions with chemicals in basins which were ungauged (Devia, et al., 2015). In this
model, the catchment is divided into sub basins which are further subdivided into several
Hydrologic Response Unit (HRU), soil, vegetation and land use characteristics. The
required inputs in this method are solar radiation, maximum and minimum atmospheric
temperature, daily rainfall data, wind speed and relative humidity of air. This model is
useful for describing sediment and water circulation as well as nutrient circulation and
vegetation growth. The snowfall rate can be determined on the basis daily mean
temperature and precipitation data. Evapotranspiration is estimated by Penman Monteith,
Priestly- Taylor and Hargreaves methods. For water balance of the catchment the following
equation is used (Eq. 2.1)
SW t = SW o+ Ʃti=1 (R v – Q s – W seepage – ET – Q gw).……...Eq. 2.1
Where SW t = Humidity of soil, SW o = Base humidity, R v = Rainfall volume in mm,
Qs = Surface runoff, Wseepage = Seepage of water from soil to the underlying layers,
ET = Evapotranspiration, Qgw = Ground water runoff and t = Time in days.
2.5.3.2 MIKE SHE (SYSTEME HYDROLOGIQUE EUROPEEN) MODEL
MIKE SHE is a physical based model developed in 1990 (Refsgaard & Storm,
1995; Devia, et al., 2015). It requires a large number of extensive physical parameters.
Various processes of hydrological cycle which are accounted in this model are
evapotranspiration, precipitation, over land river flow and flows in the saturated and
unsaturated zones. This model can simulate ground and surface water movement and their
interaction, sediment, nutrient and movement of pesticides and water quality problems
within the modeled area. This model is applicable for large watersheds. In MIKE SHE
model, predictions are made and distributed in relation with space and state variables and
represent the local storage averages, depths of flows or hydraulic potential.
32
2.5.3.3 HBV (HYDROLOGISKA BYRANS VATTENAVDELNING) MODEL
HBV is a semi distributed conceptual model (Bergstrom, 1976). By using this
model, the entire basin is divided into sub catchments, the sub catchments may be further
sub divided on the basis of elevation and different vegetation zones. The required data for
this model is evaporation, atmospheric temperature and daily and monthly precipitation
data. This model can be represented by the general water balance equation (Eq. 2.2)
P - E - Q = d/dt (SP + SM + UZ + LZ + lakes) ...……………. Eq. 2.2
Where P = Precipitation, E = Evaporation, Q = Runoff, SP = Snow Pack, SM = Soil
Moisture, UZ & LZ are the Upper and Lower ground water Zones and lakes represent the
volume of lake. In different climatic conditions of different countries several versions of
HBV model are used. Degree Day method is commonly used for snow accumulation and
melting. Runoff, groundwater recharge and evaporation as functions are simulated for
actual water storage. A new version of HBV model is HBV light which uses warm up
period. In which the state variables may get the suitable values based on meteorological
data and other parameters.
2.5.3.4 TOP MODEL
TOP MODEL is a semi conceptual model which takes the advantage of topographic
information associated with runoff generation (Devia, et al., 2015). However, this model
may be considered as physically based model because its parameters are measured
theoretically (Beven & Kirby, 1979; Beven et al., 1986). This model may be used for a
single or various sub catchments, where gridded elevation data for the basin can be
measured. Hydrological performance of the basin can be predicted by this method. Soil
transmissivity and catchment topography are the two major factors which are considered
in this model. Water table depth and deficit of water storage can be calculated by using this
method.
2.5.3.5 VARIABLE INFILTRATION CAPACITY (VIC) MODEL
Variable Infiltration Capacity (VIC) model with several updates has been widely
used in different studies ranging from water resource management to land atmosphere
33
interaction as well as climate change (Liang et al., 1996; Cherkauer et al., 2003; Bowling
& Lettenmaier, 2010). It is a semi distributed hydrology model which uses water balance
as well as energy equation (Devia, et al., 2015). Inputs of the model are daily maximum
and minimum temperature, precipitation and wind speed however, it also permits different
land cover types within each of the model grids. The processes of runoff, infiltration and
base flow are based on different empirical relationships. Infiltration excess runoff and
saturation excess runoff along with the effects of soil heterogeneity on surface runoff are
included in the VIC model. By using VIC model water table of the groundwater may also
be calculated (Gao, 2010). The interaction between surface and groundwater can also be
speculated by using this model. VIC model can be applied to river basins, where it is helpful
in predicting climate and changes occurred in the land cover types in a particular area.
2.5.3.6 HYDROLOGIC ENGINEERING CENTRE RIVER ANALYSIS SYSTEM (HEC-
RAS) MODEL
HEC-RAS is an extensively tested model which was initially developed by
Hydraulic Engineering Centre of the United States Corps of Engineers (Markowska et al.,
2012; Mustafa et al., 2017). HEC-RAS is one dimensional steady flow hydraulic model,
which has been designed for floodplain determination and channel flow analysis. However,
it can be used in any possible hydraulic case to reproduce steady as well as unsteady flow.
Results obtained by the application of this model are applicable in studies of flood
insurance and floodplain management. The basic procedure of the model is based on
solution of energy equation (Eq. 2.3)
H = Z + Y + aV2/2g …………………...Eq. 2.3
Which states that total energy (H) at a given locality along the river or stream is the sum
of potential energy (Z + Y) and kinetic energy (aV2/2g). The change in energy between
two cross-sections is called head loss (hL). However, computer based softwares of HEC-
RAS with different versions are used for modeling of flood plains and its effects.
2.5.3.7 RATIONAL METHOD
The most commonly used method for calculation of direct runoff from rain events
is the Rational method which was developed as early as in 1989 and is still used by most
34
of the engineering offices in the United States. And can be used for small watersheds of
less than 200 acres (80 ha; Drainage, 2004). Peak flow (Runoff) from this method can be
determined by the equation (Eq. 2.4)
Q = (CIA)/Ku …………………. Eq. 2.4
Where Q = Peak Flow (Runoff) in m3/sec or ft3/sec), C = Runoff coefficient, I = Rainfall
intensity (mm/hour or in/hour), A = Drainage area in hectare or acres, Ku = Units
conversion factor (1.0 in English Units). By using rational equation, it is assumed that peak
flow occurs when the entire drainage basin is contributing to flow. Rainfall intensity over
the whole watershed is also supposed to be the same. Coefficient of runoff (C) is expected
to be the same not only for storm event but also for recurrence probabilities.
Runoff Coefficient (C) in the Rational equation is function of the surface and
ground cover which is also host for other hydrological abstractions. It is related to the
estimated peak flow (discharge) which is considered to the theoretical runoff of 100 %.
Values of C are given in Table 2.1 Higher values of “C” are commonly used for steep
slopes and longer return periods due to the fact that in such cases infiltration and losses
from other sources have smaller effect on runoff generation. A watershed which consists
of different types of land covers and varying degree of abstractions then the composite
Coefficient can be calculated by the weighted equation (Eq. 2.5).
Weighted Coefficient (C) = Σ (C x A x)/A total ……... Eq. 2.5
Where A = Drainage Area, X = Subscript designating values for incremental areas with
consistent land cover. Rational method is an easy and important technique for calculating
runoff from rainfall events however, for it can’t be applied for large watersheds for which
Curve Number (CN) Method is preferred. In some cases, the entire watershed is divided
into sub basins of less than 200 acres each and then runoff can easily be calculated by using
this method.
35
Table 2.1 Runoff Coefficients for Rational Equation modified after Ponce, 1989
2.5.3.8 CURVE NUMBER (CN) MODEL
Runoff Cure Number or simply Curve Number (CN) is an empirical model which
is used for direct runoff calculation from rainfall events. It was developed by the Soil
Conservation Service (SCS) of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) which
Type of Drainage Area (A) Runoff Coefficient (C)
Business
Downtown areas 0.70 - 0.95
Neighborhood areas 0.50 - 0.70
Residential
Single-family areas 0.30 - 0.50
Multi-units detached 0.40 - 0.60
Multi-units attached 0.60 - 0.75
Suburban 0.25 - 0.40
Apartment dwelling areas 0.50 - 0.70
Industrial
Light areas 0.50 - 0.80
Heavy areas 0.60 - 0.90
Parks, cemeteries 0.10 - 0.25
Playgrounds 0.20 - 0.40
Railroad yard areas 0.20 - 0.40
Unimproved areas 0.10 - 0.30
Lawns
Sandy soil, flat 2 % 0.05 - 0.10
Sandy soil, average 2 – 7 % 0.10 - 0.15
Sandy soil, steep 7 % 0.15 - 0.20
Heavy soil, flat 2 % 0.13 - 0.17
Heavy soil, average 2 – 7 % 0.18 - 0.22
Heavy soil, steep 7 % 0.25 - 0.35
Streets
Asphaltic 0.70 - 0.95
Concrete 0.80 - 0.95
Brick 0.70 - 0.85
Drives & walks 0.75 - 0.85
Roofs 0.75 - 0.95
36
was formerly known as National Resource Conservation Service (NRSC; Hjelmfelt, 1991;
NEH, 2004). This is an extensively used model and is still opted over the other runoff
methods (Hawkins, 1993; Ponce & Hawkins, 1996; King et al, 1999; Mishra et al., 2003;
Schneiderman et al, 2007; McGinley et al., 2013; Troolin & Clancy, 2016; Vannasy &
Nakagoshi, 2016; Acosta et al, 2018). The Curve Number equation for runoff calculation
can be represented as (Eq. 2.6).
Q = (P - Ia) ²/ (P + S - Ia) = (P - 0.2S) ² / (P + 0.8S) ….…………. Eq. 2.6
Where Q = Runoff volume, P = Precipitation, Storage Index (S) = (1000/CN) -10,
Ia = Initial abstraction.
A certain amount of rainfall is always abstracted which may be rainfall interception
through stem flow and water drip, depression storage by topographic undulations and
infiltration into the soil. However, the advantage of this method is that it lumps all the three
abstraction into a single one termed as Initial abstraction (Ia) which is the amount of rain
water initially abstracted before the starting of runoff (Figure 2.1).
Curve Number (CN) for each Hydrological Soil Group (HSG) have been calculated
by the NRCS (USDA, 1986; NEH-4, 1997; Hong & Elder, 2008). These soil groups are
divided into four groups A, B, C and D. Each HSG have a peculiar characteristic of
infiltration and runoff rates when they are thoroughly wet. Soils included in group A are
sand and sandy loam having high infiltration and low runoff characteristics when wet. Soil
of group B have properties of moderate runoff as well as infiltration rates. Soils included
in this group are mostly composed of silty loam. Soil of group C which is mostly sandy
clay loam have low infiltration rate and moderate to high runoff characteristics. Similarly
soils of group D mostly include loamy soils which have very low infiltration rate and high
runoff properties. The major advantage of this technique for urban runoff calculation is
that the CN of the soil group can easily be represented in GIS and surface runoff maps
generated can easily be compared with land cover. Human induced factors of the
development of impermeable surfaces reduce vegetation cover and increase runoff which
minimize absorption during a storm, runoff generation from such sealed surfaces is
maximum, causing pluvial as well as fluvial floods in urban areas (UCAR, 2010; Sunkpho
& Ootamakorn, 2011). Which can easily be predicted by using Curve Number techniques.
37
Figure 2.1, Components of Curve Number equation
2.5.4 Calculation of Surface Runoff in the urban Drainage Basins of the study area
In this study for surface runoff calculation the Curve Number Method has been
adopted. This method has advantages over the other runoff models. As this model is based
on rainfall data, initial abstraction and storage index which can easily be calculated. Curve
Numbers (CN) for different soil groups used in this method can easily be determined on
the basis of which CN grid map is generated in GIS. CN method is very useful especially
in urban hydrology for surface runoff calculation. Its two commonly used types are Average
CN technique and Weighted CN technique. In Average Curve Number technique for the
entire watershed average values of CN of the surface cover are selected. However, in
Weighted Curve Number technique for each land cover its specific CN value are used
which become very useful for Impervious Surfaces. The spatial and temporal runoff can
easily be calculated and compared by this method. Moreover, CN model can be used for
watershed ranging from a few Sq.km upto hundreds Sq.km. In Peshawar for runoff
calculation this technique was used by which runoff from impervious as well as pervious
surfaces within each urban watershed of rivers and streams were compared. It has been
analyzed that runoff generation from impermeable surface have shown escalation, however
runoff from the previous surfaces have shown reduction.
38
2.6 Built environment and Groundwater fluctuation
Globally groundwater play an important role in ecological values of different
regions and is a major source of domestic use (Griggs & Noguer, 2002). It has also been
considered as an important factor in urban hydrology management. The rapidly growing
global urban population and the resultant increase in built environment has always affected
urban hydrology. Groundwater system has a strong response to the regional LULC changes
and the associated development of built environment (Alley et al., 1999). Earlier,
researches were mainly focused on human activities related to groundwater utilization and
its intensity, however it had ignored the changing pattern of LULC. In modern days this
trend has greatly changed. Urban expansion is affecting the increasing dependency on
groundwater by changing its processes at local and regional scales (Hibbs & Sharp, 2012).
Human activities are constantly changing its quality as well as quantity
(Gehrels et al., 2001). These fresh water sources have always been stressed by the rapidly
growing population and the resultant infrastructural improvement, economic development
and extension in the irrigated forming. Among the human induced factors LULC changes
is one of the important cause which affect groundwater system (Calder, 1993). Although
requirements of fresh water are mostly fulfilled from surface water sources, however
regional climatic variability and other related factors have been increasing reliance on
groundwater (Wada et al., 2010; Döll et al., 2012).
Physical and chemical changes are frequently associated with urban groundwater
(Rose, 2007). These variations not only require proper investigation, but their causes and
effects are also necessary to explore the growing environmental as well as issues of water
resources (Hibbs & Sharp, 2012). Urban water budget is affected by the increasing trend
of built environment. In rare cases, the infiltration rate is increased by the reduction in
evapotranspiration, generation of artificial recharge wells and basins, increase in the
concentration of septic tanks, losses from urban sewerage system and percolation of water
through excess of irrigation (Lerner, 1990; Wolf et al., 2004; Blackwood et al., 2005;
Garcia-Fresca & Sharp, 2005; Wiles & Sharp, 2008). However, the replacement of natural
ground cover in urban environment by Impervious Surface Cover (ISC) mostly reduce the
infiltration rate (Pitt et al., 2002; Vazquez-Sune et al., 2010). These alterations of urban
groundwater are challenging to quantify (Lerner, 2002). However, it can easily be
39
estimated by several other ways. Urban areas experience rapid expansion and modification
in natural landscape and provides excellent opportunities for research (Hibs, 2016).
Groundwater scientists can contribute both theoretically as well as practically in connection
with urban hydrology.
Worldwide, in different regions it has been investigated that the rapid urban
growth and expansion produce socio-economic, environmental, hydrological and biological
problems. The studies carried out in the urban centres of Roanoke, Salem, and the
contiguous areas of the upper Roanoke watershed in southwest Virginia have indicated the
trend of urban growth and its expansion. It was found that there is consistent changes in
land use pattern and its impacts on the streams and subsurface flow regime (Dietz, 2000;
Bosely et al., 2001; Crowder, 2002). Similarly, any change in land use can also disturb the
hydrology of a region.
Regions of the world where dependence on groundwater is about 70 % greatly
suffers from any change in land use pattern (Pan et al., 2011). The modification of urban
land use accompanied by the increasing trend in built environment in the Chinese River
basin of Guishui has depleted the groundwater recharging rate by 4 x 106 m³ from 1980 to
2005. Water balance is usually impacted by a long-term process of land consumption by
urban expansion and resulted sealing of soil by impervious surface covers (Newman, 2000;
Burchell & Mukherji, 2003; Nuissl et al., 2008; Haase, 2009).
2.6.1 Factors of Recharging Groundwater
Factors that affect the recharging rate of groundwater are mostly associated with
the hydrological landscape of aquifers (Winter, 2001). These factors are climatic,
topographic and geological framework. In climatic factors precipitation is very important
which provides water for the recharging process. Soil is a medium which allows water for
percolation and infiltration. Similarly, geological framework is responsible for
permeability of water to certain depths (Figure 2.2). In most groundwater models these
factors are given due consideration. Based on these factors recharge may be either
controlled by lithology, climate or variability. The difficulties faced in estimating the
recharging process of groundwater by following different methodologies is that they are
based on the estimates of evapotranspiration, runoff and infiltration of soil properties.
40
Figure 2.2, Factors affecting the recharging process and groundwater flow after Winter, 2001
Recharge controlled by the lithology of the subsurface are usually associated with
the condition of shallow water table within a constant head boundary. Elevation of the
water table is usually known, and it is expected that will not change over a certain period.
However, in most model studies these conditions are very difficult to come across. In past
the studies which were mostly based on steady state models where regional discharge and
recharge were used for distribution and location flow system followed these conditions
(Freeze & Witherspoon 1966; 1967; 1968; Hitchon, 1969). Advantage of this type of head
boundary is that the recharge is not estimated from the uncertain hydrologic conditions of
evapotranspiration and rainfall – runoff ratios. However, the major disadvantage of this
type of boundary condition is that it assumes the availability of an infinite supply of
recharge from the land surface and the careless use of the model will give inaccurate results
(Figure 2.3). Despite of the problems associated with this type of boundary condition it
has still been successfully used in different studies (Winter, 1978; Garven & Freeze 1984).
Similarly, different soil groups have variable infiltration and runoff characteristics which
also affect the infiltration rate. Slope also have some specific effect on water flow both
horizontally as well as vertically.
41
Figure 2.3, Early modeling studies of recharge in groundwater flow systems based on
a. An analytical solution to a system with homogeneous topography after Tóth (1963)
b. A numerical solution to a system with regional heterogeneity after Freeze &
Witherspoon (1968)
2.6.2 Techniques for Estimation of Groundwater Recharge
Various techniques are used to determine the process of groundwater recharge,
which are based on certain estimates (Scanlon et al., 2002). Accurate quantification of
groundwater recharge is very difficult, however reliable approximations could be made
based on certain factors. Several techniques on micro as well as meso scale are used, which
may be critical for knowing about the aquifer’s contamination rather than water resource
42
assessment. Studies which have already been carried out to estimate the recharge of
groundwater either for the assessment of water resources or to know about the movement
of pollutant and aquifer’s vulnerability to pollutant and contamination (Flury et al., 1994;
Scanlon & Goldsmith, 1997; Kearns & Hendrickx, 1998).
Various techniques which are used for groundwater recharge estimates are
subdivided into three hydrological zones or sources which are saturated and unsaturated
zones as well as surface water sources (Scanlon et al., 2002). Data for the approximation
of groundwater recharge is usually obtained from these sources. In these zones techniques
are further classified into tracer, physical and numerical modelling.
2.6.3 Approaches to quantify Surface Water
The recharging process of groundwater related to surface water approach depends
upon the connection between surface and groundwater system (Sophocleous, 2002). There
is a visible contrast regarding surface and groundwater system in humid and arid regions.
In humid areas groundwater is mostly discharged into lakes and streams, consequently such
areas are characterized by gaining in surface water bodies. However, in arid regions surface
and groundwater system are separated by a thick unsaturated zone, as a result in such areas
depletion in surface water bodies are observed. Semi-arid regions of the world mostly
depend upon groundwater which is mostly affected by climatic variabilities in term of
precipitation. These associations and variabilities of surface and groundwater in humid,
arid and semi-arid regions of the world only provide a clue for the approximation of
groundwater sources.
2.6.3.1 PHYSICAL TECHNIQUES
Physical techniques used for approximation of groundwater recharge are based on
gaining or losing of surface water sources which include channel-water budget, seepage
meters and base flow discharge.
2.6.3.2 CHANNEL-WATER BUDGET
Surface water losses or gains based on rivers gauging data can be estimated using
channel-water budget technique (Lerner et al., 1990; Lerner, 1997; Rushton, 2017).
Channel-water budget can be described in the following equation (Eq. 2.7).
43
R = Q up – Q down + Ʃ Q in – Ʃ Q out – E a – ∆S /∆T …………Eq. 2.7
Where R = Recharge rate, Q = flow rate, Q up and Q down = Are flows at the upstream &
downstream ends of the reaches, Q in & Q out are tributary inflows and outflows along the
reaches, E a = Evaporation from surface water and ∆S = is change in channel and
unsaturated zone storage over change in time (∆t). The loss of flow between the upper and
downstream gauging station is termed as transmission loss (Lerner et al., 1990). At greater
depths flow is controlled by the gravity and recharging values reaches a constant rate when
the water table depth becomes two times greater than the stream width (Bouwer &
Maddock, 1997). Temporal scale of recharging values ranges from a few minutes to hours,
however for longer times the estimation is the summation of individual events.
2.6.3.3 SEEPAGE METERS TECHNIQUE
An easy and inexpensive method of Seepage Meters have been used to measure the
percolation of water from or to the water bodies (Lee & Cherry, 1979). It comprises of a
cylinder which is inserted into the bottom of lake or stream. The changes in the volume of
the reservoir is determined by the rate of infiltration into the cylinder. An Automatic
Seepage Meter has been described by Taniguchi and Fukuo in their study carried out in
1993. Approximations are made on the basis of repeated measurements to overcome the
uncertainties. Seepage fluctuations measured in different studies vary from 1 mm/day upto
3,000 mm/day (Lee, 1977; Woessner & Sullivan, 1984; Rosenberry, 2000). Point estimates
of water fluxes are measured from Seepage Meter Technique. However, to acquire a
representative value measurement are required for several sites. This method can provide
detail of water fluctuations from a single event upto several days. Recharge for longer
periods are easily estimated from the summation of shorter periods.
2.6.3.4 BASE FLOW DISCHARGE METHOD
Groundwater recharge in the watersheds where stream gaining occur is estimated
from hydrograph separation (Mau & Winter, 1997; Halford & Mayer, 2000). Base flow
discharge method is used for estimation of groundwater recharge on the basis of water
budget approach in which recharge is directly linked and equated to discharge. Water
budget of a basin can be stated by using the equation (Eq. 2.8; Scanlon et al., 2002).
44
P + Qon = ET + Qoff + ∆S ………………….Eq. 2.8
Where P = Stands for Precipitation, however irrigation water may also be included in it.
Qon = Flow of water onto the site, Qoff = Flow of water off the site, ET = Evapotranspiration
and ∆ S = Changes which occur in water storage. All these components are either rated in
millimetre per day (mm/day) or millimetre per year (mm/year). Which are further divided
into sub components, water flow onto or off the site is the sum of interflow as well as
surface and groundwater flows. Similarly, evapotranspiration can be distinguished on the
basis of sources of water which evaporates either from surface or saturated and unsaturated
zones. Water storage occurs in saturated and unsaturated zones, reservoirs and snow.
Recharging of groundwater include any infiltration which reaches to the zone of saturation
and thus Base flow equation can be stated (Eq. 2.9; Schicht & Walton, 1961).
R = Qgwoff – Qgw
on+ Qbf + ETgw + ∆Sgw…………Eq. 2.9
Water that reaches and become part of the water table either flow out of the basin as
groundwater, or it may be discharged towards the surface. It may also be retained in storage
or will leave the surface as evapotranspiration.
Base flow discharge may not be directly equated to recharge because of
evapotranspiration, pumping and flow towards deeper aquifers which are estimated
independently. Various methods and approached have been used in hydrograph separation
such as digital filtering method and recession-curve displacement method (Rorabough,
1964; Nathan & McMahon, 1990; Arnold et al., 1995). Recharge estimates deduced from
hydrograph separation in different basin have 127 mm/year to 1270 mm/year. Minimum
time period for estimating recharge are a few months. Recharge over longer period can be
estimated from the summation of recharge over shorter periods. Recently chemical and
isotopic techniques are used in which stream flow is inferred from soil, water, rainfall,
groundwater and bank storage (Hooper et al., 1990; Christophersen & Hooper, 1992).
Although this method is data intensive yet provides useful information for hydrograph
separation.
45
2.6.3.5 TRACER TECHNIQUE (HEAT TRACER)
Heat tracer technique can be used to estimate the infiltration into the ground from
surface water. This method is useful in semi-arid region for ephemeral streams as an
alternative of the expansive stream gauging method (Constantz et al., 1994; Ronan et al.,
1998). Monitoring of depth varies depending upon certain factors of time, types of
sediments and expected water changes underneath the stream. Daily temperature variations
are monitored at varying depth for different materials. Depth varies from 0.5 m to 1 m for
fine grained materials, however for course grained material it ranges from 0.3 m to 3 m.
Recharge from this technique can be measured from few hours upto several years. The
reported infiltration rates from the previous studies varies from 0.5 mm/day to 6.4 mm/day,
18 mm/day to 37 mm/day and 457 mm/day (Lapham, 1989; Bartolino & Niswonger, 1999;
Maurer & Thodal, 2000).
2.6.3.6 ISOTOPIC TRACERS TECHNIQUE
Groundwater recharging from lakes and rivers can be estimated using the stable
isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen. Rivers having their headwater at higher elevations in
mountains, river water is often depleted in stable isotopes as compare to the precipitation
receiving locally in the nearby basin. Researches have indicated and confirmed these facts
in the basins of Canterbury Plains of South Island, New Zeeland and River Rhine of
Netherland (Stuyfzand, 1989; Taylor et al., 1989; 1992).
2.6.3.7 NUMERICAL MODELLING
Rainfall – Runoff Models are generally used to estimate recharge for larger areas
(Eq. 2.10; Scanlon et al., 2002).
R = P + Qswon – R0 – ETsw – ETuz – ∆Ssnow – ∆Ssw – ∆Suz ……. Eq. 2.10
Where R = Groundwater Recharge, P = Precipitation and irrigation water, Qswon = Flow
of water onto the site, R0 = Surface Runoff, ET = Evapotranspiration from Surface
water Reservoirs (sw) and unsaturated zone (uz), ∆S = Change in water storage of snow,
surface water reservoirs (sw) & unsaturated zone (uz).
46
Different watersheds models have been used which differ in recharge estimation
regarding their spatial resolution. Which provides more accurate and precise methods for
application over small scale to estimate recharge of individual parameters of the water
budget equation (Healy et al., 1989). Day, month or year is taken as time scale for these
models. Lumped models provide a single general estimate for the whole catchment (Kite,
1995). There are other models which have not been applied for the entire catchment and
disaggregated either into hydro geomorphological (HG) or Hydrologic Response (HR)
unites (Salama et al., 1993). Deep Percolation Model (DPM) was applied to three small
watersheds having an average size of 0.4 Km2 in the Puget Sound, Washington, USA.
Average recharge rates for these basins are 37 mm/year, 138 mm/year and 172 mm/year
(Bauer & Mastin, 1997). SWAT model was applied in the upper catchment of River
Mississippi, the entire watershed was subdivided into 131 HR unites each having an area
of 3750 Km2. Average annual recharge was estimated to be ranging from 10 to 400
mm/year (Arnold et al., 2000). Similarly, another application of model to estimate
groundwater recharge was used in Yucca Mountains, Nevada USA where the recharging
rate was estimated to be 2.9 mm/year (Flint et al., 2002).
2.6.4 Unsaturated Zone and Soil-Water balance
Arid and semi-arid regions of the world are characterized by thick unsaturated zone
(Scanlon et al., 2002). Estimation of groundwater recharging rates for such areas,
unsaturated zone techniques are used. These techniques have been described in different
studies (Gee & Hillel, 1988; Hendrickx & Walker, 1997; Scanlon et al., 1997; Zhang,
1998). Unsaturated zone techniques usually provide potential recharge estimates which are
based on drainage rates below the root zone.
2.6.4.1 LYSIMETERS
Lysimeters are used to measure various components of soil water balance (Young
et al., 1996). Lysimeters often consist of a container which is filled either with undisturbed
or disturbed soil. Soil may be having vegetation or not however, it is separated from the
surrounding soil for the purpose of measuring various components of water balance. Pan
Lysimeters are used for measurement of water storage and precipitation. Similarly,
evapotranspiration is measured by weighing Lysimeters. This method may not be suitable
47
for deep rooted vegetation. However, recharge rates of certain areas have been accurately
measured by using this method. In Bunter Sandstone, England for surface area of 100 m2
the recharging rate for a period of three years was measured from 342 mm/year to 478
mm/year (Kitching et al., 1977). It was 200 mm/year for Chalk aquifer of England with a
surface area of 25 m2 (Kitching & Shearer, 1982). And 1mm/year to 200 mm /year in the
semi-arid region of Hanford in Washington, USA (Gee et al., 1992). Lysimeters are more
suitable for estimating evapotranspiration rather than recharge. Construction and
maintenance of Lysimeters are difficult as well as expansive due to which they could not
be frequently used for measurement of recharge (Scanlon et al., 2002).
2.6.4.2 DARCY’S LAW
Recharge in the unsaturated zone is often calculated by using the Darcy’s law (Eq. 2.11;
Scanlon et al., 2002; Vincent et al., 2014).
R = - K (θ) dH/dz = - K (θ) d/dz (h+z) = - K (θ) (dh/dz +1) …...Eq. 2.11
Where K (θ) = Stands for hydraulic conductivity at (θ) ambient water content, H = Total
head, h = matric pressure head, while z = elevation.
Darcy’s law has been used in all the hydrologic conditions of arid, semi-arid and humid
(Sammis et al., 1982; Normand et al., 1997). The recharging rates calculated by using
Darcy’s law ranges from 37 mm/year in an arid region of New Mexico, USA to 500
mm/year for an irrigated thin unsaturated zone of Grenoble, France (Stephens & Knowlton,
1986; Kengni et al., 1994). This method is applicable for a wide range of temporal scale
over a large area throughout the year.
2.6.4.3 NUMERICAL MODELLING
Numerical models in the unsaturated zones are used either for estimating drainage
beneath the root zone or to calculate recharge in response to metrological factors. The use
of computer technology has made it easier to calculate model recharge for long term. A
variety of computer-based models have been used for unsaturated flow including soil water
storage approaches, such as the use of bucket model which can be used over a large area
(Flint et al., 2002; Walker et al., 2002). Similarly, quasi-analytical approaches have also
been used (Simmons & Meyer, 2000). Numerical models based on Richard equation are
restricted to areas of less than 100 m2 such as VS2DT, SWIM, BREATH, HYDRUS-1D,
48
HYDRUS-2D, UNSATH (Lappala et al., 1987; Ross, 1990; Stothoff, 1995; Šimůnek et
al., 1996; Hsieh et al., 2000). In many models time scale ranges from a few hours upto
several decades however, in many cases due to availability of climatic data it ranges from
30 years period upto 100 years (Rockhold et al., 1995; Stothoff, 1997; Kearns &
Hendrickx, 1998). Besides, chemical or isotopic and historical tracers based on human
activities have also been used for estimating recharge in unsaturated zones (Cook et al.,
1994; Nativ et al., 1995; Aeby, 1998; Forrer et al., 1999).
2.6.5 Techniques of Saturated Zone Studies
Saturated zone techniques are applicable to estimate recharge over a much larger
area as compare to unsaturated zone which mostly provides point estimates (Scanlon et al.,
2002). Similarly, saturated zone approaches provide actual recharge as water in such zone
reaches upto the water table. However, other approaches only provide estimates of
potential, or drainage recharge rather than actual.
2.6.5.1 WATER TABLE FLUCTUATION (WTF) METHOD
WTF method is usually based on the principle of rising groundwater level in
unconfined aquifers which often occur due to recharging of water that arrives at the water
table. Recharge by WTF method is calculated by using the equation (Eq. 2.12; Scanlon et
al., 2002).
R = Sydh/dt = Sy∆h/∆t ………...Eq. 2.12
Where Sy = Specific yield, h = Water table height and t = time
This method has been widely used and described in different studies (Gerhart 1986; Hall
& Risser, 1993; Healy & Cook, 2002). This method can be applied for short period of time
and areas of shallow water table where fluctuations in water level is also rapid. This method
has been used in different region with a variety of climatic conditions. The recharge rate
by using this method was estimated to be 5 mm/year for Saudi Arabia at Tabalah basin
(Abdulrazzak et al., 1989). However, it was 247 mm/year in a small humid region of
eastern USA (Rasmussen & Andreasen, 1959). Recharge rates estimated by this method is
applicable for areas over few m2 upto thousands of m2. Similarly, time scale for recharge
estimates varies from events upto the length of several hydrographic records. Besides,
WTF method several numerical models and Darcy law are also used for estimating
groundwater recharge rates.
49
In saturated zone several groundwater models have been used for estimating and
predicting recharge rates. Information for these models are based on hydraulic
conductivity, hydraulic heads and several other parameters (Sanford, 2002). Recharge
estimates from these models are how much reliable, it depends upon the accuracy of the
data, particularly hydraulic conductivity. Darcy’s law can also be applied in saturated zone
for larger areas upto more than 10,000 Km2 and for a period of several hundred years.
2.6.6 Quantification of Groundwater Recharging
The methodology used for this study follows guidelines of the United States
Environmental Protection Agency for estimation of groundwater recharge and its
assessment (USEPA, 1993). Quantification of urban recharge is very difficult, however the
guideline followed in this research provides a general estimation of evapotranspiration,
surface runoff and infiltration. Which depends upon the development of built environment
and sealed surfaces. As the Impervious Surface Covers (ISC) multiplies infiltration rates
are decreased however, runoff generation is increased. Certain factors were given due
consideration to know about the recharging process of the study area. Recharging process
of aquifers depends upon a number of factors such as hydrology, climate, geology and
geomorphology of an area (Scanlon et al., 2002). In geomorphology soil, topography and
vegetation are very important factors which may be given due consideration. An area which
has not been previously studied regarding recharge needs data of the above-mentioned
factors which control the recharging process to a large extent.
Similarly, to delineate hydro-geomorphological setting on the basis of topographic
attributes of slope and elevation, Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and Geographical
information system (GIS) are the encouraging tools and techniques which have already
been used in Australia (Salama et al., 1994; Hatton, 1998). In this study DEM of 30 Meters
Resolution of the Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM) of 23rd September, 2014
was used and processed in ESRI software of ArcGIS 10.2 to delineate the hydro-
geomorphological setting and topographic attributes of slope and elevation. Which
provided outstanding results of generating and delineating recharging zones within the
administrative boundary of the study area.
Land Use Land Cover (LULC) is also an important factor in the recharging process
(Scanlon et al., 2002). Estimating the recharge of an area LULC information are also
50
essential. In this study the impact of the development of built environment of the study
area has been linked with the recharging process. The spatio-temporal growth and
expansion of built environment within the recharging zones of the study area was analyzed
from Landsat images of 1981 and 1991 and SPOT images of 2009 and 2014. Similarly,
irrigation system and soil texture and its permeability are also important in the recharging
process. The combined geomorphic system of topography, soil and LULC control the
recharging process which have been followed in this research.
2.7 Pakistan: Built environment and its impacts on water resources
Pakistan experiences rapid population growth, urban expansion, infrastructural and
socio-economic developments which have increased the built environment and maximized
the use of fresh water from surface as well as ground sources. Pakistan is a developing
country and passing through a rapid population growth and urban expansion (GoP, 1999;
Ghani, 2012). Which have resulted to reshape the population from rural to urban dwellers
(Helbock, 1975; Arif & Hamid, 2009). In South Asia, Pakistan experiences an explosive
annual urban growth rate of 3% (Kugelman, 2014). In 1951, urban population of the
country was 5.99 million (17.75%; GoP, 1952) which has increased by 12 times in just 66
years of period and reached the figure of 75.6 million (36.38%; GoP, 2017) in 2017 (Table
2.2; Figure 2.4). However, it is estimated that the country will become the home of massive
urban population when it will cross the alarming figure of 130 million (50 %) in 2030
(Haider, 2006; Haider & Badami, 2010).
Table 2.2 Pakistan, Urban-Rural Population, % Share and Temporal growth of urban
population (1951-2017)
Census year
Population (Million) % Share of
urban population
% increase in
urban population Urban Rural Total
1951 5.99 27.75 33.74 17.75 -
1961 9.65 33.23 42.88 22.50 61.1
1972 16.59 48.72 65.31 25.40 71.9
1981 23.84 60.41 84.25 28.30 43.7
1998 43.04 89.31 132.35 32.52 80.5
2017 75.6 132.2 207.8 36.38 75.7
Source: GoP 1952; 1962; 1973; 1983; 1999; 2017
51
Figure 2.4, Pakistan Temporal growth of rural and urban Population (1951-2017)
Pakistan is also among the top ten countries of the world in term of Impervious
Surface Cover (ISC). Total impervious surface area of the country is 10,666 km² with an
average of 70.9 m² per person (Elvidge et al., 2007; Rahman et al., 2019; Table 2.3; Figure
2.5).
Table 2.3 Top ten countries of the world with high Impervious Surface Cover
Source: Modified after Elvidge et al., 2007; Rahman et al., 2019
27.75 33.2348.72 60.41
89.31
132.2
5.99 9.65
16.5923.84
43.04
75.6
0
50
100
150
200
250
1951 1961 1972 1981 1998 2017
Popula
tion (
Mil
lion
)
Census Year
Rural Urban
S. No Country ISC (Km²) Population (Million) ISC/person
1 China 87,182 1,293.5 67.4
2 USA 83,881 282.6 296.8
3 India 81,221 1,060.3 76.7
4 Brazil 17,766 177.84 99.9
5 Russia 17,135 139 123.3
6 Indonesia 16,490 230 71.7
7 Japan 13,990 122.2 114.5
8 Mexico 11,854 103.6 114.4
9 Canada 11,295 32 352.7
10 Pakistan 10,666 150.4 70.9
52
Figure 2.5, Top ten countries of the world with high Impervious Surface Cover
2.7.1 Pakistan: An overview of Water Resources
In Pakistan fresh water requirements are fulfilled from surface and groundwater
sources. River Indus and its tributaries are the major sources of surface water providing
about 138 Million Acre Feet per Annum (MAF/A) of water (Kahlown & Majeed, 2003) in
which the contribution of river Indus alone is about 65 %. The extensive alluvial plains of
the country from the Himalayan foot hills upto the Arabian Sea have developed unconfined
aquifers having a potential of about 50 MAF. The aquifers are directly recharged from
rivers, seepage from canals and precipitation. The Indus River system is supplemented by
more than 1 million private and public tube wells abstracting the groundwater for domestic,
agricultural and industrial purposes.
The growing demand of fresh water, its maximum utilization and reduction in
infiltration rate due the development of built environment in the country has reduced the
per capita water availability from 5,000 cubic meters (m³) in 1951 to about 1,100 m³ in the
year 2006 which will further decrease to 700 m³ in the coming year of 2025 (Martin et al.,
2006). Not only the surface water sources of the country are in a constant stress but also
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
80,000
90,000
100,000
Imp
ervio
us
Su
rfac
e C
over
(K
m2)
ISC (Km²)
53
the groundwater abstraction has been rapidly increasing creating acute shortage of fresh
water availability in future with severe depletion in water table. The total extraction of
fresh water from ground sources in the country is 64 Km³/year (Table 2.4; Figure 2.6).
Similarly, irrigation from surface water fulfill less than 50 % of the crops requirements, to
overcome the deficiency each year canal irrigation system is supplemented by 59 Billion
m³ of groundwater (Zardari, 2008). It has been estimated that total potential of the aquifers
of the country which is 50.9 MAF has been exploited to about 38.4 MAF (Kahlown &
Majeed, 2003).
Similarly, sedimentation in the reservoirs of Tarbela, Chashma and Mangla have
decreased the storage capacity by 25 % which may further deteriorate the availability of
water. It has been observed that due to the increasing population and agriculture
intensification, dependence on groundwater in the country is increasing. In certain areas
not only groundwater quality has been affected, but such fresh water sources are also
depleting (Basharat & Tariq, 2013).
Table 2.4 Top ten groundwater abstracting countries of the world
Source: Modified after Margat, 2008; Rahman et al., 2019
S.No Country Groundwater Abstraction (Km3/ year)
1 India 251
2 China 112
3 USA 112
4 Pakistan 64
5 Iran 60
6 Bangladesh 35
7 Mexico 29
8 Saudi Arabia 23
9 Indonesia 14
10 Italy 14
54
Figure 2.6, Top ten groundwater abstracting countries of the world
2.8 Theoretical and Conceptual Framework of the present study
Fresh water sources play an important role all over the globe. Surface and
groundwater are used for various purposes. Rapid population growth, socio-economic
developments and changes in agricultural and irrigation technologies have been increasing
pressure on water resources, particularly since the mid of the 20th century (Kraft et al.,
2012). Worldwide, groundwater abstraction from 1998 to 2002 was one third of all fresh
water sources supplying water for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes.
Groundwater extraction during the same period was 35 % (4300 km³/year) of all fresh
water resources (Döll et al., 2012). In various countries of the world extraction from
groundwater sources has increased by three-fold during the last 50 years at an average
growing rate of 1% - 2 % (Siebert et al., 2005; Margate et al., 2006; Van der Gun, 2012).
Similarly, during the same period surface runoff has been accelerated by two folds which
is directly resulted by the development in impermeable land covers.
The rapidly growing population of the world has always increased the abstraction
from groundwater sources and the increasing trend of Impervious Surface Cover (ISC) has
the capacity to obstruct the infiltration rate and accelerate surface runoff (UCAR, 2010;
Sunkpho & Ootamakorn, 2011). Consequently, abstraction from the groundwater sources
exceed than the recharging rate resulting the depletion of the fresh water sources (Gleeson
251
112 112
64 60
3529 23 14 14
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Gro
und
wat
er A
bst
ract
ion
(Km
³ /A
nnum
)
55
et al., 2010). However, fresh water sources are also affected by several factors including
distribution and variation in precipitation volume (Healy, 2010).
Globally, surface cover changes have always been produced by the growing
population and the increasing trend in built environment. Currently, world population is
about 6.3 billion which is added by 0.25 million per day. However, the projected figure for
2050 is 9.4 billion. Not only total but also global urban population has been rapidly
growing. Global urban population has increased from 746 million in 1950 to 4 billion in
2016 (UN, 2016). Urban land cover has also been increasing with a rapid pace producing
problems to the water resources. Which has increased from 0.6 million square kilometers
(km²) in the year 2000 to about 1 million km² in 2016 (Angel et al., 2011). These
modifications in urban areas are not only promising but also challenging. However, their
negative impacts on human life and urban environs are less considered (McGranahan &
Satterthwaite, 2003; Redman & Jones, 2005; Scalenghe & Marsan, 2009). The growing
population and the increasing trend of built-up areas are responsible for accelerating the
surface runoff and depleting groundwater sources.
For a country like Pakistan where rapid population growth, urban expansion, socio-
economic and infrastructural developments have been experiencing, pressure on surface
and groundwater sources are continuously increasing. Pakistan has also no exception
regarding the rapid pace of urbanization. Rapid urbanization and the increasing trend of
built environment as well as sealed surfaces in the country are continuously threatening the
potential of fresh water sources. In the country semi-arid and arid conditions prevail over
most parts of the plains, as a consequence dependency on groundwater is continuously
increasing. Although the country has one of the develop canal irrigation system, yet surface
water fulfills only 40 % of water requirements for crops. Groundwater has been abstracted
to overcome the remaining deficiency (Zardari, 2008). Surface water has been
supplemented by 59 Billion Cubic Meters/Annum (BCM/A) of groundwater. Globally,
Pakistan ranks 4th in the terms of groundwater extraction (Margat, 2008). Groundwater is
under a constant pressure due to their excessive abstraction resulting their depletion and
dropping down the water table which will produce problems of fresh water supply in future.
56
The determining factors leading to built environment in district Peshawar are rapid
population growth, urban expansion, socio-economic, infrastructural and industrial
developments. The increase in built-up areas have accelerated surface runoff and
subsequently reduced the infiltration rate. The rapidly increasing population has also
augmented the abstraction of groundwater. In district Peshawar the major sources of
groundwater recharge are River Kabul and Bara, however the dense network of irrigation
channels and precipitation also supplement the process (GoNWFP, 2009). The study area
has been experiencing rapid urban growth which has consumed the agriculture land
(Samiullah, 2013). Residential sector is one of the major consumer of the farmland. The
built environment of the district has increased from 3.7 % in 1981 to 16.27 % in 2014.
During the same period population has also increased from 1.113 million to 3.8 million
(GoP, 1983; GoKP, 2013). Currently it has crossed the figure of 4.269 million (GoP, 2017).
The rapidly growing population and the increasing trend of built environment are
continuously fluctuating surface and groundwater and producing threats to the fresh water
sources.
2.9 Conclusion
Globally, urban population and land cover have been rapidly multiplying. Urban
areas are the places of administrative seating, socio-economic and infrastructural
developments. As a result they attract larger proportion of population and the natural
ground cover undergoes modification which is replaced by the artificial Impervious
Surface Covers. Impermeable surfaces have not only created problems to surface and
groundwater sources, but also to urban environment, microclimate and human life.
Rapid population growth, urban expansion, socio-economic, industrial and
infrastructural developments are observed throughout the globe. Physical and
infrastructural developments have been replacing the natural ground by the artificial ISC.
Similarly, rapid urban population growth has been responsible for increasing the
abstraction of fresh water from ground sources. These variations have always fluctuated
surface and groundwater by accelerating surface runoff and reducing the infiltration rate.
The increasing surface runoff has been responsible for urban and flash floods and reduction
in infiltration rate has always created problem to the groundwater sources. As a
consequence, water table in the more developed urban centres is dropping down and
57
depletion of fresh water sources have already been observed in the form of drying up of
groundwater sources in certain regions of the world.
A number of models and techniques for surface runoff calculation have been
devised. Based on certain parameters these models are either classified into static and
dynamic or into empirical, conceptual and physical. In which each type has its own merits
and demerits. Curve Number (CN) techniques developed by the United States National
Resource Conservation Service is one of important techniques used for surface runoff
calculation which has been opted for this study. Quantification of recharge for groundwater
is difficult however, estimation of the process and its rate can be determined by following
different techniques based on surface water, saturated and unsaturated zones. In which
certain factors including climate, soil, topography and geomorphology are given due
consideration. These factors have been given special concerns in this study to estimate the
recharge for the study area.
Being a developing country Pakistan has also no exception regarding rapid
population growth, urbanization and the resultant surface cover changes. In the country
fresh water requirements are fulfilled from surface as well as ground sources. The country
has been placed among the leading nations of the world with maximum proportion of
sealed surfaces as well as high proportion of groundwater abstraction. As a consequence,
both surface and groundwater are under constant pressure. Flood hazard in the country has
been intensifying, while groundwater sources are rapidly depleting producing serious
threats to fresh water sources.
SECTION TWO
Research Methodology
58
Chapter 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter has highlighted research methodology adopted for carrying out the
study on the impacts of built environment on surface and groundwater in district Peshawar,
Pakistan. The chapter is divided into three sections. Tools and techniques for data
collection have been discussed in section one, whereas data analysis is described in section
two. Conclusion drawn from this chapter is given in the final section.
3.2 Data collection: Tools and Techniques
To achieve the research objectives, data were collected from primary as well as
secondary sources. Primary data related to groundwater was collected from eleven Union
Councils (UCs) out of the total ninety-two UCs. Random sampling method was adopted
for primary data collection. Field survey was carried out in the Union councils (UCs) of
Lahori, Karim Pura, Yakatoot, Malkander, Gunj, Sarband, Masho Khel, Sheikh
Muhammadi, Suleiman Khel, Sheikhan, Badhber and Mashogagar to know about the
position and status of the surface and groundwater. Global Positioning System (GPS) was
used for data collection during field survey. Similarly, household survey was carried out in
the sample UCs, to know about the per capita water demand of the citizens. In the study
area, a total of 100 households were surveyed in each sample UC by random means. The
sample size was 10 %. In the study area, 140 tube wells were selected for groundwater
analysis (Figure 3.1).
Secondary data were collected from the related line agencies. Structural interviews
were conducted with the concerned stakeholders of the Provincial Irrigation and Drainage
Authority (PIDA), Water and Sanitation Services Peshawar (WSSP), Peshawar
Development Authority (PDA), Provincial Disaster Management Authority (PDMA) and
Public Health Engineering Department (PHED) to know about the surface and
groundwater, water supply and demand of the citizens and expansion in the built
environment.
59
Groundwater
USEPA Guidelines
Surface Runoff
Population Growth
Impacts of Built environment on Surface and Groundwater in District Peshawar, Pakistan
Identification of Research Problem
Research Questions Hypotheses Formulation
Objectives
Research Variables Independent Variables Dependent Variable
Data Collection
Literature Review
Field / GPS Survey Interviews
Rainfall Data Groundwater
Data
Arc GIS 10.2
Topographic Maps
Data Processing & Analysis
MS Word & Excel Watershed Delnieation, CN Grid
Satellite Images & DEM
Computer Softwares
GIS
Surface Runoff Model
Figure 3.1, Research Model
Research Methodology
Research Purpose
Built environment Lithology Groundwater LULC
Rainfall
Primary Data Secondary Data
Testing of Research Hypotheses
Meteorology Deptt, ARI USGS & SUPPARCO PHED & WSSP Survey of Pakistan
Presentation of Data & Results
Tables Graphs Maps
Findings & Conclusion
Household Survey
Significance
60
Temporal population data was compiled from the District Census Reports (DCR)
of 1951, 1961, 1972, 1981, 1998 and 2017. Population for the non-census years was
calculated by using the formula (Eq. 3.1; GoKP, 2013).
P = Po (1+ r/100) n ...……………….………..Eq. 3.1
Where P = Estimated Population, Po = Population of the base Census (From which
population can be calculated), r = Growth rate & n = Time interval in years for Calculated
Period/ between the two Census.
Similarly, average daily, monthly and annual rainfall data was collected from
Agricultural Research Institute (ARI) Tarnab and Regional Meteorological Department
Peshawar. Topographical maps of district Peshawar were collected from survey of
Pakistan. Digital Elevation Model (DEM of 30 Meters resolution) of the Shuttle Radar
Topographic Mission (SRTM) and LANDSAT images of 1981 and 1991 were downloaded
from the open source of the United States Geological Survey (USGS) database. SPOT
images of 2009 and 2014 were acquired from Space and Upper Atmospheric Research
Commission (SUPARCO).
Groundwater data of the entire district Peshawar was collected from Public Health
Engineering Department (PHED), Water and Sanitation Services Peshawar (WSSP) and
Provincial Irrigation and Drainage Authority (PIDA) Peshawar. River discharge data
recoded at various gauging stations was acquired from PIDA. In addition, surface geology
data was obtained from the Geological Survey of Pakistan (GSP). Soil data was collected
from Soil Survey of Pakistan (SSP). The data regarding the boundary annexation and
expansion in built-up areas was collected from the Peshawar Development Authority
(PDA).
3.3 Data Analysis
The collected data was analyzed using statistical and cartographic techniques.
Geographical Information System (GIS) was used to carry out spatio-temporal change in
built-up environment and to quantify the surface runoff of all the six urban drainage basins
using Curve Number (CN) method. Guidelines of the United States Environmental
61
Protection Agency (USEPA) were followed in analyzing the collected data. Computer
based packages and softwares of ArcGIS 10.2 and ERDAS imagine 2014 were used to
prepare various maps of Land Use Land Cover (LULC), groundwater sources, water table,
groundwater depth and watershed delineation of the rivers and streams in district Peshawar.
3.3.1 Land Use Land Cover and extraction of built-up areas
LANDSAT images of 1981 and 1991 and SPOT images of 2009 and 2014 were
analyzed for extraction of the built-up areas. Similarly, Land use land cover maps for the
year 1981, 1991, 2009 and 2014 were prepared from Landsat and SPOT images.
Supervised Maximum Likelihood Classification (SMLC) technique was applied to classify
the multi-spectral temporal images of 1981, 1991, 2009 and 2014 into different LULC
classes (Figure 3.2). The multiple land use land cover (LULC) classes provided excellent
result. However, LULC classes signatures were further analyzed using the histogram
technique to separate the bands used in the LULC classes. The study area was cropped and
signatures were created for LULC classes. Histogram equalization was performed to
evaluate the training samples of LULC. SMLC was also used to classify and calculate the
statistics of LULC classes. Finally, raster calculator was used to calculate the statistic of
LULC in term of area and percentages. The spatio-temporal process was performed in
ArcGIS 10.2 and ERDAS Imagine 2014.
Figure 3.2, Systematic process for LULC analysis
3.3.2 Spatial analysis of groundwater sources
In this study, GIS was used for mapping of the groundwater sources and water table
depth of one hundred and forty sample tube wells in the entire district and the results were
Satellite Image
Cropping of the study area & creating signature for LULC Histogram technique
SMLC
LULC classes (Area & Percentages) Raster Calculator
62
displayed by applying interpolation method. Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) technique
was applied for interpolation of the resultant data (Figure 3.3). Similarly, elevation of the
groundwater sources were drawn from SRTM image. Water table depth was subtracted
from the digital elevation of the groundwater sources, whereas groundwater depth was
generated using raster surfaces. Further analysis were carried out using Arc Hydrology tool
and maps of Flow direction and Flow accumulation were prepared as a base for the
preparation of recharging zones of groundwater sources. In the resultant recharging zones,
built-up areas were spatio-temporally analyzed and compared.
3.3.3 Rivers and Streams: Watershed delineation
Watershed delineation of rivers and streams of district Peshawar was carried in
ArcGIS using Arc Hydrology tool. Digital Elevation Model of Shuttle Radar Topographic
Mission (SRTM) of 23rd September 2014 was used (Figure 3.4). Four DEMs of 30 m
Resolution were added to ArcGIS, which were merged in one Mosaic to cover the entire
drainage basins. The Mosaic DEM was then clipped in data management tool. For further
analysis, Hydrology tools was selected in Spatial Analysis. Fill in Hydrology tools was
opened to fill Sinks process. Flow Direction tool was then opened and the input added data
was Fill DEM. Flow Accumulation tool was then opened for which the input data was
Flow direction. CON tool in Conditional Spatial Analysis was then opened to eliminate all
the upper streams, which were not needed. Stream Order tool was then opened and Strahler
Figure 3.3, Systematic process for Groundwater mapping
Point Data of the Groundwater sources
Interpolation by IDW Technique
Elevation of groundwater sources Water Table Map
Elevation – Water Table
Groundwater Depth Map
Groundwater Recharging Zones Map
Arc Hydrology Tool
63
method was used for the input Conditional Raster. Stream to Feature tool was then applied
to get Streams in vector Format and Symbology was assigned to nicely visualize the stream
order. As a result, main tributaries were found out to delineate the Watershed. In the next
stage, point shape file was created and placed over the tributary, where it was connected to
the main stream. Watershed tool was opened to enter the resultant data for getting
watershed boundary in Raster format. Raster to Polygon was then applied using the
Conversion tool and to convert watershed in vector format. Stream-vector of Watershed
was clipped in the geoprocessing option to complete the process. In the watershed of all
the rivers and streams, the built-up areas were spatio-temporally analyzed and compared.
Figure 3.4, Systematic process for Watershed Delineation
SRTM Data & Clipping of Merged Mosaic
DEM
Spatial Analysis tools
Hydrology tools
Fill Flow Direction Flow Accumulation
Conditional Spatial Analysis
CON
Stream order Stream to Feature
Stream vector
Finding Main tributaries to delineate the watershed
Point shape file
Conversion tools
Raster to Polygon
Geoprocessing
Clip stream vector
64
3.3.4 Preparation of Curve Number (CN) Grid Map
Curve Number (CN) values depends upon the watershed cover conditions and soil
type. In the model, the same are represented as cover type, Hydrologic Soil Groups (HSG),
hydrologic and moisture conditions. HSG is a group of soil having similar runoff potential
under similar storm and cover conditions associated with runoff CN. The same was
assigned certain CN values as per the guidelines of Natural Resource Conservation Service
(NRCS) of the United States Department of Agriculture (Table 3.1). Based on infiltration
rate and runoff potential, NRSC has classified soil into four Hydrological Soil Groups
(HSG) as A, B, C and D (USDA, 1986; NEH-4, 1997; Hong & Elder, 2008).
Table 3.1 Land Cover and Hydrological Soil Groups under Fair drainage conditions
Source: Modified after USDA, 1986; NEH-4, 1997; Hong & Elder, 2008
Group A
Such soils have low runoff potential and high infiltration rate when thoroughly wet.
It consists of deep, well drained to excessively drained sandy and gravelly sandy soils
having high rate of water transmission capacity (USDA, 1986; NEH-4, 1997; Hong &
Elder, 2008).
Land Cover
CN of Hydrological Soil Group
A B C D
Water Bodies - - -
Evergreen (Needles) 34 60 73 79
Evergreen (Broad Leaf) 30 58 71 77
Deciduous (Needle Leaf) 40 64 77 83
Deciduous (Broad Leaf) 42 66 79 85
Mixed Forests 38 62 75 81
Closed Shrub lands 45 65 75 80
Open Shrub lands 49 69 79 84
Woody Savannas 61 71 81 89
Savannas 82 80 87 93
Grasslands 49 69 79 84
Permanent Wetlands 30 51 71 78
Crop land 67 78 85 89
Urban & Built-up areas 80 85 90 95
Cropland / Natural vegetation 52 69 79 84
Permanent Snow & Ice - - - -
Barren / Sparsely vegetated 72 82 83 87
65
Group B
Soil of this group have moderate infiltration rate as well as runoff potential when
thoroughly wet (USDA, 1986; NEH-4, 1997; Hong & Elder, 2008). Such soil includes
moderately deep to deep, and moderately drained to well-drained having moderately fine
to coarse texture. Water transmission capacity of such soils are also moderate.
Group C
Soil of group C have slow infiltration rate and moderately high runoff potential
when thoroughly wet (USDA, 1986; NEH-4, 1997; Hong & Elder, 2008). Such soils have
a top layer, which usually obstruct the downward movement of water that often passes over
it as surface runoff rather than seeping through it. Such soils have moderately fine to fine
texture where water transmission capacity are very slow.
Group D
Soils having a very low infiltration rate and very high runoff potential when
thoroughly wet are included in this group (USDA, 1986; NEH-4, 1997; Hong & Elder,
2008). Clay is mainly included in this group, however soil having high water table and
shallow impervious layers are also included in this group. Water transmission capacity of
such soil is very slow. Apart from these four major HSG, there are also some sub groups,
these three dual groups are A/D, B/D, and C/D, where first letter is used for drained area,
while the second one is mainly used for undrained areas.
In Peshawar valley, soil has been formed by different geomorphic agents in various
periods and follow the international standard. It is helpful for surface runoff calculation on
the basis of Curve Number (CN) method. The replacement of natural ground cover by
Impervious Surface Cover (ISC) disturb the soil profile and thereafter it requires new CN
values for different surface covers keeping in view the guidelines of the NRCS. On the
basis of LULC and soil types CN values were assigned and CN Grid map of Peshawar
district was prepared in GIS (Figure 3.5). CN Grid map was a base for calculation of surface
runoff.
66
3.3.5 Curve Number (CN) method: Surface Runoff and Quantification of Volume
In this study, volume of surface runoff was calculated using Curve Number (CN)
method (Eq. 3.2). It is one of the most widely used model for runoff estimation and
prediction.
Q = (P - Ia) ²/ (P + S - Ia) = (P - 0.2S) ² / (P + 0.8S) …………Eq. 3.2
Where Q is Runoff volume, P is Precipitation, Storage Index (S) = (1000/CN) -10,
and Ia is Initial abstraction.
3.3.6 Nexus of built environment, surface runoff and groundwater
The relation between Impervious Surface Covers (ISC) / built environment, surface
runoff generation and infiltration in the study area was calculated using the equations and
guidelines of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA, 1993; Table
3.2). The development of Impervious Surface Covers (ISC) in urban areas disturb the
natural hydrological cycle. When in a particular area, the surface cover is natural ground,
the runoff generation will be 10 % and 40 % water will return back to atmosphere as
evapotranspiration and shallow and deep infiltration account for 25 % each. When the
natural ground undergoes modification and is subsequently replaced by the artificial
impermeable surfaces runoff generation is also escalated. Contrary to this, the share of
evapotranspiration and infiltration are reduced. These imbalances have created problems
LULC (Raster) Soil types (Vector) Table
Raster to Polygon Categorization Assigning Values
LULC (Polygon) Soil types (Classes) CN Table
Assigning HSG Values
Merging Soil - LULC
Soil - LU (Classes)
CN Grid
Figure 3.5, Systematic process for the preparation of CN Grid Map
67
to urban ecology and water resources. When the sealed surfaces in a particular area increase
10-20 % the runoff generation doubles (20 %) as compare to the natural and unsealed
surface. As a result, evapotranspiration will reduce to 38 % while each shallow and deep
infiltrations will reduce to 21 %. Consequently, runoff generation will further be
accelerated to 30 %, when the impervious surface cover is 35-50 %. Similarly,
evapotranspiration (35 %) and infiltrations (15-20 %) will reduce. Runoff generation is
further exceeded by more than 50 %, when an area becomes entirely urbanized having
more than 70 % impervious surfaces and deep infiltration is reduced to 5 %. For a rapidly
growing district of Peshawar, these guidelines were followed to explore the relationship
between the Impervious Surface Cover (ISC) and infiltration of rain into the groundwater
sources.
Source: USEPA, 1993
3.4 Conclusion
In this chapter, the research methodology adopted for the study has been explained
in detail. For data collection as well as its analysis scientific tools and techniques were
used. Both primary and secondary data sources were consulted for data collection. Primary
data was collected from field survey in all the eleven sample union councils, to know about
the status and trend of surface and groundwater. GPS was also used for field data collection.
Household survey was also carried out in the sample UCs. Structural interviews with the
concerned stakeholders of PIDA, PHED, PDMA and WSSP were also conducted.
Secondary data were collected from the related line agencies and were also obtained
from the published sources. Modern tools and techniques of RS and GIS were used for
spatial analysis, identification, monitoring and analysis of LULC changes, analysis of
Table 3.2 Nature of Surface Cover and water flow
Nature of Surface
Cover
Runoff
Generation
(%)
Evapotranspiration
(%)
Shallow
Infiltration
(%)
Deep
Infiltration
(%)
Natural Ground 10 40 25 25
10-20 % Impervious 20 38 21 21
35-50 % Impervious 30 35 20 15
75-100 % Impervious 55 30 10 5
68
surface runoff and groundwater status in the study area. These tools and techniques were
cross-checked and validated using CN model for estimation of surface runoff and volume
calculation as per USEPA guidelines in relation to ISC.
SECTION THREE
Analysis, Results and Discussion
69
Chapter 4
SPATIO-TEMPORAL ANALYSIS OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT
4.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with the spatio-temporal analysis of the increasing trend of built
environment within the urban drainage basins of rivers and streams in district Peshawar.
This chapter is divided into five major sections. The chapter introduction is highlighted in
section one. The spatio-temporal changes in built environment of district Peshawar is given
in section two, whereas spatio-temporal growth of built environment within the urban
drainage basins of major rivers is elaborated in section three. Section four is focused on the
spatio-temporal change in built-up areas within the urban drainage basins of all the streams.
Conclusion of the chapter has been given in the final section. In the study area, urban
drainage basins of rivers and streams have experienced rapid growth and expansion of
built-up areas and encouraged problems of urban floods and groundwater abstraction. It is
evident that the urban drainage basins are largely altered by the consistent development of
built-up areas. In the context of urban set-up, there is a growing trend of impermeable
surfaces in the drainage basins, which have the capacity to escalate surface runoff and
reduce infiltration through the ground.
4.2 District Peshawar: Spatio-temporal growth of built environment
In Peshawar, built-up areas have been rapidly multiplying since the inception of
the country in 1947. After independence, Peshawar was declared as the provincial capital
of North West Frontier Province {latter on renamed as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP)}, the
city has shown rapid growth in population together with the gradual urban expansion
(Samiullah, 2013; Rahman et al., 2016). As Peshawar was provincial capital,
administrative and financial hub of the KP province and Federally Administered Tribal
Areas (now part of the KP province) has experienced faster growth and expansion in built
environment. In 1947, the built-up areas within the administrative limits of the district
were 2,853 hectares (ha), which increased to 4,635 ha in 1981 and grew at an average
annual rate of 52.6 ha. During the same period, the increase in built-up areas have also
resulted into extension in the administrative boundary (Municipal Corporation) and the
70
area under built environment increased from 1,678 ha in 1947 to 11,100 ha in 1981. It
was found from the analysis that in 34 years (1947-1981) almost seven-fold increase in
built-up areas have been recorded.
During the period of 1947 to 1981, rapid expansion in the form of nuclei around
the city have started including University Town, University Campus, Hayatabad
Township and industrial estates at Jamrud and Kohat roads. Parallel to this, a number of
villages at the periphery were also engulfed in the expanding city of Peshawar including
Hazar Khwani, Tehkal Bala, Tehkal Payan, Chughulpura, Landi Arbab, Sardar Garhi,
Nauthia, Babu Garhi, Deh Bahader, Paharhi Pura and Malkander. During this period, the
newly formed planned residential areas towards the east were Gul Bahar, Nisthar Abad,
Zaryab colony, Sheikh Abad and Faqir Abad. Similarly, Danish Abad, Nauthia Jadeed
and Shaheen town were developed in the west. The analysis reveals that areas within the
administrative boundaries of the district remained the same until 1991. However, in 2001
Peshawar city was declared as city district with a total area of 125,700 ha (1,257 Sq. km).
During the study period (1981-2014), built environment in Peshawar city district
has recorded rapid expansion and multiplication from 4,635 ha in 1981 to 20,451 ha in
2014. The analysis reveals that in 1981, the built-up areas in Peshawar were 4,635 ha,
which had increased to 7,182 ha (5.7 %) in 1991 (Table 4.1; Figure 4.1). The rapid growth
during 1981-1991 was due to the influx of Afghan refugees which started in 1979. These
migrants have not only settled in the main city but also in the fringe of Peshawar city. As
a result, the built-up areas have shown rapid increase and added 225 ha per annum of the
total built environment. All the physical expansion around Peshawar (except Hayat
Abad) was unplanned and was mostly along the radial roads. This haphazard urban
expansion was at the cost of encroachment over the agriculture land in the north and east
mostly in between the radial roads. It was found from the analysis that the residential
land use was the major consumer of the farmland which has engulfed up to 8,748 ha (7
%) of agricultural land during the period of 1981 to 1991.
It was found from the analysis that in 2009, the built environment of Peshawar
city was further increased from 7,182 ha in 1991 to 16,986 ha (13.5 %) in 2009. From
1991 to 2009, the built-up areas have recorded an increase of more than 100 % in 18
71
years, and have grown at a rate of about 545 ha per year. This indicates that the growth
was two times greater than the previous period of 1981 to 1991. Expansion of built-up
areas during this period is considered as faster than the previous period. Similarly, LULC
analysis of the SPOT image 2014 (Table 4.2; Figure 4.2; 4.3; 4.4) has indicated further
expansion in Impervious Surface Covers (ISC) and the built-up areas have accounted as
20,451 ha (16.27 %). Expansion during this period from 2009 to 2014 has added 3,462
ha to the built environment and in a merely 5-years period the built-up areas increased at
a rate of 692.4 ha per year as against the slow growth rate during 1991 to 2009. The
analysis further reveals that the ever-fastest growth has been recorded during 2009 to
2014.
The analysis further revealed that on the basis of past recorded urban expansion
in area under built-up environment, it has been predicted that the sealed surfaces in
district Peshawar will account for about 27,700 ha (more than 22 %) by the year 2030. It
was also found from the analysis that in district Peshawar, the built environment is
continuously consuming the prime agricultural land, which is serious threat to food
security, urban floods, depletion of groundwater, carbon footprints and heat islands in
the study area.
Table 4.1 District Peshawar, Temporal change in Built environment, 1981-2014
Source: Extracted from Landsat images1981; 1991 and SPOT images 2009; 2014
Year Built-up (ha) % age of
total area
% Increase in Built-up
area
% Increase Per
Annum
1981 4,635 3.70 - -
1991 7,182 5.70 54.95 5.50
2009 16,986 13.50 136.51 7.58
2014 20,451 16.27 20.40 4.08
72
Figure 4.1, District Peshawar, Spatio-temporal growth of built environment extracted from
Landsat 1981; 1991 and SPOT 2009; 2014. a. 1981, b. 1991, c. 2009, d. 2014
73
Figure 4.2, District Peshawar, temporal growth of built environment, 1981, 1991, 2009 and
2014
Table 4.2 District Peshawar, Current status of Land use land cover, 2014
Source: SPOT image, 2014
4,635
7,182
16,986
20,451
3.7
5.7
13.5
16.27
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
1981 1991 2009 2014
Bu
ilt
envir
on
men
t (h
a)
% S
har
e o
f B
uil
t en
vir
on
men
t
Year
Built-up (ha) % Share of Buit environment
S.No LULC type Area (ha) Percentage (%)
1 Agriculture 84,596.1 67.30
2 Built-up 20,451.39 16.27
3 Barren land 15,234.84 12.12
4 Water bodies 4,588.05 3.65
5 Forests 829.62 0.66
Total 125,700 100
74
Figure 4.3, District Peshawar, Land utilization 2014
Figure 4.4, District Peshawar, Land use Land cover 2014 extracted from SPOT image
67.30%
16.27%
12.12%3.65%
Agriculture Built up Barren land Water bodies Forests
75
4.3 District Peshawar: Drainage Basins
In district Peshawar, all the drainage systems flow towards east and ultimately
confluence with River Kabul and considered as a main spine drainage basin. In the study
area, a total of six sub-basins of rivers and streams are demarcated including the watersheds
of Budhni, Bara and Zindai rivers and the streams of Mera, Garhi and Kala as well as their
perennial and seasonal tributaries (Figure 4.5; 4.6). The watersheds of these rivers and
streams within the district of Peshawar are considered as part of urban drainage basins
(Figure 4.7). In this study, focus has been made on urban watersheds and the impact of
built environment on the surface and groundwater resources of district Peshawar.
Figure 4.5, Drainage basins of major Rivers and Streams extracted from SRTM image
76
Figure 4.6, Drainage basins of major Rivers and Streams extracted from SRTM image
Figure 4.7, District Peshawar, drainage basins of major Rivers and Streams extracted
from SRTM image
77
4.3.1 District Peshawar: Spatio-temporal land use land cover in urban drainage basins
In the study area, watersheds and drainage basins of major Rivers and Streams
were delineated in GIS environment. It was found from the analysis that the two important
rivers of Bara and Budhni are mainly fed by the urban drainage and rain-water originating
from the built-up areas within the urban watershed of the district. In the watersheds of
these two major rivers, the built-up areas were spatio-temporally compared. The analysis
revealed that the built environment has shown remarkable increase during the study period
(1981-2014) mainly at the cost of farmland. Similarly, the spatio-temporal changes in
built-up areas of rest of the sub-basins that falls within the urban watershed have also
recorded significant growth and expansion.
4.3.1.1 ANALYSIS OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT IN THE DRAINAGE BASIN OF
RIVER BUDHNI
Watershed of River Budhni cover a total area of 1,229.42 sq.km, out of which
367.05 sq.km (29.86 %) falls within district Peshawar. In this study, the part of basin that
lies within the district boundary is considered as its urban watershed as it receives drainage
of the city built-up areas (Figure 4.8; 4.9). The analysis reveals that the spatio-temporal
land use changes within the urban watershed of River Budhni has shown significant growth
in built environment. In 1981, the built-up areas in the urban watershed were 2,648.45 ha
and covered 7.22 % of the total urban drainage basin (Table 4.3; Figure 4.10). Which
gradually increased to 4,504.50 ha in 1991 accounting 12.27 % of the urban watershed and
indicated an overall increase of 70.08 % in ten years (1981-1991) with an average annual
increase of 7 %. During the same period, the built-up area has increased by 1,856.05 ha
with an average annual growth rate of 185.61 ha.
The analysis further reveals that the built-up area within the urban watershed of
River Budhni turned into more than doubled and recorded an overall increase from
4,504.50 ha (12.27%) in 1991 to 9,793.51 ha (26.68 %) in 2009. The analysis reveals that
during the period of 1991 to 2009 an overall growth of 117.42 % is recorded in eighteen
years with an average annual increase of 6.52 % in sealed surfaces. During 1991 to 2009,
the built-up area in the watershed of River Budhni increased to 5,289 ha indicate an average
annual increase of 294 ha. The spatial analysis of multi-spectral SPOT image of 2014
78
reveals that the sealed surfaces within the urban watershed of River Budhni were 11,032.63
ha accounting for 30.06 % of the total urban watershed and the recorded increase in
impervious surfaces was 12.65 %. From 2009 to 2014, the built-up areas have shown an
overall increase of 1,239.12 ha showing an average annual growth rate of 247.8 ha (2.53%).
The analysis further reveals that during 1981 to 2014 a cumulative increase in the
built-up areas within the urban watershed of River Budhni was 8,384.18 ha. During the
study period, an average annual increase of 254.07 ha (7.70 %) has been noted. It has been
modeled that if the same trend in built-up areas continued the sealed surfaces within the
urban watershed of River Budhni are predicted to be approximately 4,000 ha by 2030. This
will further pose serious implications on surface and groundwater in the urban watershed
of River Budhni. The field observations along with the image analysis has revealed that
major expansion in built-up areas have been recorded in the south-east as compare to the
north-west.
Figure 4.8, Total Drainage Basin of River Budhni extracted from SRTM image
79
Figure 4.9, Drainage basin of River Budhni within District Peshawar
extracted from SRTM image
Table 4.3 River Budhni, Temporal change in Built-up areas within
urban drainage basin (1981-2014)
Source: Extracted from Landsat1981 and 1991; SPOT 2009 and 2014
Year Built-up Area (ha) Percentage % Increase
1981 2,648.45 7.22 -
1991 4,504.50 12.27 70.08
2009 9,793.51 26.68 117.42
2014 11,032.63 30.06 12.65
80
Figure 4.10, River Budhni, Spatio-temporal increase of built-up areas extracted from Landsat
1981, 1991 and SPOT 2009, 2014. a.1981, b. 1991, c. 2009, d. 2014
81
4.3.1.2 ANALYSIS OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT IN THE DRAINAGE BASIN OF
RIVER BARA
The watershed of River Bara covers a total area of 1,970 sq.km (Figure 4.11).
However, its urban drainage basin in district Peshawar is 126 sq.km, which is only 6.4 %
of the total watershed of River Bara (Figure 4.12). The spatio-temporal analysis reveals
that during the study period (1981 to 2014) the urban drainage basin of River Bara has
shown remarkable increase in built environment (Table 4.4; Figure 4.13). In the year 1981,
built-up areas within the urban watershed of River Bara were 262.06 ha (2.07 %). The
analysis indicates that in 1991, the built-up areas in the urban drainage basin of River Bara
have increased to 799 ha. During the period of 1981-1991, the built-up areas within the
urban watershed of River Bara has shown significant growth and expansion and added
536.94 ha (204.89 %) of sealed surfaces with a faster average annual growth rate of 53.70
ha .
The analysis further reveals that in 2009, the built environment within the urban
watershed of River Bara has multiplied to 2,200 ha (17.46 %) with an average annual
increase of 77.83 ha (9.74 %) from 1991 to 2009. The spatial analysis of SPOT image 2014
reveals that built-up areas have further grown and touched the figure of 2,815.93 ha (22.34
%) with an average annual growth rate of 123.186 ha. It was analyzed that during the study
period of 1981 to 2014 the built-up areas within the urban drainage basin of River Bara
have increased from 262.06 ha to 2,815.93 ha with an overall increase of 2,553.87 ha. The
average annual growth rate during the same period was 77.39 ha (12.37 %). If the same
trend continued upto 2030 then the predicted built-up areas within the urban watershed of
River Bara are 4,054.15 ha. Which will cover about 32 % area of the urban drainage basin
of River Bara.
The spatio-temporal analysis of built-up areas within the urban watershed of River
Bara has revealed that the growth and expansion of sealed surfaces was more towards the
north-west and lesser to the south-east. As River Bara receive rain and drainage water from
some parts of the main built-up areas of the city centre and Kohat road and the increasing
trend of built environment within its urban watershed will always create problems to the
urban dwellers.
82
Figure 4.11, Total Drainage Basin of River Bara extracted from SRTM image
Figure 4.12, Drainage basin of River Bara within District Peshawar extracted from
SRTM image
83
Table 4.4 River Bara, Temporal change of Built-up areas within urban
drainage basin (1981-2014)
Source: Extracted from Landsat 1981 and 1991; SPOT 2009 and 2014
Figure 4.13, River Bara, Spatio-temporal increase of built-up areas extracted from Landsat
1981; 1991 and SPOT 2009; 2014. a. 1981, b. 1991, c. 2009, d. 2014
Year Built-up Area (ha) Percentage % Increase
1981 262.06 2.07 -
1991 799.0 6.34 204.89
2009 2,200 17.46 175.34
2014 2,815.93 22.34 28
84
4.3.1.3 ANALYSIS OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT IN THE DRAINAGE BASIN OF
RIVER ZINDAI
The total drainage basin of River Zindai is 1,086 sq.km (Figure 4.14), out of which
524 sq.km (48.25 %) lies within the district of Peshawar (Figure 4.15). The spatio-temporal
analysis of built environment reveals that sealed surfaces within the urban watershed of
River Zindai in 1991 to 2009 were less than Budhni and Bara rivers. However, in 1981 and
2014 the built-up areas within the urban drainage basin of River Zindai exceeded than the
built-up areas within the urban watershed of River Bara. The analysis reveals that during
the study period (1981-2014), the built-up areas within the urban drainage basin of River
Zindai has shown phenomenal increase (Table 4.5; Figure 4.16). The analysis further
reveals that in 1981, the built-up areas within the urban watershed of River Zindai were
271.95 ha (0.52 %) which increased to 781.09 ha (1.49 %) in 1991 indicating an overall
increase of 509 ha (186.54 %). The average growth rate during this period was about 51 ha
per year.
The analysis further reveals that in 2009 the built environment has increased to
1,294 ha (2.47 %). From 1991 to 2009, the built-up areas have grown by 513 ha in 18-
years with an average growth rate of 28.5 ha per year which was about half of the previous
period of 1981 to 1991. In the year 2014, the built-up areas have recorded fastest growth
of 156.28 % as against 2009 and the total impervious surfaces have counted for 3,317.33
ha (6.33 %). Per year increase in built environment during the period of 2009-2014 was
405 ha which was the fastest ever recorded growth in the urban watershed of River Zindai.
If the same trend continued upto 2030 it is expected that the built environment within the
urban drainage basin of River Zindai will be more than 4,800 ha (9 %) with the remarkable
growth and expansion of built-up areas in the suburbs of Peshawar city towards the south-
east.
The watershed of River Zindai within the district of Peshawar mostly receive drains
and rain water from the suburbs of the city as compare to the two other major rivers of
Budhni and Bara which receive water from the main built-up areas of the city. And the
spatio-temporal analysis and field survey have also indicated that multiplication of built-
up areas within the urban drainage basin of River Zindai have been observed in the
85
peripheries of Peshawar city. Moreover, almost all the streams of the south-west of district
Peshawar coming from the adjacent Khyber district confluence with River Zindai and any
increase of built-up areas will further deteriorate its urban watershed.
Figure 4.14, Total Drainage Basin of River Zindai extracted from SRTM image
Figure 4.15, River Zindai within District Peshawar
extracted from SRTM image
86
Table 4.5 River Zindai, Temporal change of Built-up areas within urban
drainage basin (1981-2014)
Source: Extracted from Landsat 1981 and 1991; SPOT 2009 and 2014
Figure 4.16, River Zindai, Spatio-temporal increase of built-up areas extracted from Landsat
1981, 1991 and SPOT 2009, 2014. a. 1981, b. 1991, c. 2009, d. 2014
Year Built-up Area (ha) Percentage % Increase
1981 271.95 0.52 -
1991 781.09 1.49 186.54
2009 1,294.00 2.47 65.77
2014 3,317.33 6.33 156.28
87
4.4 Streams: Basin-wise analysis of built environment
In district Peshawar, there are a number of streams, using SRTM image an
independent drainage basins have been developed following slope of the area. There are
also a number of seasonal streams and demarcated as part of the non-perennial streams. In
past, some of the streams were there to route floodwater during intense rainfall. Such
seasonal streams have been encroached by the local population. These streams were named
after the area from where they originate as Mera, Kala and Garhi streams.
4.4.1 Analysis of built environment in the drainage basin of Mera stream
The watershed developed by Mera stream in the south eastern part of district
Peshawar has a total area of 181.80 sq.km (Figure 4.17 a) in which 44.73 sq.km (24.60 %)
is within the district boundary (Figure 4.17 b). Although the built environment in the south
eastern barren land is less as compare to the city centre, however spatio-temporal analysis
of built-up areas reveals that the urban drainage basin of Mera stream has shown an
impressive increase in the development of built environment from 1981 to 2014 (Table 4.6;
Figure 4.18 ). In 1981, the built-up areas within the urban watershed of Mera stream were
only 2.198 ha (0.05 %), which have been multiplied by 800 % when built environment
crossed the figure of 20.11 ha (0.45 %) within the urban drainage basin of Mera stream.
The analysis further reveals that during the period of 1981 to 1991 the built
environment within the urban watershed of Mera stream has increased by 17.9 ha with an
average growth rate of 1.8 ha per year. It has recorded further increase by 95.56 % in 2009
when built-up areas reached to the figure of 39.22 ha (0.88 %) within the urban watershed
of Mera Stream. The analysis further reveals that from 1991 to 2009 the built environment
has further increased by 19.11 ha in 18-years. However, during this period the average
annual growth of built-up areas was less as compare to the previous period of 1981-1991,
which was only 1.1 ha per annum. It was further indicated from the analysis that in the year
2014, the sealed surfaces within the urban drainage basin of Mera stream have increased
by 366 % (183.37 ha). The analysis also reveals that during the period of 2009 to 2014 the
built environment has ever recorded the fastest growth at a rate of 28.83 ha per year. With
the same pace the expected figure of built environment for the year 2030 is 271 ha, which
will further multiply in future and will create problems to the urban watershed of Mera
88
stream. The analysis also reveals that the development of built-up areas within the urban
drainage basin of Mera stream is more towards the north. Image analysis and field
observations have also indicated that growth and expansion of built-up areas in the south-
eastern barren land (Urban drainage basin of Mera stream) of district Peshawar is not too
much as compare to the city centre.
Figure 4.17a. Total Drainage Basin of Mera stream extracted from SRTM image
Figure 4.17b. Mera stream within District Peshawar extracted from SRTM image
89
Table 4.6 Mera stream, Temporal change of Built-up areas within urban
drainage basin (1981-2014)
Year Built-up Area (ha) Percentage % Increase
1981 2.198 0.05 -
1991 20.11 0.45 800
2009 39.22 0.88 95.56
2014 183.37 4.10 365.91
Source: Extracted from Landsat 1981 and 1991; SPOT 2009 and 2014
Figure 4.18, Mera stream, Spatio-temporal increase of built-up areas extracted from
Landsat 1981, 1991 and SPOT 2009, 2014. a. 1981, b. 1991, c. 2009, d. 2014
4.4.2 Analysis of built environment in the drainage basin of Kala stream
Watershed of Kala stream which is considered as part of the drainage basin of River
Bara, however analysis of SRTM image it has developed an independent drainage basin
(Figure 4.19 a). Total area of the watershed of Kala stream is 19.50 sq.km in which 11.47
sq.km (58.82 %) is within the district of Peshawar (Figure 4.19 b). The analysis reveals
that built environment within the urban watershed of Kala stream has increased from 9.48
ha (0.83 %) in 1981 to 29. 96 ha (2.61 %) in 1991 (Table 4.7; Figure 4.20). During the
period of 1981 to 1991 the built-up areas in its urban drainage basin have increased by
20.048 ha at an average growth rate of 48 ha per year. The analysis further indicates that
90
in 2009, the built-up areas have increased to 94.59 ha (8.24 %), while in 2014 it has further
crossed the figure of 148.38 ha (12.93 %).
The analysis also reveals that the built environment in the urban watershed of Kala
stream has increased by 118.42 ha from 1991 to 2009 with an average annual growth rate
of 6.58 ha. Similarly, during the period of 2009 to 2014 the built-up areas have further
multiplied by 53.79 ha with an average growth rate of 10.758 ha per year which is the
fastest growth as compare to the growth rate of the previous periods of 1981 to 1991 and
1991 to 2009. The spatial analysis of the previous years and past record also reveals that
the expected figure of built-up areas in the year 2030 within the urban watershed of Kala
stream will be 216 ha which will produce negative impacts in the surrounding of Peshawar
city. The analysis also indicates that the development of built environment within the urban
watershed of Kala stream is mostly towards the south. It has been revealed that the
development of built-up areas within the urban watershed of Kala stream is close to the
main city, which confirm the fact that major developments are not only taking place in the
city centre but also on the expanse of the surrounding fertile farmland.
Figure 4.19a. Total Drainage Basin of Kala stream extracted from SRTM image
Figure 4.19b. Kala stream within District Peshawar extracted from SRTM image
91
Table 4.7 Kala stream, Temporal change of Built-up
areas within urban drainage basin (1981-2014)
Source:Extracted from Landsat 1981 and 1991; SPOT 2009 and 2014
Figure 4.20, Kala stream, Spatio-temporal increase of built-up areas extracted from
Landsat 1981, 1991 and SPOT 2009, 2014. a. 1981, b. 1991, c. 2009, d. 2014
Year Built-up Area (ha) Percentage % Increase
1981 9.48 0.83 -
1991 29.96 2.61 214.46
2009 94.59 8.24 215.71
2014 148.38 12.93 56.92
92
4.4.3 Analysis of built environment in the drainage basin of Garhi stream
The watershed of Garhi stream is totally urban having an area of 12.023 sq.km
(Figure 4.21). Which is considered to be part of the drainage basin of River Budhni.
However, analysis of SRTM image it has developed an independent drainage basin within
the district boundary. The unique characteristic of this watershed is that all the increase in
built-up areas are within the district boundary. Analysis reveals that in 1981, built-up areas
in the watershed of Garhi stream were 304.46 ha (25.32 %; Table 4.8; Figure 4.22). Built
environment has further increased to 417.20 ha (34.70 %) in 1991. During the period of
1981 to 1991 the increase of built-up areas within the drainage basin of Garhi stream was
112.74 ha in a merely 10-years duration with an average growth rate of 11.27 ha per year.
Similarly, in the year 2009, the built environment has further increased and crossed the
figure of 673.91 ha (56.05 %). The overall growth and expansion of built-up areas from
1991 to 2009 was 256.71 ha in 18-years with an average growth rate of 14.26 ha per year
which was the ever fastest growth rate recorded in the drainage basin of Garhi stream.
The spatio-temporal analysis further indicates that in 2014 the built-up areas have
further multiplied to 675.64 ha (56.19 %). During the period of 2009 to 2014 the built
environment has not shown any significant growth and expansion within the drainage basin
of Garhi stream which has added merely 1.73 ha in 5-years. If the same trend continued
upto 2030 then built-up areas in the watershed of Garhi stream will account for 856 ha. The
analysis further reveals that the built environment within the drainage basin of Garhi stream
has increased from 304.46 ha in 1981 to 675.64 ha in 2014 with average growth rate of
11.25 ha. The total increase of built-up areas within the drainage basin of Garhi stream
during the study period was 371.18 ha. The growth and expansion of built-up areas was
towards the south-west however, the northern part has not shown any growth and
expansion. The growth and expansion of built-up areas within the drainage basin of Garhi
stream are more than the two other streams of Mera and Kala. Parallel to this all the
drainage basin of Garhi stream is urban and any increase in built environment will
deteriorate the watershed and ultimately result and trigger urban flash flood.
93
Figure 4.21, Drainage Basin of Garhi stream extracted from SRTM image
Table 4.8 Garhi stream, Temporal change of Built-up areas within
urban drainage basin (1981-2014)
Source:Extracted from Landsat 1981 and 1991; SPOT 2009 and 2014
Year Built-up Area (ha) Percentage % Increase
1981 304.46 25.32 -
1991 417.20 34.70 37.05
2009 673.91 56.05 61.53
2014 675.64 56.19 0.25
94
Figure 4.22, Garhi stream, Spatio-temporal increase of built-up areas extracted from Landsat
1981, 1991 and SPOT 2009, 2014. a. 1981, b. 1991, c. 2009, d. 2014
4.5 Conclusion
This chapter has analyzed the watersheds of rivers and streams and the increasing
trend of built environment within their urban drainage basins of the study area. Spatio-
temporally the built-up areas within the urban drainage basins of major rivers and streams
95
have shown remarkable growth and expansion. The multiplication in the impervious
surfaces within the urban watersheds have been creating problems to life and environment
of the study area. Urban watersheds of the rivers and streams are under constant stress
which will further be impacted and deteriorated in future. During the study period of 1981-
2014 the spatio-temporal growth of built-up areas within the urban drainage basins were
also compared. It was analyzed and concluded that historically three major rivers Budhni,
Zindai and Bara have experienced rapid growth of impermeable surfaces within their urban
watersheds which will further increase with the passage of time. Apart from these major
rivers Mera, Kala and Garhi streams have also recorded considerable growth and expansion
of sealed surfaces within their urban drainage basins.
The rapid multiplication of built environment within the urban drainage basins of
river and streams, it was analyzed that the increase in built-up areas were more in the urban
watershed of River Budhni followed by Zindai and Bara rivers. In 1991 and 2009 the built-
up areas in the urban drainage basin of River Bara were larger than that of River Zindai.
However, in 2014 the built environment within the urban watershed of River Zindai has
exceeded from the urban drainage basin of River Bara. The growth and expansion of built
environment in the urban watersheds of Budhni and Bara rivers are within the main built-
up areas of the city. These two major rivers receive drainage and rain water from the city
and the development of built-up areas always produce flash floods. The growth and
expansion of built-up areas within the urban watershed of River Zindai is in the suburbs of
the city. In the watersheds of streams the built environment are greater in the drainage basin
of Garhi stream followed by Kala and Mera streams. The drainage basin of Garhi stream
is totally urban as a consequence the rapid multiplication in built environment are within
the district boundary. Urban watersheds are often deteriorated by the increasing trend of
built environment and sealed surfaces. So there is need for proper check over the haphazard
urban growth and expansion in order to prevent their deterioration. Although in district
Peshawar Government has already initiated and constituted urban policies to streamline the
urban growth, however these plans and guidelines need implementation. As there are
regulations but with little or having no implementations.
96
Chapter 5
IMPACT OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT ON SURFACE RUNOFF
5.1 Introduction
This chapter is divided into four sections. In section one Curve Number (CN)
methods for calculating surface runoff in district Peshawar are discussed. Brief description
of the temporal analysis of surface runoff in the urban drainage basins of major rivers of
the study area is given in section two. Whereas, temporal analysis of surface runoff within
the urban drainage basins of streams in district Peshawar has been elaborated in section
three. Conclusion drawn from the discussion of the chapter has been described in the final
section.
5.2 Analysis of Surface Runoff using Curve Number method
Surface runoff volume generation from the impervious as well as pervious surfaces
within the urban watersheds of rivers and streams in district Peshawar have been calculated
by using Weighted Average Volume and Weighted Average Curve Number (CN)
Techniques. The input data for these methods are rainfall, area of the surface covers and
CN of various surfaces. The same amount of rainfall events of 33 millimeters (mm) of 31st
May 1981, 15th August 1991, 6th April 2009 and 11th March 2014 were selected. The spatio-
temporal growth of Impervious Surface Covers (ISC) within the urban watersheds of rivers
and streams have already been analyzed in Arc GIS 10.2.
Similarly, Curve Numbers of different surfaces for the whole district were also
calculated in Arc GIS 10.2 and a detail CN map was prepared which was based on the Soil
and Land Use Land Cover (LULC) data of 2014 (Figure 5.1a). CN map of the district has
revealed that built-up areas have shown the highest CN value of 98 as compared with other
surface covers where it is less than 70 (Figure 5.1b). However, the maximum CN value
within the urban watershed of 100 was also observed for water bodies which was excluded
in the calculation. As according to the international standards CN values are not applicable
to water bodies. Having maximum CN values the built environment also generate the
highest Surface runoff as compare to the natural ground cover and unsealed surfaces.
97
Surface runoff map based on CN values was also prepared which further confirmed the
fact that surface runoff generation from the built-up areas is highest (Figure 5.2). In
permeable surfaces a large quantity of water infiltrate which become part of the
groundwater and the surface runoff generation is minimum. While over the sealed surfaces
water moves faster rather than seepage and percolation and generating maximum runoff
volume.
Figure 5.1a. District Peshawar, Built-up areas (2014)
Figure 5.1b. Curve Numbers
98
Figure 5.2, District Peshawar, Surface Runoff Spatial distribution
5.3 Temporal analysis of Surface Runoff in the urban drainage basins of major Rivers
Spatio-temporally urban drainage basins of the two major rivers Budhni and Bara
have shown remarkable growth and expansion of built environment. Although a large
catchment area of these rivers lies outside the district boundary in the adjoining Khyber
district, however due to the availability of climate data and rapid growth of built-up areas
within the district, surface runoff was calculated for the urban drainage basins of these
rivers. Similarly, the spatio-temporal increase of surface runoff for River Zindai, Mera,
Kala and Garhi streams have also been calculated. It has been determined that having
maximum built-up areas the urban watershed of River Budhni has also generated greater
volume of surface runoff followed by the urban catchments of Zindai and Bara rivers.
99
Streams within the district boundary have lesser share of the impervious surfaces have
generated a small amount of runoff volume within their urban drainage basins. The increase
in surface runoff has always been escalated and triggered flooding events within the
district.
5.3.1 River Budhni, Surface Runoff within the urban drainage basin
Spatio-temporally the built environment within the urban drainage basin of River
Budhni has been shown remarkable growth and expansion from 2,648.45 ha (7.22 %) in
1981 to 11,032.63 ha (30.06 %) in 2014. As a consequence runoff volume generation has
also been escalated especially from the impervious surfaces (Table 5.1; Figure 5.3). In 1981
the built-up areas within the urban watershed of River Budhni were 7.22 % from which
runoff volume generation was 9 Cumecs, while it was 39 Cumecs (81 %) from the
impermeable surfaces. The runoff volume generation from impervious surfaces on 31st
May 1981 was about 19 % of the total runoff. However, on 15th August for the same amount
of rainfall (33 mm) the runoff volume from the sealed surfaces has been escalated to 15
Cumecs (29 %) when the built environment within the urban drainage basin was 12.27 %.
Runoff volume from the pervious surfaces has been reduced from 39 Cumecs in 1981 to
37 Cumecs (71 %) in 1991.
On 06th April 2009, the runoff volume generation from the impermeable surfaces
further increased to 33 Cumecs (51.6 %) as the built-up areas within the urban drainage
basin were 26.68 % and runoff volume from the unsealed surfaces has been reduced to 31
Cumecs (48.4 %). Similarly, on 11th March 2014 the runoff volume generation from the
sealed surfaces (30.06 %) has further been augmented to 38 Cumecs (55.9 %) and runoff
from the permeable surfaces has reduced to 30 Cumecs (44.1 %). Total runoff volume in
the urban watershed of River Budhni has been increased from 48 Cumecs (1991) to 68
Cumecs (2014) experiencing an overall increase of 20 Cumecs (41.67 %). However,
increase in the runoff volume has only been experienced by the impermeable surfaces
(322.22 %) and runoff from the permeable surfaces has shown reduction of about 30 %.
As compare to the urban watersheds of other rivers and streams in district Peshawar
built-up areas accounts more in the urban drainage basin of River Budhni, as a consequence
runoff volume generation from the impervious surfaces is also maximum which will further
100
increase over time. Another important fact about the urban drainage basin of River Budhni
is that not only surface runoff volume generation is maximum but the flow of the drains
and Kathas of the main city are also towards this river. Similarly, a number of perennial
and seasonal streams which passes through the planned developed areas of Regi Lalma and
Hayatabad townships as well as other areas of the district also join this river. Due to which
fluvial as wells as flash floods are often experienced in its urban watershed during the rainy
seasons. Likewise urban and flash floods have regularly been observed after a slight
amount of rainfall.
Table 5.1 River Budhni, temporal increase in Surface Runoff within urban drainage
basin using CN method (1981-2014)
Figure 5.3, River Budhni, temporal increase in Surface Runoff within urban drainage basin
915
3338
3937
3130
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1981 1991 2009 2014
Surf
ace
Runo
ff (
Cum
ecs)
Year
Impervious Pervious
Year
Surface Runoff Volume (Cumecs)
Impervious Pervious Total
1981 9 39 48
1991 15 37 52
2009 33 31 64
2014 38 30 68
101
5.3.2 River Bara, Surface Runoff within the urban drainage basin
Built environment within the urban drainage basin of River Bara is not too much
as compare to that of River Budhni, however spatio-temporally it has experienced a
significant growth from 262.06 ha (2.07 %) in 1981 to 2,815.93 ha (22.34 %) in 2014. The
same period has also been witnessed escalation in total runoff volume generation from 15
Cumecs to 21 Cumecs (Table 5.2; Figure 5.4). Runoff volume generation has only been
augmented from the impermeable surfaces from 1 Cumec in 1981 to 10 Cumecs in 2014.
During the same period runoff volume generation from the permeable surface has shown
reduction of 3 Cumecs from 14 Cumecs in 1981 to 11 Cumec in 2014.
In 1981, the built environment within the urban drainage basin of River Bara was
only 2.07 % and more than 97 % area was covered by the unsealed surfaces due to which
over 93 % (14 Cumecs) of surface runoff volume generation was from the pervious
surfaces and the impervious surfaces generated about 7 % ( 1 Cumec) runoff. In 1991, the
sealed surfaces of the urban watershed have increased to 6.34 % experiencing an overall
growth of more than 200 % as a consequence surface runoff volume generated was 3
Cumecs showing an escalation of 200 % as against 1981. However, the runoff generation
from the permeable surfaces has been shown a reduction of 0.5 Cumec, from 14 Cumecs
in 1981 to 13.5 Cumecs in 1991. In 2009, runoff volume from the impervious surfaces has
further been augmented to 8 Cumecs when the built environment in its urban drainage was
17.46 %, however runoff generation from the pervious surfaces has been reduced to 12
Cumecs. Total runoff volume of the urban watershed has also been escalated to 20 Cumecs.
In 2014, the same amount of rainfall further increased runoff volume from the permeable
surfaces as it was 10 Cumecs when the built-up areas within the urban watershed have
further been enlarged and touched the figure of 22.34 %. However, runoff volume
generation from the natural ground cover has been reduced to 11 Cumecs.
Urban drainage basin of River Bara receive runoff water from southeast of the main
city. However, more than 93 % of its total drainage basin lies outside the district boundary
in the adjoining Khyber district and sometime flood is also experienced in the surrounding
of the city when it rains in the upper catchment areas which confirm the famous Pashto
proverb that it has been raining over Tirah (a locality in Khyber district) and washed away
102
horses and donkeys in Khalisa (a Locality in the northeast of Peshawar). Another important
fact about the urban drainage basin of River Bara is that it receives drainage from the built-
up areas in the south of the city along Kohat road, some areas along the Grand Trunk (GT)
Road, ring road and other adjacent areas. These areas are also flooded during the rainy
seasons.
Table 5.2 River Bara, temporal increase in Surface Runoff within urban drainage
basin using CN method (1981-2014)
Figure 5.4, River Bara, temporal increase in Surface Runoff within urban drainage basin
13
810
14
13.5
1211
0
5
10
15
20
25
1981 1991 2009 2014
Surf
ace
Runoff
(C
um
ecs)
Year
Impervious Pervious
Year
Surface Runoff Volume (Cumecs)
Impervious Pervious Total
1981 1 14 15
1991 3 13.5 16.5
2009 8 12 20
2014 10 11 21
103
5.3.3 River Zindai, Surface Runoff within the urban drainage basin
River Zindai receives the drainage of all the streams in the south west of Peshawar.
Out of its total drainage basin, 48.25 % lies within the district boundary. Which is larger
than the urban watersheds of river Budhni and Bara. However, built-up areas within its
urban part are more than that of river Bara and lesser than river Budhni. Surface runoff
generation from the impervious surfaces is also greater than Bara and lesser than Budhni.
The urban drainage basin of river Zindai has also recorded phenomenal increase in terms
of built environment from 1981 to 2014. In 1981, the impermeable surfaces within its urban
watershed covered only 0.52 % (271.95 ha) which have been multiplied to 6.33 % (3,317.
33 ha) in 2014.
In 1981, runoff volume generation from the impervious surfaces was 1 Cumec
which was only 1.9 % of the total runoff volume (Table 5.3; Figure 5.5). The pervious
surfaces which was covering 99.48 % of the urban drainage basin have been generated 52
Cumecs (98.1 %) of runoff volume. In 1991, the sealed surfaces have been shown 200 %
increase in runoff volume generation as against 1981, which was escalated to 3 Cumecs as
the built environment has been increased to 1.49 %. However, runoff volume from the
unsealed surfaces experienced a reduction of 1 Cumec. In 2009, runoff volume from the
built-up areas covered 2.47 % area of the urban watershed had further escalated to 4.5
Cumecs, while it has been reduced to 50.5 Cumecs from the permeable surfaces. In the
year 2014, the same amount of rain event of the previous years the impervious surfaces
experienced a remarkable escalation in the runoff volume generation as these areas
produced 11.3 Cumecs runoff volume when their coverage has also been multiplied to 6.33
%. Contrary to this the runoff volume from the natural ground and unsealed surfaces has
been reduced to 48.7 Cumecs in 2014 as against 2009 when it was 50.5 Cumecs.
Analysis of runoff volume generation from the impervious as well as pervious
surfaces within the urban watershed of River Zindai indicated that it has been augmented
from the built-up areas while from the natural ground covers it has shown reduction. Total
runoff volume from 1981 to 2014 has been escalated from 53 Cumecs to 60 Cumecs.
However, this increase has only been experienced from the built environment, which has
104
been augmented from 1 Cumec to 11.3 Cumecs. Natural ground and the permeable surfaces
have shown reduction in runoff volume from 52 Cumecs in 1981 to 48.7 Cumecs in 2014.
River Zindai receive drainage from a number of streams coming through district
Khyber and entering into the district of Peshawar from southwest. Combine water of these
streams have developed urban drainage basin within the district boundary. Surface runoff
volume generation from the sealed surfaces within the urban watershed of River Zindai
was lesser than Budhni and more than Bara. However, flooding during the rainy season is
often experienced not only due to the localized rain but also in the adjacent district Khyber,
where most of the tributaries of River Zindai have their source regions. Combine water
then flow into River Bara where situation becomes more aggravated during the rainy
season.
Table 5.3 River Zindai, temporal increase in Surface Runoff within urban drainage
basin using CN method (1981-2014)
Figure 5.5, River Zindai, temporal increase in Surface Runoff within urban drainage basin
1 3 4.5 11.3
52 51 50.548.7
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1981 1991 2009 2014
Surf
ace
Runoff
(C
um
ecs)
Year
Impervious Pervious
Year
Surface Runoff Volume (Cumecs)
Impervious Pervious Total
1981 1 52 53
1991 3 51 54
2009 4.5 50.5 55
2014 11.3 48.7 60
105
5.4 Temporal analysis of Surface Runoff in the urban drainage basins of Streams
Built environment within the urban drainage basins of streams in district Peshawar
have small area due to which runoff volume generation is also lesser as compare to the
major rivers. However, from the analysis of the spatio-temporal growth of built
environment within the urban watersheds of these streams it has been revealed that Garhi
stream which has totally urban watershed, the built-up areas are also more as a result runoff
volume generation is maximum followed by Mera stream. In the urban watershed of Kala
stream the built-up areas are less due to which runoff volume generation from the sealed
surfaces is also minimum.
5.4.1 Mera Stream, Surface Runoff within the urban drainage basin
Built-up areas within the urban drainage basin of Mera stream are not too much as
that of the major rivers, however spatio-temporally they have been multiplying over time.
In 1981, the built environment within its urban basin was only 0.05 % (2.198 ha) which has
been increased to 4.10 % (183.37 ha) in 2014. Due to small share of the impervious surfaces
the runoff volume generation was also minimum. In 1981, the runoff volume generation
from the impermeable surfaces was only 0.01 Cumec which has been increased to 0.1
Cumec in 1991 when the sealed surfaces in its urban watershed were 0.45 % (Table 5.4;
Figure 5.6). During the same period runoff volume generation from the pervious surfaces
have shown a slight decrease from 2.66 Cumecs (1981) to 2.64 Cumecs (1991) and total
runoff volume has been increased from 2.67 Cumecs to 2.74 Cumecs.
Similarly, in 2009 (0.15 Cumec) and 2014 (0.63 Cumec) the runoff volume from
the impervious surfaces have not shown any considerable escalation. As the built
environment in its urban basin shown a slight increase from 1.88 % (2009) to 4.10 % (2014).
The reduction of runoff volume from the pervious surfaces were also lesser which have been
reduced to 2.55 Cumecs in 2014 from 2.60 Cumecs in 2009. However, the same period has
also witnessed an increase in the total runoff volume which has been escalated from 2.75
Cumecs to 3.18 Cumecs. The urban watershed of Mera stream in the south eastern part of
district Peshawar has a little share in built-up areas as a consequence runoff volume
generation from the built environment as well as total runoff volume have not been shown
106
too much escalation. As a result flooding in these areas are not too much severe like the city
centre, where sealed surfaces have recorded an impressive multiplication.
Table 5.4 Mera Stream, temporal increase in Surface Runoff within urban drainage
basin using CN method (1981-2014)
Figure 5.6, Mera Stream, temporal increase in Surface Runoff within urban drainage basin
5.4.2 Kala Stream, Surface Runoff within the urban drainage basin
Built environment within the urban drainage basin of Kala stream are also lesser as
it was 0.83 % (9.48 ha) in 1981 and has crossed the figure of 12.93 % (148.38 ha) in 2014.
Spatio-temporally the growth of built-up areas in its urban part have not shown any
0.01 0.1 0.150.63
2.66 2.64 2.6
2.8
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
1981 1991 2009 2014
Sufa
ce R
uno
ff (
Cum
ecs)
Year
Impervious Pervious
Year
Surface Runoff Volume (Cumecs)
Impervious Pervious Total
1981 0.01 2.66 2.67
1991 0.1 2.64 2.74
2009 0.15 2.60 2.75
2014 0.63 2.55 3.18
107
remarkable increase as a consequence runoff volume generation from the impervious
surfaces have not been escalated too much. In the year 1981, the runoff volume generation
from the impermeable surfaces (0.83 %) was only 0.03 Cumec, however runoff volume
from the permeable surfaces (99.17 %) was 1.32 Cumecs (Table 5.5; Figure 5.7). In 1991,
runoff volume generation for the same amount of rain event from the impervious surfaces
have been increased to 0.11 Cumec, while the pervious surfaces have shown a slight
decrease as it has been reduced to 1.3 Cumec. Similarly, the total runoff volume has also
witnessed a little increase which was 1.41 Cumec in 1991 as against 1981 (1.35 Cumec).
In 2009, runoff volume from the built-up areas (8.24 %) further increased to 0.31
Cumec while that of natural ground covers has been shrunk to 1.22 Cumec. And a little
increase in the total runoff volume has been observed which escalated to 1.53 Cumecs.
Similarly, in 2014 runoff volume from the impervious surfaces (12.93 %) has been
escalated to 0.51 Cumec while that of pervious surfaces have experienced reduction which
has been declined to 1.16 Cumec. Total runoff volume of Kala stream in 2014 has also
been augmented to 1.67 Cumecs. As runoff volume generation from the impervious and
pervious surfaces have shown little augmentation and reduction due to which total amount
has also been experiencing a slight escalation. However, drainage basin of Kala stream is
considered to be the part of the watershed of River Bara and any increasing trend may be
counted which will further aggravate flooding in its basin particularly in the surrounding
of the city.
Table 5.5 Kala Stream, temporal increase in Surface Runoff within urban drainage
using CN method (1981-2014)
Year
Surface Runoff Volume (Cumecs)
Impervious Pervious Total
1981 0.03 1.32 1.35
1991 0.11 1.3 1.41
2009 0.31 1.22 1.53
2014 0.51 1.16 1.67
108
Figure 5.7, Kala Stream, temporal increase in Surface Runoff within urban drainage basin
5.4.3 Garhi Stream, Surface Runoff within the urban drainage basin
The built environment within the drainage basin of Garhi stream is greater than the
two other streams of the district as a consequence runoff volume generation from the
impervious surfaces as well as total amount have been escalated over time. In the year
1981, built-up areas within the watershed of Garhi stream were 25.32 % (304.46 ha) which
have generated runoff volume of 1 Cumec (Table 5.6; Figure 5.8). However, the pervious
surfaces were 74.68 % (897.84 ha) and counted about 3 times more than the impermeable
surfaces, generated almost the same amount of runoff volume (1 Cumec). In 1991, the
sealed surfaces have further been multiplied to 34.70 % from which runoff volume has
also been escalated to 1.5 Cumecs and runoff volume generation from the natural ground
has shown a little reduction which has been decreased to 0.91 Cumec. And total runoff
volume has been augmented to 2.41 Cumecs.
The impervious surfaces produced 2.2 Cumecs runoff in 2009, when the sealed
surfaces in the drainage basin of Garhi stream were 56.06 %, however runoff from the
pervious surfaces has dropped to 0.63 Cumec and the total runoff volume has been
increased to 2.83 Cumecs. As there was a little increase in the built-up areas from 2009 to
0.032 0.110.31
0.51
1.321.3
1.22
1.16
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
1981 1991 2009 2014
Surf
ace
Runo
ff (
Cum
ecs)
Year
Impervious Pervious
109
2014 when less than 2 ha were added as a consequence the runoff volume has recorded
smaller escalation. The drainage basin of Garhi stream is totally urban located within the
district boundary and spatio-temporally this watershed has shown remarkable growth and
expansion in built environment as a result runoff volume has also been intensified by more
than 100 % from 1 Cumec in 1981 to 2.3 Cumecs in 2014. However, runoff volume from
the unsealed surfaces has been reduced to 0.62 Cumec (2014) from 1 Cumec (1981).
Similarly, during the same period total runoff volume has also augmented from 2 Cumecs
to 2.92 Cumecs. Watershed of Garhi stream is considered to be the part of the basin of
River Budhni. As in major rivers Budhni has been receiving the highest runoff volume and
in streams Garhi has the maximum share and both are considered to be sharing the same
drainage basins in which built environment is also more and both have been intensifying
flash as well as fluvial floods in their basins.
Table 5.6 Garhi Stream, temporal increase in Surface Runoff within urban drainage
basin using CN method (1981-2014)
Figure 5.8, Garhi Stream, temporal increase in Surface Runoff within urban drainage basin
11.5
2.2 2.3
1
0.91
0.63 0.62
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
1981 1991 2009 2014
Su
rfac
e R
un
off
(C
um
ecs)
Year
Impervious Pervious
Year
Surface Runoff Volume (Cumecs)
Impervious Pervious Total
1981 1 1 2
1991 1.5 0.91 2.41
2009 2.2 0.63 2.83
2014 2.3 0.62 2.92
110
5.5 Conclusion
The development of built environment within the urban drainage basins of rivers
and streams in the study area has always been creating problems to fresh water resources.
Surface water are affected by the accelerating surface runoff volume due to the fact that
water moves faster over the sealed surfaces rather than infiltrating through them. Spatio-
temporally the urban watersheds have been experiencing rapid growth and expansion in
terms of built-up areas. As a consequence the runoff volume generation has always been
escalated over time resulting urban, flash, pluvial as well as fluvial floods. During the study
period (1981 to 2014) the maximum increase in runoff volume has been observed in the
urban drainage basin of River Budhni followed by Zindai, Bara, Garhi, Kala and Mera
streams.
River Budhni receives water from the main built-up areas of the district where the
increase in impervious surfaces are also greater, as a result fluvial and pluvial floods have
been observed in its basin. In its urban drainage basin runoff volume from the impervious
surfaces has been increased from 9 Cumecs (1981) to 38 Cumecs (2014). Similarly, River
Bara also receive rain and drainage water from some parts of the city. River Bara is joined
by River Zindai which has itself developed watershed from a number of streams coming
through the district of Khyber. During the study period urban parts of the watersheds of
these rivers have also been recorded escalation. In the watershed of River Zindai runoff
volume from the impermeable surfaces has been escalated from 1 Cumec to 11.5 Cumecs.
Similarly, during the same period runoff volume generated by the sealed surfaces in the
urban drainage basin of River Bara has also been augmented from 1 Cumec to 10 Cumecs.
A number of streams which have developed independent drainage and are
considered as part of the major rivers have also been recorded escalation in the runoff
volume generation. Garhi stream having a total urban watershed has shown maximum
increase in runoff volume from 1 Cumec in 1981 to 2.3 Cumecs in 2014. However, having
lesser expansion of built environment within the urban parts of the two other streams Mera
and Kala have also observed minimum surface runoff from the built-up areas. Large part
of the major rivers and their tributaries have catchment areas outside the district boundary
and non-local rainfall in their upper catchments also contribute to floods within the district.
111
Chapter 6
IMPACT OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT ON GROUNDWATER
6.1 Introduction
This chapter is divided into six sections. Section one is about the introduction of
the chapter. Section two deals with groundwater sources in district Peshawar. Fresh water
supply and the requirements of the citizens have been discussed in section three. The
increasing trend of Impervious Surface Cover (ISC) and groundwater depletion has been
analyzed in section four. Hypothesis testing is discussed in section five, whereas the chapter
is concluded in the final section.
In Peshawar pressure on groundwater is continuously increasing due to rapid
population growth, infrastructural and socio-economic developments and supplementing
groundwater for irrigation. The growing population on the one hand is increasing demand
for fresh water and on the other hand the development of sealed surfaces obstruct
infiltration into the ground. Rapid population growth of Peshawar has been responsible for
increasing the abstraction of fresh water from ground sources (Khan et al., 2014). At the
same time expansion in built environment is affecting the potential of groundwater (Rahim
et al, 2015a; 2015b). These alterations have not only depleted groundwater but have also
deteriorated its quality (Tariq et al., 2006; Adnan, 2013; Adnan & Iqbal, 2014). Water table
depletion in Peshawar is also a serious threat to the potential of fresh water sources which
are already under constant pressure (Kruesman & Naqvi, 1988; Rahman et al., 2016; 2019).
6.2 Groundwater sources in District Peshawar
Arid and semi-arid regions of the world mainly depend upon groundwater. In
Peshawar district groundwater is also the major source of potable water, irrigation and
industrial uses. Except from the Bara treatment plant, water supply system of the district is
exclusively based on groundwater sources. There are more than 1,400 tube wells managed
by the Public Health Engineering Department (PHED), Water Supply and Sanitation
Services Peshawar (WSSP) and Provincial Irrigation and Drainage Authority (PIDA).
Apart from the government water supply schemes there are also about 3,000
112
community/private tube wells, dug wells and hand pumps supplying fresh water to the
citizens.
6.2.1 Status of Groundwater sources
In the study area 140 sample tube wells were selected to generate maps of water
table and groundwater depth (Figure 6.1). Water table in the study area varies from
waterlogged conditions in the north near the major rivers where it is less than 10 feet deep
upto more than 250 feet in the southwest where elevation is also higher (Figure 6.2).
Similarly, depth to groundwater in the study area fluctuates from 690 feet in the north upto
1690 feet in the southwest (Figure 6.3).
Figure 6.1, Sample Tube wells Figure 6.2, District Peshawar, Water Table
113
Figure 6.3, District Peshawar, Groundwater Depth
6.2.2 Groundwater Recharging
In district Peshawar rivers, streams and irrigation canals are considered to be the
major recharging sources of groundwater. However, precipitation is one of the most
important contributing factor to the process. Slope of the district decreases from southwest
towards the northeast and flow of the major rivers and streams follow the same pattern.
Canals constructed in the district flow from northwest towards southeast following the
contours of the area (Figure 6.4). In such circumstances recharging from rivers, streams
and canals are obvious, however the impact of rain is one of the major contributing factor.
According to slope pattern, rivers and streams do recharge of groundwater mostly in the
northwestern part of the district while in the south due to lack of perennial rivers and canal
the recharge mainly depends on rain water. Groundwater recharging zones confirm the fact
of recharging from precipitation according to the slope pattern of the area.
114
Figure 6.4, District Peshawar, Surface water flow
6.2.3 Zones of Groundwater Recharging
Groundwater recharging zones in district Peshawar were created from water table
and tube wells depth to the groundwater data (Figure 6.5). Although aquifers may be
recharged from anywhere crossing the administrative boundaries. However, altitude and
surface terrain have conspicuous impacts on the recharging process. Keeping these facts
into consideration an attempt was made to determine the recharging of groundwater within
the district. A number of factors were given due consideration in which elevation, depth to
groundwater, water table and surface water flow are important. Three recharging zones of
groundwater were determined that consist of one major and two minor zones. These
recharging zones have variations in term of elevation, landforms, hydrology and land cover
changes.
115
Figure 6.5, District Peshawar Groundwater Recharging Zones
a. Elevation b. Water Table c. Groundwater Depth d. Recharging Zones
116
6.2.3.1 MAJOR GROUNDWATER RECHARGING ZONE
Major Groundwater recharging zones cover a total area of 900 sq.km which is about
71.6 % of the total area of district Peshawar. This zone has diversity in various features
regarding soil, elevation, water table, groundwater depth, surface water flow and urban
watersheds of major rivers and streams. However, the main feature of this zone is the rapid
development and expansion in built environment. Being a major zone all the soil groups of
the area (River alluvium/Flood plain, loess and piedmont plains) are found here. Altitudinal
variation is also found in this zone, elevation of the zone varies from 925 feet upto 2240
feet. Water table in this zone varies from 5 feet upto 250 feet. Similarly, depth to
groundwater in this zone is about 700 feet upto 1700 feet. Major rivers, streams and canals
flow through this zone. Urban watersheds of the major rivers and streams have a
considerable share in this zone.
6.2.3.2 URBAN WATERSHEDS
Urban watersheds has important share in recharging of major zone. In this zone
urban watershed of River Budhni has about 67 % (245.33 sq.km) share (Figure 6.6).
Similarly, urban watersheds of River Bara, Garhi and Kala streams located with boundary
of the district are entirely (100 %) within this zone. The share of urban watershed of River
Zindai in this zone is 69 % (360 sq.km). As a result this has been developed as a major
groundwater recharging zone. This zone has the maximum share in recharging of the
aquifers within the district.
The recharging process of aquifers are not restricted by the administrative
boundaries. However, it depends upon a number of factors which have been given due
consideration while delineating these zones. There are certain important contribution from
within the district which play an important role regarding the groundwater recharging
process. Being a major zone the recharging of groundwater from this zone is also
maximum.
117
Figure 6.6, Urban watersheds of major Rivers and Stream in Major Groundwater
Recharging Zone
6.2.3.3 SPATIO-TEMPORAL GROWTH OF BUILT-UP AREAS WITHIN MAJOR
GROUNDWATER RECHARGING ZONE
Spatio-temporally the major groundwater recharging zone has experienced
considerable increase in built environment from 3.81 % in 1981 to 18.26 % in 2014 (Table
6.1; Figure 6.7). In 1981, the built-up areas within this zone were 3,427.51 hectares (ha)
which have increased to 6,348.70 ha in 1991. Similarly, in 2009 the built environment was
covering an area of 13,979.53 ha, which has further multiplied to 16,435.28 ha in 2014. When
in an area the natural ground cover is replaced by the 10 - 20 % Impervious Surface Cover
(ISC) then infiltration rate is reduced by 4 % from 25 % to 21 % (USEPA, 1993).
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Table 6.1 District Peshawar, Temporal growth of Built-up areas
within Major Recharging Zone (1981-2014)
Figure 6.7, District Peshawar, Spatio-temporal growth of Built-up areas within Major
Recharging Zone
Year Built-up area
(ha)
% Share in
Recharging zone
%
Increase
1981 3,427.51 3.81 -
1991 6,348.70 7.05 85.23
2009 13,979.53 15.53 120.20
2014 16,435.28 18.26 17.57
119
6.2.4 Minor Groundwater Recharging Zones
Apart from the major zone two minor groundwater recharging zones were also
identified, one in the extreme northwest and other in southeast of the district. Although
these are minor zones covering only about 28 % area of the study area and also contributing
a smaller share in the recharging process, however their importance for groundwater
sources can’t be ignored.
6.2.4.1 DISTRICT PESHAWAR: MINOR RECHARGING ZONE IN THE NORTHWEST
In the extreme northwest of Peshawar a minor recharging zone exists, covering an
area of 143.76 sq.km which is only 11.44 % of the total area of the district. Major landforms
of this zone are piedmont, loess and flood plains. Built-up areas of this zone are also less.
Altitudinal variation in this zone is not too much. Locating in the vicinity of the rivers and
streams water table is shallow and water logged conditions prevail in some parts of this
zone near the rivers.
6.2.4.2 SPATIO-TEMPORAL GROWTH OF BUILT-UP AREAS WITHIN MINOR
RECHARGING ZONE OF NORTHWEST
Spatio-temporally the minor recharging zone in the northwest has less built
environment as compared to the major recharging zone. However, this zone has
experienced rapid expansion in built-up areas. In 1981, sealed surfaces in this zone were
only 19.44 ha which have increased to 278.45 ha in 1991 (Table 6.2; Figure 6.8). Similarly,
in 2009 the built-up areas have recorded further increase and crossed the figure of 927.10
ha. In 2014 the impermeable surfaces have further multiplied to 2,354.90 ha. During the
period of 1981 to 1991 the built-up areas in this zone have increased by 259.01 ha at a
growth rate of 25.91 ha per year. From 1991 to 2009 the increase in built environment was
648.65 ha with an annual growth rate of 36.04 ha. Similarly, from 2009 to 2014 the built-
up areas have further increased by 1,427.8 ha with an average annual growth rate of 285.6
ha which is the fastest ever recorded expansion in built environment within this minor
recharging zone.
120
Table 6.2 District Peshawar, Temporal growth of Built-up areas within Minor
Recharging Zone of Northwest (1981-2014)
Figure 6.8, District Peshawar, Spatio-temporal growth of Built-up areas within
Minor Recharging Zone (Northwest)
6.2.4.3 DISTRICT PESHAWAR: MINOR RECHARGING ZONE IN THE SOUTHEAST
Minor recharging zone in the southeast of the study area covers a total area of
213.43 sq.km which is only 17 % of district Peshawar. Loess and piedmont plains prevail
over most parts of this zone. Altitude of this zone varies from 1,000 feet upto 2,200 feet.
Water table varies from 100 feet upto 200 feet, however depth to groundwater is maximum
ranging from 1,000 feet to about 1,700 feet. No major perennial river or stream exists in
this zone. Built-up areas have not recorded too much increase in this zone as compared to
other recharging zones.
Year Built-up area (ha) % Share in Recharging zone % Increase
1981 19.44 0.14 -
1991 278.45 1.94 1,332.36
2009 927.10 6.45 232.95
2014 2,354. 90 16.38 154
121
6.2.4.4 SPATIO-TEMPORAL GROWTH OF BUILT-UP AREAS WITHIN MINOR
RECHARGING ZONE OF SOUTHEAST
The built environment of the recharging zone in the southeast of the district has not
experienced as much expansion as in the two other zones. However, considerable growth
of built-up areas within this zone have been recorded. In 1981, sealed surfaces within this
zone were only 116.16 ha which have been increased to 302.48 ha in 1991 (Table 6.3;
Figure 6.9). During this period the average annual growth rate within this zone was 18.63
ha per year. In 2009, the Impervious Surfaces have shown further increase and reached the
figure of 316.02 ha. During the period of 1991 to 2009 the increase in built-up areas within
this zone were negligible. However, rapid growth of built environment was recorded after
2009 when it crossed the figure of 1,010.52 ha in 2014. From 2009 to 2014 the built-up
areas have shown ever fastest recorded expansion within this minor recharging zone the
overall increase during this period was 694.5 ha. Average annual growth rate during this
period was 138.9 ha per year. The growth was more concentrated towards the south eastern
portion of the district.
Table 6.3 District Peshawar, Temporal growth of Built-up areas within Minor
Recharging Zone of Southeast (1981-2014)
Year Built-up area (ha) % Share in Recharging zone % Increase
1981 116.16 0.544 -
1991 302.48 1.42 160.40
2009 316.02 1.48 4.48
2014 1,010.52 4.73 219.77
122
Figure 6.9, District Peshawar, Spatio-temporal growth of Built-up areas within Minor
Recharging Zone (Southeast)
123
6.3 Fresh water supply and requirements in District Peshawar
Data collected from the concerned line agencies responsible for water supply, total
discharge from the groundwater sources in the study area is 8 million gallon / hour (30.24
million liters / hour). Duration of the tube wells operation varies in different parts of the
study area, however ten hours per day was taken as an average figure after interviewing
the tube wells operators. Interviews were also conducted with the concerned stack holders
about the amount of fresh water supply. According to sources of WSSP the maximum
supply was 40 gallons (151.2 liters) per capita per day. Similarly, stakeholders of PHED
were of the opinion that they had the vision to supply 15 gallons (56.7 liters) per capita per
day. The line loses were also considered to be more than 30 %. Household survey
conducted in the of sample union councils indicated that the average daily demand of fresh
water of the citizens was 50 liters per capita per day while their peak daily demand was 1.5
times more than their average daily demand.
6.3.1 Population growth and the abstraction of Groundwater
Population growth and demand of fresh water are directly related to each other.
Therefore, growing population continuously intensify pressure on the potential of fresh
water sources. The average daily demand of fresh water of the citizens has increased by
about 280 % from 56 million liters per day (ml/day) in 1981 to 213 ml/d in 2017, this figure
will further rise to 310 ml/d in 2030 (Table 6.4; Figure 6.10). Peak daily demand of fresh
water is even higher than the average daily demand which was 84 ml/d in 1981, 320 ml/d
in 2017 and will further increase to 465 ml/d in 2030. During the inter census period of
1981-1998 Population of the district has increased about 81 % from 1.113 million to 2.019
million. The same period has also witnessed 80 % increase in daily demand of fresh water
from 56 ml/day to 101 ml/day. However, population growth during the inter census period
of 1998 - 2017 was more than 100 % i.e. 2.09 million to 4.269 million. Fresh water demand
has shown even higher intensity than the population growth.
124
Table 6.4 District Peshawar, Daily demand of fresh water of the citizens (1981-2030)
*million liters per day ** Average daily demand x 1.5
Figure 6.10, District Peshawar, Daily demand of fresh water of the citizens (1981-2030)
6.4 The increasing trend of Built environment and Groundwater depletion
When natural ground undergoes modification, it is replaced by the Impervious
Surface Cover which disturbs water infiltration into the ground. In district Peshawar the
built-up areas have increased from 3.7 % in 1981 to 16.27 % in 2014, the overall increase
in the built environment was 340 %. It is argued that in a region when 10 - 20 % surface
cover become impervious it accelerates the surface runoff by two folds, however both
shallow and deep infiltration are reduced to 21 % each from 25 % of the natural ground
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1981 1998 2014 2017 2030
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
Popula
tion (
Mil
lion)
Dai
ly D
eman
d o
f f
resh
wat
er (
ml/
d)
Population Average daily demand Peak daily demand
Year
Population
(Million)
Average daily demand of water
(ml/d*)
Peak daily demand**
(ml/d)
1981 1.113 56 84
1998 2.019 101 152
2014 3.6 180 270
2017 4.269 213 320
2030 6.20 310 465
125
cover and decreasing it by 4 % (USEPA, 1993). Shallow infiltration does not contribute to
the recharging process, while deep infiltration is very important for groundwater recharge.
In areas of low water table shallow infiltration may contaminate the groundwater by
soaking down the pollutants.
6.4.1 Relationship between groundwater discharge and infiltration from rain
Groundwater abstraction and the infiltration from rain were statistically calculated
and it was proved that discharge from tube wells have exceeded than the recharging from
rain. Although major groundwater recharging sources of the district are rivers, streams and
canals, however these surface water sources complete the process in a particular pattern
according to slope pattern and following contours of the area. As a consequence the
remaining gap is fulfilled by water from precipitation. Spatio-temporally the increasing
trend of built-up areas in the study area have always reduced the infiltration from rain.
Currently, it is not only a threat to the groundwater sources but also to their potential in
future. Groundwater needs to be properly utilized and managed for which government is
planning to supply water from major rivers to reduce pressure on fresh water sources.
However, these plans need to be implemented as soon as possible.
Total discharge from the groundwater sources in District Peshawar = 8 million gallons
per hour (mg/h) = 8.41 cubic meters per second (m³/sec)
Total area of District Peshawar = 1,257 sq. km (1,257,000,000 sq. meters)
Discharge in meters/second (m/sec) = Discharge in m³/sec / Total area in m² = 8.41 ∕
1,257,000,000 = 6.7 x 10-9 m/sec
Annual Discharge in mm/year = 6.7 x 10-9 x 3600 x 12 x 365 = 105,645,600 x 10-9 m/year
= 105 mm/year
Average Annual rainfall in District Peshawar = 435 mm/year
Built-up areas in District Peshawar = 16.27 %
Infiltration from Precipitation = 21 %
Average Recharge from Precipitation in 2014 = Average Annual rainfall x % Infiltration
∕100 = 435 x 21 ∕ 100 = 91.35 mm/year
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Average Recharge from Precipitation – Discharge from tube wells = 91.35 mm/year - 105
mm/year = -13.65.
The negative sign indicates that more water leaves the ground than its recharge
from rain. Similarly, the infiltration rate from 1981 to 2014 has also decreased. Built
environment in 1981 was 3.7 % in which precipitation was contributing about 25 %
infiltration. Recharge from rain (1981) = 435 x 25/100 = 108.75 mm/year, which has
reduced to 91.35 mm/year. Total reduction in infiltration from 1981 to 2014 was 17.4 mm
at a rate of 0.51 mm/year. With the same trend the estimated figure for the year 2030 will
experience 8 mm of further reduction in infiltration. As the projected population in 2030 is
6.2 million, the growing population will demand more fresh water and reduction in
infiltration rate will further aggravate the situation.
6.4.2 Depletion of water table
During the field survey in the months of October and November 2016, fifty sites
were sampled to know about the status of groundwater sources and water table. It was
known that about 20 % tube wells have already been dried up and in 10 % tube wells water
level has already been dropped down. In a few sites in past some of the tube wells were
artesian type, however due to falling of water table now need power sources for their
operation. Analyzing the collected data from the concerned departments, it was concluded
that in these particular sites deep digging is practiced as compared to 20 - 30 years back
and water table has dropped down about 50 - 60 feet. Which is a serious threat to the
potential of groundwater sources.
6.5 Hypothesis Testing
An assumption or statement is generally made to check and test the validity of
hypothesis. Basic steps for testing hypothesis are, identification of hypothesis to be tested,
selection of criteria that whether the test may be true or not and taking a random sample
from data in order to measure the sample mean. During scientific studies a researcher often
tries to disprove, reject or nullify the null hypothesis (Ho). After the analysis of data if the
calculated values are larger than the significance level, Ho may be accepted, which shows
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no trend of the tested data. However, smaller the probability values than the level of
significance, Ho will be rejected which means that trend is found in the calculated data.
6.5.1 Hypothesis I: The rapidly growing population has increased groundwater
abstraction and reduced the potential of fresh water sources
Population of Peshawar has increased to 4.269 million (2017) from 1.113 million
(1981). However, the estimated figure for the year 2014 was 3.8 million and the projected
population for 2030 is 6.2 million. The analysis of the data has revealed that the rapidly
growing population has increased the abstraction of fresh water from ground sources from
56 ml/d in 1981 to 213 ml/d in 2017, which will further rise to 310 ml/d in 2030. Peak
daily demand of the citizens was even higher than the average daily demand which was 84
ml/d in 1981, 180 ml/d in 2014 and 320 ml/d in 2017 and will further increase to 465 ml/d
in 2030. The rapidly multiplying population of the study area is continuously increasing
the extraction of fresh water from ground sources. Which is threatening the potential of the
fresh water sources. A strong correlation was found between the population growth and
groundwater abstraction and thus the hypothesis is accepted.
6.5.2 Hypothesis II: In District Peshawar, built environment has escalated surface
runoff which may further intensify the flooding events
Analysis of the data has indicated that during the study period (1981 to 2014), built
environment within the study area has increased to 16.27 % from 3.7 %. Similarly, the
urban watersheds of rivers and streams have also shown rapid growth and multiplication
of impervious surfaces. The increase in impermeable surfaces have also escalated runoff
volume and have intensified urban, flash, pluvial as well as fluvial floods. Maximum runoff
volume generation from the sealed surfaces was recorded in the urban watershed of River
Budhni which has escalated from 9 Cumecs (1981) to 38 Cumecs (2014) followed by River
Zindai (1 to 11.5 Cumecs). Similarly, during the same period run off volume generation
from the impermeable surfaces within the urban watershed of River Bara has also escalated
from 1 Cumec in 1981 to 10 Cumecs in 2014. Likewise, the built-up areas within the urban
watersheds of streams in the study area have also generated maximum runoff volume. The
128
increasing trend of built environment within the urban parts of the watersheds of rivers and
streams have also escalated surface runoff and intensified flooding events and thus this
hypothesis has also been accepted.
6.5.3 Hypothesis III: Increase in built environment has reduced water infiltration rate
that might deplete the groundwater
It was analyzed that during the study period the increasing trend of built
environment has reduced water infiltration into the ground. It was found that infiltration
rate has been reduced from 108.75 mm/year in 1981 to 91.35 mm/year in 2014. It was also
predicted that by the end of 2030 the infiltration rate may further be reduced by 8 mm/year.
The continuously reduction in infiltration rate have also depleted groundwater which have
been observed by the drying up of tube wells. Similarly, water table in some parts of the
study area has lowered down and deep drilling has been practiced for the extraction of
water from ground sources. In past some of the artesian tube wells now need power sources
for operation which indicate that the reduction in infiltration rate has also depleted
groundwater. On the basis of these grounds this hypothesis has been accepted.
6.6 Conclusion
This chapter has briefly described the position, status and abstraction of freshwater
from ground sources and its recharging from surface water sources of rivers, streams and
canals. Groundwater recharging from precipitation has also been given due consideration.
Except from the Bara treatment plant the existing water supply system of the study area is
completely based on groundwater with more than 1,400 government tube wells and about
3000 private tube wells, dug wells and hand pumps. To fulfill the requirements of the
citizens the abstraction from groundwater sources has been continuously increasing which
has already threatened their potential. Population growth and abstraction from groundwater
sources were interlinked and it was concluded that the rapidly growing population has
augmented the extraction of fresh water from ground from 56 ml/day in 1981 to 213 ml/day
in 2017 which will further increase to 310 ml/d in 2017. However, peak daily demand is
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even higher than the average daily demand. The rapidly growing population has increased
the demand for fresh water supply.
Built environment of the study area has increased from 3.7 % (1981) to 16.27 % in
2014 accounting an overall increase of 340 %. With the same trend the projected ISC of
the district for the year 2030 is about 22 %. The conversion of natural ground by
impermeable surfaces have reduced the infiltration rate from precipitation by 4 %. The
recharging rate from precipitation has been reduced from 108.75 mm/year in 1981 to 91.35
mm/year in 2014. Total discharge from the groundwater sources is 105 mm/year indicating
high discharge from groundwater sources and low recharging rate from rain water.
Fluctuations in water table and depletion of groundwater sources has already been
observed. A number of tube wells have dried up and deep drilling has been practiced for
the extraction of fresh water from ground sources.
Government is planning to supply fresh water from the major rivers of the district
to reduce pressure on groundwater sources, however these plans need to be implemented.
There is also need for proper management system to check the unprecedented conversion
of natural ground into ISC and the resultant reduction in the recharging process and
groundwater depletion to ensure the availability of fresh water supply in future.
SECTION FOUR
Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations
130
Chapter 7
FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 Introduction
The prominence of this research is to assess and evaluate the impacts of the rapidly
increasing population, infrastructural and physical development and its probable impacts
on the water resources of the rapidly growing district of Peshawar. These alterations have
grown the built-up areas and sealed the soil surfaces. Consequently, surface runoff and
abstraction from groundwater sources have been augmented, while the recharging rate of
aquifers has been reduced. This chapter is divided into four sections. Introduction of the
chapter is given in section one. Major findings of the research are enumerated in section
two. Section three deals with the summary and conclusion of the study, whereas policy
recommendations are given in the final section of the chapter.
7.2 Major Findings
Major findings of the research work are given in the following section:
i. It was found from the analysis that population growth, socio-economic and
infrastructural developments in the study area are the major determining factors
causing multiplication of built-up areas and surface cover changes.
ii. The results indicate that during the study period (1981-2014) population of district
Peshawar has increased from 1.084 million to 3.575 million. However, it has
crossed the figure of 4.269 million in 2017 and it is projected that the population
will mark the figure of 6.2 million by 2030.
iii. The analysis further revealed that urban population of Peshawar has shown
remarkable growth from 0.566 million in 1981 to 1.670 million in 2014. It has
crossed the figure of 1.970 million during the population census of 2017.
iv. It was determined from the analysis that in addition to natural increase, the major
contributing factor of urbanization in Peshawar is rural-urban migration.
v. The analysis revealed that the built environment in the district of Peshawar has
been rapidly multiplying. The spatio-temporal analysis of the built-up areas has
131
indicated that sealed surfaces in the study area have increased from 3.7 % in 1981
to 16.27 % in 2014.
vi. The analysis of Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of Shuttle Radar Topographic
Mission (SRTM) of 23rd September 2014 revealed that a total of six drainage
basins of rivers and streams were delineated in the study area.
vii. It was found from the analysis that during the study period the built environment
within the urban watersheds of the major rivers and streams have shown remarkable
growth and expansion.
viii. The results have also indicated that the development of impermeable surfaces
within the urban drainage basins of rivers and streams have also accelerated surface
runoff.
ix. It was also found that in the rapidly growing district of Peshawar abstraction from
the groundwater sources has augmented overtime. The requirements of fresh water
of the citizens have been increased by the rapidly growing population, which was
continuously exerting pressure on the potential of fresh water sources.
x. The analysis further revealed that in district Peshawar, three groundwater
recharging zones were demarcated based on slope, ground cover, elevation, soil
texture and stratigraphy.
xi. The results have indicated that urban growth and the resultant multiplication of
sealed surfaces have obstructed the recharging rate of aquifers, which has greatly
affected and fluctuated groundwater.
xii. It was found from the analysis that the groundwater-recharging rate from
precipitation has been reduced from 108.75 mm/year in 1981 to 91.35 mm/year in
2014. The cumulated discharge from the groundwater sources was 105 mm/year
indicated high discharge from groundwater sources and low recharging rate from
rainwater.
7.3 Summary and Conclusion
This study concluded that the district of Peshawar is a rapidly growing urban area. The
study indicated that the urban expansion is persistently replacing the natural permeable
surfaces by Impervious Surface Covers (ISC) also named as soil sealing. These haphazard
human induced alterations have affected the surface and sub-surface water flow. The rate
132
of water infiltration has been decreased and surface runoff has increased many folds.
Similarly, the demand of rapidly growing population has also increased extraction of fresh
water from ground. Thus the anthropogenic activities in the study area are not only causing
soil sealing but also affecting groundwater sources. In such a scenario of decreased
groundwater recharge spots, high surface runoff and unplanned pumping of groundwater
is leading to lower down the water table. In the same way, the increased built-up areas have
shortened the lag time resulting in rapid accumulation of surface runoff. The increasing
surface runoff is likely to generate urban flash floods.
The study also concludes that during the study period (1981-2014) population of
Peshawar has increased from 1.084 million to 3.575 million. However, it has already
crossed the figure of 4.269 million in 2017 and the estimated figure for the year 2030 is 6.2
million. During the same period urban population of the district has also shown remarkable
growth from 0.566 million in 1981 to 1.670 million in 2014 and 1.970 million in 2017.
It is also concluded that the major factor of urbanization in the study area is rural-
urban migration as people are resettling due to their perception that this largest urban centre
of the province will provide them better facilities of quality education, healthcare and other
basic services. Equally to this natural growth of urban population is also considered as a
significant contributing factor of urbanization. The growing population of Peshawar has
continuously replaced the natural ground by artificial impervious surfaces as people need
shelter, work places as well as communication links for their movements. Which have
alternatively affected fresh water sources, to fulfil human needs abstraction of water from
ground has also increased.
The rapidly growing built environment of the study area has been multiplying over
time. Sealed surfaces in the study area have increased from 3.7 % (1981) to 16.27 %
(2014). In 1981, built-up areas in the study area were 4,635 hectares (ha) which have
increased to 7,182 ha (5.7 %) in 1991. Similarly, in 2009 the sealed surfaces have further
multiplied to 16,986 ha (13.5 %). While the Impervious Surface Covers in 2014 have
accounted 20,451 ha (16.27 %). The estimated figure of impermeable surfaces for the
year 2030, will be more than 22 % of the district. The built environment in the study area
has continuously consumed the prime agriculture land. The rapidly increasing trend of
133
ISC has always created problems to life and environment of the study area by consuming
the fertile farm land, accelerating surface runoff and fluctuating groundwater.
Rivers are the main sources of fresh water natural resource used for domestic,
agricultural, industrial and other purposes. The important rivers are Kabul, Budhni, Bara,
Zindai and their tributary streams. All rivers and streams drain into River Kabul. The River
Bara and River Budhni collect water from the built-up areas within their urban drainage
basins. River Budhni has a total watershed area of 1,229.42 sq.km in which 367.05 sq.km
(29.86 %) falls within the district of Peshawar and is considered as its urban drainage basin.
Similarly, River Bara having a total watershed area of 1,970 sq.km which is more than
Budhni, however it has lesser urban drainage basin as compare to Budhni which is only
126 sq.km (6.4 %). River Zindai covers urban watershed of 524 sq.km (48.25 %) out of its
total drainage basin of 1,086 sq.km. Drainage basins developed by streams have smaller
area which are less than 100 sq.km.
The built-up areas have shown remarkable expansion within the urban drainage basins
of the major rivers and streams, during the study period. In the urban watershed of River
Budhni the sealed surfaces have increased from 2,648.45 ha (7.22 %) to 11,032.63 ha
(30.06 %). During the same period in the urban drainage basin of River Bara the ISC have
multiplied from 262.06 ha (2.07 %) to 2,815.93 ha (22.34 %). Built environment in the
urban watershed of River Zindai has also observed significant growth and expansion which
has increased from 271.95 ha (0.52 %) in 1981 to 3,317 ha (6.33 %) in 2014. The urban
drainage basins of Mera and Kala streams have also recorded growth in the built-up areas
but are lesser than the major rivers. Garhi stream having a total urban watershed which is
considered to be the part of the Budhni river, has shown impressive growth of built-up
areas and multiplied from 304.46 ha (25.32 %) in 1981 to 675.64 ha (56.19 %) in 2014.
The rapidly increasing built environment within the urban drainage basins of these water
bodies have threatened the potential of fresh water by escalating surface runoff and
deteriorating water quality.
The impermeable surfaces within the urban watersheds of rivers and streams have
always accelerated surface runoff. The same amount of rain events of 33 mm were selected
from 1981-2014 and it was determined that with the increasing trend of built environment
134
runoff volume generation from the sealed surfaces have also augmented. While it has
shown considerable reduction from the natural ground and pervious surfaces. In the urban
watershed of River Budhni the built-up areas are larger as a result runoff volume generation
from the impervious surfaces is also maximum which will further increase over time.
Runoff volume generation from the built environment has already escalated from 9
Cumecs in 1981 to 38 Cumecs in 2014. In the urban drainage basin of River Budhni not
only surface runoff volume generation is maximum but the flow of drains and Kathas of
the city is also towards this river. Some of the perennial and seasonal streams which come
through Regi Lalma and Hayatabad townships as well as from other areas of the district
also fall into this river. As a consequence fluvial as well as flash floods have been observed
after a slight rain.
In the urban drainage basin of River Bara runoff volume generation from the
impermeable surfaces has augmented from 1 Cumec in 1981 to 10 Cumecs in 2014. During
the same period runoff volume from the permeable surfaces has recorded reduction of 3
Cumecs from, 14 Cumecs to 11 Cumecs. Urban watershed of River Bara receive runoff
water from southeast of the city. However, more than 93 % of its watershed lies outside
the district boundary in the adjoining district Khyber and sometime floods are also recorded
in the surrounding of the city when it rains in the upper catchments.
River Zindai receive drainage from a number of streams originating both from district
Khyber and Peshawar. Combine water of these streams have developed urban watershed
within the district boundary. In the urban watershed of River Zindai, runoff volume
generation has escalated from 1 Cumec in 1981 to 11.5 Cumecs in 2014. As compared to
Budhni and Bara drainage basins, River Zindai and its tributaries cover larger area.
However, built environment within its urban basin is less than Budhni but more than Bara.
During rainy season, floods are often experienced due to localized rain in the catchment
area of River Zindai. Combine water of River Zindai and its tributaries confluence with
River Bara accelerate flood intensity.
The sealed surfaces within the urban watershed of river Zindai have small share and
therefore runoff volume is also less. However, it has been indicated that built environment
within the urban watersheds of Garhi stream are larger as a consequence runoff volume
135
generation is also maximum followed by Mera stream. In the watershed of Garhi stream
runoff volume has increased from 1 Cumec in 1981 to 2.3 Cumecs in 2014. Similarly, in
the urban watershed of Kala stream the built-up areas are less due to which runoff volume
generation from the impervious surfaces is also minimum.
The water supply system of Peshawar is entirely based on groundwater with more than
1400 government tube wells and over 3000 private tube wells, dug-out wells and hand
pumps. Which have been installed throughout the study area. The limited surface water is
also supplied to some parts of the cantonment areas, since 1918.
It has been observed that water table in Peshawar varies from waterlogged conditions
in the north near the major rivers where it is less than 10 feet up to more than 250 feet in
the southwest where elevation is higher. Depth to groundwater also varies from 690 feet in
the north upto 1,690 feet in the southwest of the district.
In Peshawar, fresh water sources are under constant pressure and will further
increase due to rapid population growth, socio-economic and infrastructural developments.
As a consequence, extraction of water from ground sources have increased over time.
Urban growth and the resultant multiplication of sealed surfaces have obstructed the
recharging rate of aquifers which has greatly affected the potential of fresh water sources.
Rivers, streams and irrigation canals were found as the major recharging sources of
groundwater. However, precipitation was also determined as an important contributing
factor to the process. Slope of the study area is from southwest towards the northeast and
flow of the major rivers and streams follow the same pattern. Irrigation canals in the district
flow from northwest towards the southeast following the contours of the area. In such
circumstances recharging from rivers, streams and irrigation canals are evident, however
rain is also an obvious factor. According to the slope pattern neither rivers can cause
recharging to the higher elevation nor are irrigation canals capable to complete the process
by crossing the higher contours. The remaining gap of recharging process is fulfilled from
precipitation.
The groundwater recharging rate depends upon a number of factors including
elevation, depth to groundwater, water table, surface water flow as well as soil and surface
covers. These factors were given due consideration for generating groundwater recharging
136
zones in the study area. Although aquifers may be recharged from anywhere crossing the
administrative boundaries. However, on the basis of certain factors three groundwater
recharging zones within the district boundary were delineated which include one major and
two minor zones. These recharging zones have variations in term of elevation, soil,
landforms, hydrology and surface cover changes.
In the rapidly growing district of Peshawar abstraction from groundwater sources
has also augmented. The requirements of fresh water of the citizens have been increased
by the rapidly growing population which are continuously producing pressure on the
potential of fresh water sources. The results have revealed that the average daily demand
of fresh water of the citizens have increased about 280 % from 56 million liters per day
(ml/day) in 1981 to 213 ml/d in 2017, this figure will further rise to 310 ml/d in 2030.
However, it was found that peak daily demand of fresh water of the citizens was even
higher than the average daily demand. The recharging rate from precipitation has been
reduced from 108.75 mm/year in 1981 to 91.35 mm/year in 2014. Total discharge from the
groundwater sources is 105 mm/year indicating high discharge from groundwater sources
and low recharging rate from rain water. Fluctuations in water table and depletion of
groundwater sources have already been observed in different parts of the study area. A
number of tube wells have dried up and deep drilling has been practiced for the extraction
of fresh water.
Government is also planning to supply fresh water from the major rivers to reduce
pressure on groundwater sources. However, these plans needs its implementation on
urgent basis. There is also need for proper management system to check the unprecedented
conversion of natural ground into ISC and the resultant reduction in the recharging process
and groundwater depletion and to ensure the availability of fresh water supply in future.
It has been revealed from this study that all the four objectives have been achieved.
The spatio-temporal trend and factors of built environment and sealed surfaces have been
determined. It was found from the analysis that population growth, urban expansion,
socio-economic, infrastructural and physical developments are the key factors of land
taking and surface cover changes. Similarly, a strong correlation between the built
environment, surface runoff and infiltration into the ground was explored in the study area
137
and it was determined that the growing trend of sealed surfaces has always accelerated
surface runoff and reduced infiltration into the ground. Similarly, the population growth
and groundwater abstraction was also correlated and it was proved that the growing
population has increased the extraction of fresh water from ground sources.
7.4 Policy Recommendations
The city of Peshawar is rapidly expanding at the expense of fertile agriculture land.
Government has already constituted urban policies to prevent the conversion of prime
farmland and to check the haphazard urban growth and expansion. There are various line
agencies which are responsible for urban planning as well as surface and groundwater
management. However, due to the presence of multiple organizations and departments
working in the district and lack of horizontal coordination such policies couldn’t be
implemented. Consequently, the physical encroachment over the prime agriculture land
continues and produce problems to the green environment, urban watersheds of rivers,
urban floods and fresh water sources. In order to make the responsibilities of various line
agencies more effective and to develop coordination between the stake organizations
certain recommendations have been suggested. If these guidelines are followed the
adverse implications of built environment on surface and groundwater could be
minimized.
7.4.1 Peshawar Development Authority (PDA), Urban Policy Unit (UPU) and Local
Government
The PDA, UPU and local government should formulate land use regulations for the
study area. There should be strict enforcement of land use regulations and to stop the
physical developments over the ecologically important areas. In order to accommodate
the growing population, there should be vertical development instead of horizontal
growth.
7.4.2 Communications and Works (C & W) Department
The responsibility of C & W department is that the green belts should be retained as
maximum as possible while improving the communication links in the study area. Such
policies should be devised to keep maximum ground uncovered as well as unsealed while
138
developing a site. In such cases surface runoff generation will be minimized to the
optimum level and infiltration into the ground may not be retarded.
7.4.3 Pakistan Meteorology Department (PMD)
In Peshawar, there is absence of weather RADAR system to forecast extreme weather
events and quantify precipitation. The Pakistan Meteorology Department must ensure
forecasting of rain and early warn the dealing line agencies to take effective measures for
reducing the potentials of urban flood occurrences.
7.4.4 Soil Survey of Pakistan (SSP) and Geological Survey of Pakistan (GSP)
The SSP and GSP provide expert opinion to urban authorities and maps to identify
sites having potentials of maximum infiltration capacity. The same zones may be declared
as groundwater recharging zones and limit physical development over the identified
zones.
7.4.5 Provincial Irrigation and Drainage Authority (PIDA) and WAPDA
The PIDA in collaboration with WAPDA should work for establishment of small
dams on rivers and streams at suitable sites to increase the recharging of aquifers and to
supply fresh water to the city dwellers and reduce pressure on groundwater. Similarly,
WAPDA has carried out groundwater survey in 1989, which need to conduct fresh survey
to know about the changes occurred in the water table.
7.4.6 Public Health Engineering Department (PHED) and Water & Sanitation
Services Peshawar (WSSP)
PHED and WSSP have to ensure the fresh water supply to the citizens. The
responsibilities of these departments are to control the line losses of fresh water, replace
the defective and out dated lifelines by modern and environment friendly water supply
system and to overcome the losses of fresh water.
7.4.7 Forest Department
There is gradual overgrazing and forest cutting in the drainage basin of all the rivers.
Forest department should initiate reforestation and afforestation programs to prevent
139
erosion. It will produce positive impacts on urban environment and ecology of the study
area. Similarly, it will also prevent urban watersheds of rivers and streams from further
deterioration.
7.4.8 Coordination between Government and General public
The local population must start awareness program for judicious and sustainable
utilization of freshwater. The households living in Peshawar city are paying nominal water
supply fee irrespective of their water usage. This means that an equal amount of bill is
paid by a big house of two Kanals and a small 3 Marla house. Installation of water-meter
will be an appropriate option in this regard.
140
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Annexure – I Household Questionnaire
An analysis of Household’s fresh water supply and requirements / demand
of the citizens in District Peshawar
Part – I Household’s Demographic conditions
1. Union Council Name __________________________ Code No._____________
2. Village Name_________________________________
3. Name of the Respondent________________________
i. Age___ ii. Qualification____iii. Marital Status____Married/Un Married
4. Occupation
i. Employed__________ Yes / No, if Yes then
ii. Employed in __________ Govt. Sector / Private Sector / Business / Other
5. House occupancy status
i. Own________ ii. Rented _________ iii. If rented then monthly rent_______
6. Type of material used in the construction_______i. Katcha ii. Pakka iii. Semi Pakka
7. Plot size of the Household in Marlas____________
8. Number of persons in the Household
i. Children (Age below 14 years) _______ii. Adults (Age 14-65 years) ________
iii. Old (Age above 65 years) __________
9. Number of earning persons in the family _________
10. Total income of the family (Rs per month) ________
11. Expenditures of the family (Rs per month)_________
i. Expenditures on Food items__________ii. Expenditure on Utility bills ________
iii. Expenditures on Health & Diseases ___________
iv. Expenditures on children’s Education ______________
v. Miscellaneous______________________
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Part – II Fresh Water Supply & the requirements/demand of the citizens
1. Source of fresh water supply to the household
i. Public tap_________________
ii. Private bore _______________
iii. Hand pump_________________
iv. Well ______________________
v. Both public & Private__________
vi. Others_______________________
2. If fresh water supply is from Public source then which authority is responsible for
water supply
i. Water & sanitation Services Peshawar (WSSP)__________
ii. Public Health Engineering Department (PHED)__________
iii. Provincial Irrigation & Drainage Authority (PIDA)________
iv. Peshawar Development Authority (PDA)________________
v. Cantonment Board__________________________________
vi. Others___________________________________________
3. Water uses by the Household for domestic purposes in liters per day (l/day)
i. Drinking purposes__________________
ii. Cooking purposes___________________
iii. Cleanliness purposes_________________
iv. Bathing & Toilet purposes_____________
v. Watering animals____________________
vi. Watering gardens____________________
vii. Others (Specify)_____________________
4. Storage capacity of the water/ storage tank at the household level in liters______
5. How many times the storage tank in your house is filled? ______________
i. Summer season___________
ii. Winter season ____________
6. Distance of water supply source from the house in meters__________________
7. Total Water supply / collection timing ____________________
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8. Is the volume/amount of water supply fulfill the requirements of the
Household_________________Yes/No
9. If the requirements of the water supply are not fulfilled, then from which alternate
source the additional / required water is supplied? _______________
10. Is the house has any meter connection ?_______________ Yes / No, if Yes, then
payment mod of water bill_____________
i. Monthly uniform rate___________
ii. Progressive rate________________
iii. Free / No billing system__________
11. Do you have any problem regarding the availability of fresh water supply system?
Yes/ No if, Yes then specify the problem
i. Distance from the water supply source is too much _______________
ii. Quantity of fresh water provided is not sufficient _________________
iii. Timing of water supply is not accurate__________________________
iv. Pressure of water is low ___________________
v. Monthly charges of water supply are more_______________________
vi. Discrimination is faced in the water distribution system____________
vii. Quality of water is inferior____________________________________
viii. Taste, Color and Odor of water is not good_______________________
12. What are the problem in your opinion faced by the authorities responsible for
water supply?
i. Power shortage___________________
ii. No control over the illegal connections_____________________
iii. Line loses / wastage due to out dated life lines system_______________
13. In your opinion what changes have occurred in the groundwater during the last 20
– 30 years in terms of i. Quality ii. Depth iii. Other
14. What are your suggestions to make the existing water supply system more
efficient?
i. ………………………………………………………………………………
ii. ………………………………………………………………………………
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iii. ………………………………………………………………………………
iv. ………………………………………………………………………………
v. ………………………………………………………………………………
vi. ………………………………………………………………………………
vii. ……………………………………………………………………................
15. Any other comments………………………………………………………………..