IMPACTS OF WATER SHORTAGE IN GITHURAI WARD, KIAMBU COUNTY,

KENYA

By

WANJOHI PERPETUA NGIMA (B. Ed. Sci)

Reg. No: N50/CE/23000/2011

A Thesis submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the award of

Degree of Master of Environmental Science in the School of Environmental Studies

of Kenyatta University

May, 2015

ii

DECLARATION

Declaration by the Candidate:

This thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other

university or any other award.

Signature: ……………… Date: ………………

Wanjohi Perpetua Ngima

N50/CE/23000/2011

Department of Environmental Sciences

Kenyatta University

Declaration by supervisors:

We confirm that the work reported in this thesis was carried out by the candidate under

our supervision.

Signature: …………………………Date: …………………………..

Dr. Geoffrey M. Macharia

Department of Environmental Sciences

Kenyatta University

Signature: ………………………….Date: ……………………………

Dr. Judy Kariuki

Department of Environmental Science

Kenyatta University

iii

DEDICATION

This work is exclusively dedicated to my parents Mr. Ephantus Wanjohi and Mrs. Agnes

Wanjohi for their unconditional support, encouragement, patience and understanding

during the entire period of the study.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Great and special gratitude to God for giving me the opportunity, ability, patience and

strength to undertake the study.

Special thanks to my immediate family members; parents (Mr and Mrs. Wanjohi) and

siblings; C. Wachuka, N. Karimi, M. Muhuriri, E. Wanjiru and C. Maina for funding my

studies and moral support at the University.

Gratitude to Kenyatta University for the valuable Institutional support. I am particularly

grateful to my supervisors Dr. G. Macharia and Dr. J. Kariuki for remarkable good will

and tirelessly responding to my work. I wish too to express my appreciation to my

colleagues Molven Bingo, Francis Kinaka, Caroline Mwende, Evans Arori and Jared

Morange for their constant ideas and encouragement.

Thanks to my field assistant Jerusha Waithera Ng’ang’a and to all respondents from

whom I learned a great deal. Gratitude to Richard Mulei and Dennis Osoro for the

assistance in use of SPSS and the statistical analysis of data. To all others who have not

been mentioned but contributed largely in one way or another to make this study a

success, thank you very much and may God bless abundantly.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ................................................................................................................ ii

DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................. iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................... v

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ vii

LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... viii

LIST OF PLATES ............................................................................................................. ix

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ........................................................................... x

ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... xi

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................. 1

1.1 Background Information ............................................................................................... 1

1.2 Problem Statement ................................................................................................... 2

1.3 Research Questions .................................................................................................. 2

1.4 Research Objectives ...................................................................................................... 3

1.6 Justification and Significance of the Research ............................................................. 3

1.7 Conceptual Frame Work ............................................................................................... 4

1.8 Limitations of the Study................................................................................................ 6

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................... 7

2.1 Sources of Water and their Accessibility ...................................................................... 7

2.3 Impacts of Water Supply on the Socio-Economic Development ............................... 12

4.4 Socio-Economic Impacts of Water Supply at Githurai Ward ..................................... 37

4.4.1 Waterborne Diseases in the Area ............................................................................. 37

4.4.3 Time Spent when Queuing for Water in the Area ................................................... 41

4.4.4 Poor Sanitation ......................................................................................................... 42

4.6 Environmental Factors Contributing to Intermittent Water Supply in Githurai Ward 43

5.1 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 45

5.1.2 Causes of Erratic Water Supply in Githurai Ward ................................................... 45

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5.1.5 Constraints of Water Supply in Githurai Ward ................................................ 49

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 54

APPENDICES…………………………………………………………………………...60

Appendix i. Questionnaire for the Households ………………………………………….60

Appendix ii. Interview Schedule for Water Officers in Githurai Ward ………………....66

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1:Respondents’ Age Data .................................................................................... 27

Table 4.2: Respondents Marital Status ............................................................................. 28

Table 4.3: Respondents’ education level .......................................................................... 28

Table 4.4: Water borne diseases related to water in Githurai ward. ................................. 38

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Causes of erratic water supply, challenges, socio-economic impacts and

suggested solutions. ............................................................................................................ 5

Figure 3.1: Study Area Map showing Kiuu and Mwihoko sections (Source: National

Atlas of Kenya)………………………………………………………………………….21

Figure 4.1: Sources of Water in Githurai Ward……………………………………........ 29

Figure 4.2: Cost of Water per 20 litre Jerrycan in Shillings……………………………..31

Figure 4.3: Distance travelled to the water source in meters………………………….....34

Figure 4.4: Relationship between the gender and distance to water source…………..…35

Figure 4.5: Causes of Erratic Water Supply……………………………….…………….36

Figure 4.6: Relationship between health effects of water and the occupation of

respondents .................................................................................................................…..39

Figure 4.7: Causes of water related conflicts in Githurai ward……………………..…...41

Figure 4.8: Relationship between queuing at the water points and the

gender…………………………………………………………………………………….42

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LIST OF PLATES

Plate 4.1. Plate indicating an illegal water point ………………………………...……..32

Plate 4.2 Plate showing a man fetching water at an illegal point………………………..33

Plate 4.3 Women waiting to fetch water from a common point ………………..……… 41

x

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

AWSB Athi Water Service Board

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

GoK Government of Kenya

MDGs Millennium Development Goals

MENA Middle East and North America

MS Micro Soft

NEMA National Environment Management Authority

OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs

PDSB Policy Development and Studies Branch

SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences

SSA Sub-Saharan Africa

UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund

WSPs Water Service Providers

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ABSTRACT

Water is indispensable for life since it is a major basic need and is also important for

economic activities. Information on the challenges of water supply and its socio-

economic impacts is important as it forms a vital baseline for the detection of the positive

impacts, the main challenges related to it and how to cope and deal with them. This study

investigated the challenges of water supply and its socio-economic impacts in Githurai

ward. The study was carried out between December 2012 and May 2013. To achieve the

objectives of the research, guiding research questions were employed which investigated:

the sources of water, causes of the erratic water supply, socio-economic impacts of water

supply, adaptation strategies by the stakeholders to ensure water availability and

environmental factors attributing to intermittent water supply in Githurai ward. Simple

random sampling was used to select the households and water vendors while purposive

sampling was used to select the water officers and the chiefs. Samples population was

384. Questionnaires (for households and vendors), interview schedules (for water officers

and chiefs) and observation schedules were used as instruments for data collection.

Validity of instruments and reliability were tested by subjecting the instruments to a pilot

study. Data was analyzed statistically and presented in tables, charts and graphs. Chi

square was used to test the hypothesis stated. Regression analysis was used to ascertain

the predictive effect of causes of erratic water supply (R2 = 0.56, n= 384) and

environmental factors (R2 = 0.62, n= 384) to water supply. Chi– square statistical test of

analysis showed that there was a significant association between the source of water and

the income in the area (χ2 = 21.362, n= 384, p= 0.002, df= 6). Thus accepting the

hypothesis there is an association between the sources of water and the income of the

households. There was a significant association between the distance travelled to water

source and the gender (χ2 = 15.978, n= 384, p= 0.003, df= 1). There was a high

significant association between the occupation and some of the water related problems (χ2

=22.136, n= 384, p= <0.001, df= 2). Thus accepting the hypothesis there is an association

between the occupation and some of the water related problems. The study concluded

that the water shortage is an evident issue in Githurai Ward. The study recommends that

strategies be made to deal with illegal water connections and households embrace use of

roof water harvesting to increase water collection during the rainy season. Water officers

should involve the community to aid in water maintenance programmes.

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Information

Water is indispensable for life. It is also indispensable for economic activities. Supply of

water is problematic globally since being a constant resource; the demand has increased.

Much of urban Africa is confronted by inadequate water supply. In Africa, water crisis is

predicted that by the year 2020, 75% of the continent’s population will be water stressed

(Joyce, et al., 2010). Population increase reduces per capita water availability and that

conflict or cooperation may result as different water users, compete for the basic resource

(Revenga, Johnson & Echeverria, 2001).

Safe clean drinking water is basic for living and economic development in Kenya and

other parts of the world. According to Kandji, (2006), 80% of Kenyans continue to have

inadequate access to water, drink unsafe water (the water is from unreliable sources), and

spend much time and money trying to acquire it. As a result, most people suffer and die

due to water related issues such as waterborne diseases (diarrhoea, dysentery or cholera)

mostly from consumption of untreated water, which account for 60% of all diseases in

Kenya, (Sobel et al., 2004). Without a strategy to deal with this situation, rapid

urbanization and population growth means worse conditions for millions of Kenyans,

especially the poorest. Recognizing this problem, both donor agencies and the

Government of Kenya (GoK) support reforms in the water sector. In particular, through

the Water Act 2002, the GoK now encourages greater community initiative in provision

of services as well as the formation of publicly accountable local water companies.

Kenya’s development policy is intended to raise the level of economic development and

improve the population’s standard of living. Efforts to develop the water sector have been

based on water being both a basic human need and catalyst to accelerate social and

economic development. On water access, in urban areas, including Nairobi, Thika,

Mombasa, Kisumu, Nakuru, Eldoret, Ruiru, Githurai ward included, only about 40% of

the habitants have direct access to piped water (Herrero, et al., 2010).The rest obtain

water from kiosks, vendors, illegal connections or from wells. Only about 40 % of those

with access to piped water receive water 24 hours per day (Nyangeri & Ombongi, 2007).

2

On average, most of the major towns mentioned receive water 6 hours per day, a level

which is unacceptable by the Water Sector Regulatory Board (FAO, 2007).

The researcher having lived in, Kiambu County, specifically Githurai ward and spent

much money buying water (1,200 per month) , this is of concern hence the need

investigate the challenges and socio-economic impacts related to water supply facing the

community. Having observed Kahawa, Githurai , Ruiru town, Gitothua wards that are

also part of Ruiru Constituency, Kiambu County most people buy water from water

kiosks and vendors which they are not sure of its safety for consumption. The water

rationing of tapped water, for example water running from taps for two or three days a

week, serves as an indicator of erratic water supply in the area.

1.2 Problem Statement

Information available in most studies (such as by Karanja, 2011 in Improving water

provision in different areas and by Nyangeri & Ombongi, 2007 on History of water

supply in Kenya ) that have been carried out on water are about the supply. This being

mainly sources in most parts of the country. There is no information on impacts of water

shortage in Githurai Ward, yet there are a lot of impacts associated with supply of water

in the ward and other parts of the country. This study was intended to contribute more

information on the impacts of water shortages in Githurai Ward. Findings of the study

will help to fill the gaps by providing information on the impacts of water shortage which

will in turn be used for proper decision making on water management hence ensure its

regular supply.

In light of this water supply situation, the study aimed at identifying the impacts of water

shortage in Githurai ward of Kiambu County with a specific focus on the households.

1.3 Research Questions

The study was guided by the following research questions:

(i). How do the households obtain water in Githurai Ward?

(ii).Why is there erratic water supply in Githurai Ward?

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(iii). How has erratic water supply socio-economically impacted the households?

(iv). How are the stakeholders adapting to the erratic supply of water in the Ward?

(v).How has environmental factors contributed to intermittent water supply in the ward?

1.4 Research Objectives

The main objective of this study was to determine the impacts of water shortage on the

Githurai ward community as a basis of suggesting measures towards solving the

problems identified.

The specific objectives were:

(i) To identify the main sources of water for households in Githurai Ward.

(ii) To determine the causes of erratic water supply in Githurai Ward.

(iii) To evaluate the socio-economic impacts of intermittent water supply in the ward.

(iv) To analyze the adaptation strategies by the stake holders in the ward to ensure regular

water availability.

(v) To assess the main environmental factors contributing to irregular of water

supply.

1.5 Research Hypotheses

The research attempted to answer the above research questions as follows;

1. The causes of erratic water supply have an effect on the water supply in the area.

2. There is an association between the sources of water and the income of the households

in githurai ward.

3. There is an association between the water supply related problems and the socio-

economic aspects in Githurai Ward.

1.6 Justification and Significance of the Research

There is no information on impacts of water shortage in Githurai Ward, yet there are a lot

of impacts associated with supply of water in the ward and other parts of the country.

This study was intended to contribute more information on the impacts of water shortages

in Githurai Ward. The research findings would help the government and relevant water

4

provision bodies (e.g. Nairobi water and Sewerage Company) by informing them about

the identified causes of erratic water supply to prevent future occurrence. This may

ensure water sustainability for the future thus reducing the challenges brought about by

reduced water supply. The research provides information on environmental factors that

have contributed to water shortage which would be a suitable indicator hence need for

intervention towards reduction of the identified causes. Findings from this study would

be important as they provide an input in the future planning by the government due to

increased population and environmental management of the natural resources especially

water since it is a basic need due. The study findings would act as an eye opener for both

municipal council and other environmental organizations to identify the impacts of water

supply. This would further enable them enact the laws and regulations on water

management to reduce the negative impacts. This will ensure sustainable supply of water.

1.7 Conceptual Frame Work

The conceptual frame work shows the relationship between the dependent variables

(challenges and socio-economic impacts) and independent variable (water shortage) of

the study. Possible causes of water shortage have been identified. The impacts of water

shortage have also been identified and categorized as challenges and socio-economic

impacts. Some solutions have been suggested to deal with the water shortages and hence

improve the livelihood of the households. The information is represented in the figure

below.

5

Source: Researcher’s own design

Figure 1.1: Causes of erratic water supply, challenges, socio-economic impacts and

suggested solutions.

From figure 1.1, increased population, low water pressure, poor water system

maintenance and power rationing are the main causes of erratic water supply that has

resulted to water shortage. The water shortage has resulted to poor sanitation, low output

in water related activities, a lot of time spent in collecting the water, lack of enough

water, poor sanitation, conflicts and a lot of money spent to obtain water. The water

Water shortage (erratic

water supply)

Challenges;

-Poor sanitation;

-Low output in water related activities,

i.e car washing, building construction,

farming, lawn watering.

Socio-economic impacts; negative

-Much time spent to collect water;

-Gender [collected mostly by women and

children];

-Intermittent supply [water hardly

enough];

-Poor sanitation [diseases; diarrhoea,

worm diseases, skin & eye infections,];

-Conflicts [if source is a common point];

-Cost [to purchase commodity & storage

containers];

-Physical collection leading to spine &

hip damage;

-Distance [if far or ground floor and the

household is in upper floor]

Positive: employment opportunities to

personnel selling water at the private water

points and vendors; water point owners

make profit from the water sale [income

generation]

Causes of water

shortage:

-Increased population,

-Low water pressure

-Poor water systems

maintenance

-Power rationing

Solutions;

- Good maintenance of water

systems; repair of pipes

-Water harvesting and storage

measures

-Water catchments

conservation/ protection

6

shortage situation has positively impacted the some households as there are some

personnel who sell water from private water points and this brings about some profit

making business.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

The time available for the research was limited and therefore the study was only based in

Githurai ward. The funds to carry out the research were not enough to cover a larger area.

7

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Sources of Water and their Accessibility

Drinking water is a basic requirement for life and a determinant of standard of living. Up

to 70% of the Earth's surface is covered by water which is either surface or ground water

(UNESCO, 2008). Surface water is water in rivers, lakes or fresh water wetland. Surface

water is naturally replenished by precipitation and lost through discharge to the oceans,

evaporation, evapo-transpiration and sub-surface seepage. Sub-surface water or

groundwater, is fresh water located in the pore space of soil and rocks. It is also water

that is flowing within aquifers below the water table (World Bank, 2011).

Water resources are very useful in various sectors such as; agricultural, industrial,

household and recreational activities. Virtually all of these human uses require fresh

water. 97.5% of all water on Earth is salty leaving only 2.5% as fresh water (UNDP,

2003). Slightly, over two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The

remaining unfrozen fresh water is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small

fraction present above ground or in the air (Gray & Alde, 2007). Fresh water is a

renewable resource, yet the world's supply of clean, fresh water is steadily decreasing.

Water demand already exceeds supply in many parts of the world (Chartres & Varma,

2010) and as the world population continues to rise, demand of water also rises.

Less than 1% of the world's fresh water (0.007% of all water on earth) is accessible for

direct human use (Gleick, 2000). This is the water found in lakes, rivers, reservoirs and

those underground sources that are shallow enough to be tapped at an affordable cost.

Only this amount is regularly renewed by rain and snowfall, and is therefore available on

a sustainable basis (Gleick, 2000).

Availability of water in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is highly variable. 75% of water

supply in Africa is from groundwater (UNESCO, 2008). Despite this, groundwater

resources are threatened by human activity and climatic change.

Only the humid tropical zones in central and West Africa have abundant water.

According to Sharma et al., (1996), eight countries were suffering from water stress or

8

scarcity in 1990; this situation has become worse as a consequence of rapid population

growth, expanding urbanization, and increased economic development. By 2000, about

300 million Africans were living in a water-scarce environment and by 2025; the number

of countries experiencing water stress will rise to 18 affecting 600 million people (World

Bank, 2011).

The rapid urban population growth is characterized by poor sanitation, environmentally

related infections, as well as psychological and social illnesses (Molden, 2008). The

development rate is also slower since some activities are based on water for high output,

but due to the shortage of water supply, the output is low. Sanitation improvement

usually results in reduced cases of water related diseases and this is only possible if the

water supply rate is checked (Kaluli et al., 2009).

Most international organization use access to safe drinking water and hygienic sanitation

facilities as a measure for progress in the fight against poverty, disease, and death

(Smakthtin et al., 2004). Even though progress has been made in the last decade to

provide safe drinking water and sanitation to people throughout the world, there are still

billions of people that lack access to these services every day (Ofwat, 2006). The

drinking water sources mostly available may be either improved or unimproved

depending on the nature of construction or the kind of intervention applied (Hoekstra &

Chapagain, 2007).

Improved drinking water sources should, but do not always, provide safe drinking water,

and include: Piped household water connection; Public standpipe; Borehole; Protected

dug wells; Protected spring and Rainwater collection(European Commission, 2007c).

Unimproved drinking water sources include: Unprotected dug well; unprotected spring;

Surface water (river, dam, lake, pond, stream, canal, irrigation channel) Vendor-provided

water (cart with small tank/drum, tanker truck) and Tanker truck water (European

Commission, 2007c).

According to the World Health Organization and UNICEF, in 2010, 89% of the world’s

population used drinking water from piped connection (54% from a piped connection in

9

their dwelling areas and 35% from other improved drinking water sources such as

protected boreholes, shallow wells, springs and rain water collection), leaving 780

million people lacking access to an improved source of water. Access to safe drinking

water is measured by the percentage of the population having access to and using

improved water sources (UNICEF, 2010).

Africa's water resources are scattered throughout the continent. While some areas receive

more than enough water, others experience constant drought (European Commission,

2007b). Average areas in Africa receive rainfall anywhere from 200 to 800 millimeters of

annual rainfall (Molden, 2008). Droughts that may last up to five years are a common

problem on the continent. Three of four Africans use the ground water as their main

water supply (UNESCO, 2008). The ground-water is not always available though as it

accounts for only 15% of the continent's water supply (UNESCO, 2008).

Basic infrastructural development in most rural and many urban environments in Africa

dictates that gaining access to drinking water is often time consuming and difficult. All

possible sources are likely to be utilized; wells, streams, lakes and even canals. The poor

are frequently excluded from basic services, such as piped water, sewerage and electricity

and live under threat of, for example, flooding, fire and contagious disease (Naumann,

2003). Commonly in squatter settlements, residents buy water from peddlers or fetch it

from a public standpipe or well. The greatest cause of Africa's problem of a lack of water

is that the continent cannot effectively utilize its resources (Ofwat, 2006). Approximately

4 trillion cubic meters of water are available every year, only about 4% of that is used

(Hoekstra, 2007). The continent and its people lack the technical knowledge and financial

resources needed to access their water supplies. Of the 25 nations in the world with the

greatest percentage of people lacking access to safe drinking water, 19 are in Africa

(Winpenny, 2001).

The United Nations estimates that Sub-Saharan Africa alone loses 40 billion hours per

year collecting water (Kimani, et al., 2007). This is due to water being scarce and many

sources are unreliable especially for drinking water. The hours lost to gathering water are

often the difference between time to do a trade and earn a living and not. When a water

solution is put into place, sustainable agriculture is possible. Children get back to school

10

instead of collecting water of which at times it is dirty water all day, or being sick from

waterborne illnesses. Parents find more time to care for their families, expand minimal

farming to sustainable levels, and even run small businesses (Naumann, 2003).

Water supply in Kenya is characterized by low levels of access, particularly in urban

slums and in rural areas, as well as poor service quality in the form of intermittent water

supply(Karanja, et al., 1990). Only 9 out of 55 water service providers in Kenya provide

continuous water supply (Kandji, 2006). Seasonal and regional water scarcity increases

the difficulty to improve water supply. The average number of service hours that Kenyan

water utilities provide is 14 hours. Only in seven Water Service Providers (WSPs) water

supply is continuous. In Nairobi water is provided on average for 16 hours a day and in

Mombasa for 6 hours. Instances of water scarcity (defined as more than five days without

or with insufficient water supply) still occur in Kenya. In 2006 in Kisumu over 40% of

households (both poor and non poor) connected to water mains reported low water supply

(Nyangeri & Ombongi, 2007).

According to Herrero et al., 2010, urban areas, including Nairobi, Mombasa, Kisumu,

Nakuru, Thika among others, only about 40 % of the inhabitants have direct access to

piped water. The rest obtain water from kiosks, vendors, illegal connections or from

wells. Only about 40% of those with access to piped water receive water 24 hours per

day. On average, most of the major towns mentioned receive water 6 hours per day, a

level which is unacceptable by the Water Sector Regulatory Board (Joyce et al., 2010).

Most of the water utility regulators and boards have stringent water quality monitoring

programs to ensure the water they supply to their communities is safe for drinking.

However, due to high leakage in the network and intermittent supply, treated water is

sometimes recontaminated before it reaches the tap. According to the Water Sector

Regulatory Board, in 2009/10 only 76% of drinking water samples complied with

standards for bacteriological quality, a level which is unacceptable by the regulator.

Those who can afford it boil or filter water before drinking it, or buy bottled water. Those

who cannot afford this are forced to take their chances with tap water. Moreover there is

no equity in water distribution. Wealthier users with access to piped water use much

11

more than average, while those without access to piped water receive much less (Bouwer,

2002).

In Kenya more than 50% of the population does not have direct access to potable water

(UNESCO, 2008). According to the UN, the threshold for water stress resulting in

disruptive water supply is estimated at 1700 litres per capital per year, while water

availability below 1000 litres per year leads to more serious challenges related to human

health, food production and economic development (FAO, 2007). In Kenya, water supply

falls already below the scarcity level of 1000 litres per capita per year and the situation

seems to worsen in future. One of the main reasons for reduced water supply is increased

demand (Mogaka, et al., 2006). This is caused by population growth and by a change in

consumption patterns as living standards rise, resulting in increased water consumption

per person (GoK, 2004).

2.2 Causes of Erratic Water Supply and Water Shortages

Erratic water supply has various causes, most of which are capable of being remedied or

alleviated. Water use has been growing at more than twice the rate of population increase

in the last century, and, an increasing number of regions are chronically short of water

(European Commission, 2007b). In future, most of world’s population will be

experiencing water stress; situation will be and is catalyzed by rapidly growing urban

areas which place heavy pressure on neighboring water resources (Hoektra & Chapagain,

2007). Irrigated agriculture, which represents the bulk of the demand for water in most

countries, is also usually the first sector affected by erratic supply and this result in a

decreased capacity to maintain per capita food production while meeting water needs for

domestic, industrial and environmental purposes ((IPCC, 2001). In order to sustain their

needs, most countries need to focus on the efficient use of all water sources

(groundwater, surface water and rainfall) and on water allocation strategies that maximize

the economic and social returns to limited water resources, and at the same time enhance

the water productivity of all sectors (IPCC, 2001).

The leading cause of water crisis is mismanagement by government officials. In the

World Water Vision Report which asserts that the water crisis faced today in many

12

countries is not about having too little water to satisfy human needs, but, is a crisis of

managing water so badly that billions of people and the environment suffer badly

(Karanja, 2008).

An expanding population (high population growth rate) has over-stretched the available

fresh water resources leading to water scarcity which translates to low water supply. In

reference to Urban Water Solutions, 30 years ago there was a third of water available to

people but in another 30 years it will be down to a third of current levels. The population

is rising and the catchment area for water is declining. Kenya has now just 1.7% of forest,

far below the 10% recommended for any country (Birongo & Lee, 2005).

Environmental degradation and climate change has further weighed on the water shortage

problem as they contaminate water resources and reduce the natural storage of water

(Kandji, 2006). Due to prolonged dry spells, the rate of evaporation is high and this has

led to drying of water tables, reducing the level and amounts of water available for use.

Environmental degradation due to deforestation, sand harvesting, erosion due to human

related activities has led to drying of catchment areas leading to low amounts of water

available (IPCC, 2001).

2.3 Impacts of Water Supply on the Socio-Economic Development

The main challenges of the water sector globally remains the low development and use of

the water resources potential due to the deficiency of water infrastructure, the deficient

agricultural water management, the missing water services and institutional platforms, the

inadequate access to markets, the lack of financing and capacity of institutions, and the

weak government commitment (Birongo & Lee, 2008). These issues are detrimental to a

sector that is otherwise in a unique position to reduce exposure to food crisis and to

deliver poor growth among urban and rural households. The economic case for the

development of water resources as an instrument for economic growth can easily be

made. Agriculture, industry, and hydropower depend on water and can drive a country’s

economy upward in a significant way. Yet, if people and businesses have much to gain

from developing and better managing this precious resource, the extent of the losses and

the missed opportunities from neglect will be devastating (UNEP, 2004). Africa loses 2

13

per cent of annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP) to regular power outages, and between

5 and 25 per cent to droughts and floods in affected countries (Alcamo, 2007). In Kenya,

for example, estimated losses from flooding in 1997-98 and drought in 1998-2000,

amounted respectively to 10% and 16 per cent of GDP. This means that if Kenya could

separate its economy from rainfall variability, it can increase its GDP growth by

approximately 2. 4%. While the continent (Africa) has only 9 per cent of the worlds

internally renewable water and 15 per cent of the global population, the problems related

to food security and energy are more linked to the under-development of water resources

(Bouwer, 2002).

Water supply is a current concern for the population in Kenya. Positive results between

increasing water pollution and decreasing freshwater supply may rapidly raise the

importance of water quality in the area. The loss of productivity due to waterborne

diseases and water fetching is devastating. The poor, in particular women and girls, spend

a significant amount of time fetching water in both rural and urban areas. For example,

the 2007 Citizen Report Card survey showed that users of water kiosks in cities fetch

water 4-6 times per day. In Kisumu, this meant that a poor household spent 112 minutes

per day to fetch water at normal times, and as much as 200 minutes per day during times

of scarcity (Ballance & Tremolet, 2005).

In most countries, Kenya included lack of access to safe water, especially in rural areas or

some urban areas and among poor communities, obliges women to spend hours every day

collecting water for their families' daily needs, causing drain on their energy, productive

potential and health. Largely because of their role in collecting water, washing clothes,

cleaning and cooking, and in rural areas, performing day-to-day agricultural tasks,

women are constantly exposed to the risks of contracting water-related diseases that

affect their reproductive health. Exposure to contaminated water sources is associated

with pregnancy failures and with infant and childhood development difficulties, illness

and mortality. Most literature suggests that women are primarily responsible for the

collection of water (Water Aid, 2004a). As stated by Water Aid (2006b), “many benefits

of water, sanitation and hygiene projects particularly impact upon women.

14

Poor people, particularly women, are often unable to engage in paid work when they do

not have safe water nearby (Joshi & Fawcett, 2001). This is because they often spend

hours each day trekking to the nearest water source, waiting their turn in long queues for

water, or is too ill with water-related diseases to have the strength to work. This has a

negative impact on paid employment for the females or males that are employed since

they are not able to constantly attend to employed work. The World Health Organization

(WHO) estimates 5.6 billion working days would be gained annually if there was

universal access to safe water and sanitation. In contrast, people living near safe water

supplies can look after the water needs of their family in a matter of minutes, leaving the

rest of the day free to earn much-needed cash (World Bank, 1996 )

According to Joshi & Fawcett (2011), women being the main collectors of water it is

often their lives that change the most dramatically.” Thus the scarcity of water leading to

erratic water availability implies that females spend more time in water collection

activities. If the water supply issue is addressed in many countries, it would be available

closer to their homes; women will have additional time freed for other activities and

decision making. Women are further subjected to walking to isolated water points or find

private places to go to the toilet, hence are at risk from sexual harassment (Water Aid,

2006b).

Cost of buying water; Poor communities without access to water supplies( piped water,

boreholes and shallow wells), particularly in urban areas, often have no option but to

spend money they can hardly afford buying water from expensive water vendors who can

get their water from unaccountable sources ( UNEP, 2004). Conflicts; linked to the

quantity of water is also a problem globally. Conflicts due to water is grouped into; conflict

that may arise between sectors or users, like municipality verses industries, connected verses

unconnected people, urban verses peri-urban, present and future generations); Conflicts

linked to the quality (unsafe water reduces the availability of potable water and causes water

borne diseases. Poor people are the most affected as they do not have any means to treat

water. It is too expensive and domestic users result to complains to the municipality and

Conflicts linked to water access (legal -water rights-, economical -price- or physical barriers

prevent access to water and their unfair settlements generate conflicts (Janakarajan, 2002).

15

The access to water impacts the psyche of a community in several ways. In communities

where access is limited and people (water collectors) must walk long distances to fetch

water, there is increased tension from the safe arrival of the female family member that

fetches the water. This is because some water points are in disserted areas that are

unsecure. There is also reduced self-respect since most of the attire they put on as they

fetch water gets dirty (Water Aid, 2001).

Despite the many negative impacts, there is also the positive aspect in it, such as;

employment opportunities for personnel employed at the water distribution points. They

earn a living out of that; also the water vendors who deliver water to consumers on

payment hence a source of livelihood; water kiosk owners, they distribute water to

consumers on payment thus make a living out of that (Malesu et al., 2007).

2.4 Stake Holders’ Adaptations to Erratic Water Supply

Numerous approaches broadly characterized as water governance exist to reconcile

multiple demands for water in the context of physical and human drivers of shortage,

erratic supply and vulnerability. Systems to allocate water, assign rights, establish priority

uses, and balance human and ecosystem needs differ with historical, political, and

institutional context. Flexibility in decision making, particularly to incorporate new

information, methods and changing priorities in water use and management enhances

adaptation. The main adaptations to erratic water supply that stakeholders’ should

consider is conserving the already available water. This can be done indoors and also

outdoors. In indoors, the bathroom is where you can save most water. This involve toilets

(water closet toilets that require flushing) and cemented floored latrines that require daily

washing, bathing and showering, basins and sinks. Toilets use a lot of water to get the

waste away (Mable & Sheard, 1999).

Bathing and showering: are second to toilets as large consumers of water. It takes

approximately 25 gallons of water for an average tub bath. Most older-model

showerheads use an average 8-10 gallons per minute, meaning a five-minute shower uses

40-50 gallons of water (White, 1999). You can conserve water by bathing in a partially-

filled tub or by taking shorter showers or ones using less water in a basin. Replacing

16

shower head, consider one of the new Automatic Super Water Saver Showerheads which

uses only 2 gallons per minute. Close the bathtub drain before running water instead of

waiting for the hot water to arrive (Marble & Sheard, 1999).

Hand Dish washing: use water sparingly to wash dishes. Close tap when washing dishes

to avoid water wastage and may rinse in a basin preferably. Most stake holders have also

put into consideration and practice basic household cleaning tips (Bouwer, 2002). These

include; use of bucket or basin during cleaning instead of using running water, scrubbing

floors on wash days to enhance water re-use, using sponge mops instead of rag mops

since they require less water for mopping and they clean quickly( Bouwer, 2002)

Adaptations to erratic water supply also involves outdoor conservation measures.

According to Herrero et al., (2010), main conservation measures include; re-using of

water used to cool off and in wading pools to water flower beds, kitchen gardens, shrubs

and lawns; keeping watering schedule flexible. After heavy rain, most stakeholders do

not water lawns until it needs to be. Interruption of automatic sprinkler systems, after

raining if necessary; checking outside taps daily to see that they are turned off when not

in use to avoid water wastage; checking shut-off valves for leaks oftenly to reduced

unnoticeable leakage and making sure all faucets are turned off completely each time

they are used; replacing washers on dripping faucets and showers to reduce the amount of

water to be used; replacing damaged or leaking sprinkler heads on underground

sprinkling system to avoid water loss. Stake holders with swimming pools have adapted

to erratic water supply by: filling the pools with the right level of water to control

spillovers that may occur; covering the pool when not in use to prevent evaporation,

minimize replenishment, and keep it cleaner; they do not drain the pool unless repairs are

needed to prevent water wastage (Marble & Sheard, 1999).

Shortage of water is a big problem in many cities (Janakarajan, 2002). Water is sometimes

turned on only a couple of times a day for about a half an hour each time. People with

money have special storage tanks to collect water during those times, which in turn

allows them to have water around the clock. People without storage tanks collect water in

cans, jugs and buckets and often have to take bucket baths when the water is not turned

17

on. Erratic water adaptation strategies also involve the use of storage containers to store

water to ensure availability when needed for use. Most people globally have resulted to

storing water because of its scarce nature (Kimani et al., 2007).

2.5 Environmental Factors Leading to Erratic Water Supply

Environmental factors leading to erratic water supply are caused by demand side factors

like over extraction and pollution as they are interdependent. These lead to increased

depletion and deteriorations in water quantity and quality. This has greatly led to reduced

amounts of water available for consumption (Diwakar & Nagaraj, 2002). Major

environmental factors causing inadequate drinking water supply include non availability

of constant water sources and high dependency on groundwater. Groundwater has been

experiencing wide fluctuations and cyclically declining in many countries due to

geographical and geological conditions, rainfall fluctuations and low recharge rate (GoI,

2002). Depletion of groundwater (a supply factor), as over extraction (a demand factor)

also contributes significantly to this depletion. The rapid and accelerated withdrawal of

groundwater to meet competing demands from agriculture, industry and other sectors has

led to decline in the groundwater table (GoK, 2004).

Lack of frequent precipitation during the rainy seasons has caused water shortages during

the following dry season, even though during the dry season rainfall is normal or above

normal. This has largely resulted to over dependence on ground water translating to over

extraction of underground water (Rajamarthanda, 1998). Water supply capacity of

surface sources like rivers, lakes, reservoirs and tanks decrease owing to forest

degradation, siltation, uncertainty and fluctuations in rainfall (GoK 2004). The general

neglect in conserving rainwater has resulted in waste of rainfall by way of run -off and

evaporation.

Increasing demand and overexploitation are the other demand based causal factors

leading to inadequate drinking water availability. Groundwater extraction is growing

rapidly as it is used for drinking, irrigation and industrial needs. These factors reduce

groundwater availability in aquifers, particularly during the dry season, creating wide

fluctuations in drinking water supply (White, 1998).

18

Pollution which is deteriorations in water quality is another factor that contributes to

unreliable water supply in most countries. Since pollution is a major cause of poor water

quality, it causes both temporary and long-term water shortages (Kimani et al., 2007).

Deterioration in drinking water quality either at source or in the distribution system has

been caused by factors such as natural, human made (or demand driven) and institutional

(like lack of monitoring system) (Mogaka et al., 2006). Natural factors such as geological

and geographical characteristics lead to inorganic contamination with excess fluoride,

iron and nitrates while human made factors like over extraction of groundwater,

discharging pollutants to surface and ground water bodies, inadequate and improperly

designed drainage and sewerage systems too add their share of pollution (Rajamarthanda,

1998). In addition, the common practice of using open places for defecation, washing

clothes and animals, bathing around water bodies, also pollute water sources. Industrial

effluents discharged to open place and water bodies is another major cause for decline in

water quality (Karanja et al., 1990).

Lakes and streams have a limited natural ability to rid themselves of impurities, but it is a

very slow process and some impurities can never be removed. Prior to our industrial

expansion, population growth and the increased use of chemicals, lakes and streams

could handle small amounts of wastes without harmful effects on water supplies. Now,

however, the self-cleaning process cannot cope with the amounts and types of wastes

being discharged into lakes and streams. Our wastewater must be cleaned at treatment

plants before being returned to a lake or stream. Wastewater treatment plants are

expensive to build, and large amounts of energy are needed to treat and move the

wastewater- resulting in higher costs and higher taxes (Dion, 1998).

Short term, pollution causes water shortages include those caused by floods, when water

for restricted use must be trucked into affected communities. Long-term, pollution causes

water shortages have occurred in some areas of coastal South Carolina when ground

water is pumped out faster than it is replenished and saltwater replaces the freshwater in

the wells (Brooks & Sethi, 1997). A combination of drought and pollution causes water

shortage.

19

Demand: Water shortages can also occur when the sudden demand of new industry, or a

large increase in population, is too much for an existing water and sewer system. Finding

additional water, and increasing freshwater and sewer capacity, solves the problem

(Barkatullah, 1999). Erratic water supply is also brought about by lack of operation and

maintenance of water supply schemes (GoK, 2000). Other management related causes,

attributable to variations in water supply, are leakages in the distribution network and

power fluctuations, which make water supply schemes sub-optimal (GoK, 2002).

Leakages and unaccounted for water cause disparity in distribution reducing the actual

quantity of consumption water supplied. According to GoK, in 2000 in urban areas water

loss through leakage is a major factor reducing the quantity. The leakage occurs mainly

due to corroded pipes in distribution network, damages caused during road widening and

repair works and also use of poor quality pipes in majority of household connections.

20

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Study Area Description

Githurai ward is located 12 km from Nairobi town and 5km from Ruiru town. It’s the

southern ward of Ruiru municipality, Kiambu County, bordering Nairobi city and located

west of Thika road. It borders Nairobi city to the South and Kahawa Sukari ward to the

North. It is connected by both rail and road. It is made up of two sections; Kiuu and

Mwihoko. It has a population of 58,185 people (Kenya Population and Housing Census,

2009). The area extends from1⁰ 1' S to 1⁰ 1' N and 36⁰ 9'E to 37⁰ 2'E.

In Githurai ward rainfall is bimodal in which long rains occurring from March to June

while the short rainy period occurs from October to December. The average annual

rainfall in Githurai and its environs ranges between 900 mm and 1,250 mm per annum.

The mean annual rainfall in Kiambu county ranges between 800 mm and 1,300 mm per

annum. The study was aimed at finding out the impacts of water shortage in Githurai

Ward.

21

Figure 3.1: Study Area Map showing Kiuu and Mwihoko sections (Source: National

Atlas of Kenya)

The figure 3.1 above represents the map of Ruiru constituency and the study which

extends from1⁰ 1' S to 1⁰ 1' N and 36⁰ 9'E to 37⁰ 2'E.

3.2 Study Design

This study investigated impacts of water shortage in Githurai ward and employed a

descriptive survey design. Descriptive survey according to Mugenda and Mugenda

(1999) describes and determines a current situation. Descriptive research design is

22

suitable for most sciences research because it reports things the way they are. The

purpose of descriptive survey is also to observe, describe and documents aspects of a

situation as it naturally occurs (Polit, 1995). It allows researchers to gather information,

summarize, present and interpret information for the purpose of clarification (Orodho,

2002). As the study involves households, vendors and water officers, the study falls well

in the descriptive survey study.

3.3 Target Population

Githurai ward has a total population of 58,185 people (Kenya Population and Housing

Census, 2009).The unit of analysis was the individual households and water providers

while the unit of observation which was the target population comprised of the

respondents from the sample survey. Simple random sampling and purposive sampling

was used to obtain a sample from a sampling frame of all the households in the study

area.

3.4 Sample and Sampling Procedure

The sample size given that the target population was 58,185 at a confidence interval of

95% and the error margin of 5%, the sample population was 384 respondents (Fisher et

al., 2008). As earlier noted, the water sector was selected due to the basic role the

resource plays in our lives. The unit of analysis was individual households while the unit

of observation was the respondents from the sample survey. Simple random sampling

was used to obtain a sample from a sampling frame of all the households in the study

area. To determine the number of respondents to be subjected to the interview per section

proportion to its population size, weighing of total number of households in the section

against total number of households in the whole area was carried out.

23

3.5 Data Sources

Primary data sources were the selected households and key informants comprising

community leaders, the private sector and water project developers from the ministry of

water.

Secondary data sources were; published and unpublished reports from libraries,

institutions, previous thesis, the internet, maps and other relevant materials in line with

the study objectives.

3.6 Data Collection Methods and Instruments

Both qualitative and quantitative approaches were used for data collection. The data

collection methods employed were; interviews, observation and photography. The data

collection instruments that were used include: questionnaires, interview schedules,

observation checklist, and a camera.

3.6.1 Questionnaires

Questionnaires were used to collect quantitative data and were administered by the

researcher randomly so as to ensure correct responses and maximum return rates. A

questionnaire has considerable advantages in administration in that it offers an even

stimulus to a large number of respondents simultaneously and provides the researcher

with relative ease of data accumulation. The questionnaire had both open ended and

closed ended questions. Open ended questions gave the respondents an opportunity to

think critically on the questions asked and give chance for a wide range of responses.

Closed ended questions were meant to elicit specific responses without additional

explanation. The data collected covers the full range of issues in line with the study

objectives.

3.6.2 Observation

Observation method was used to determine the impacts of water shortage in Githurai

ward. The researcher observed the activities related to water for a period of three months

to assess the impacts posed by water shortage in Githurai ward and find out possible

24

solutions to the problems. The observations were recorded in a note book and

photographs on activities revolving around the water sites taken during field trips.

3.6.3 Interview Schedules

The study aimed at identifying impacts of water shortage in Githurai ward; hence the

target group was selected for interviewing. These included individual owners of water

kiosks and vendors, representatives from relevant departments in respect to water (water

officers). The aim of the selection was to create a wide view of the subject (Kothari,

2004). A researcher administered interview schedule was used to collect data.

3.6.4 Photography

Photography was used in data gathering. The activities surrounding the water collection

sites were photographed using a camera and used to bring a clear picture of all activities

involved.

3.7 Pilot Study

Before the actual data was collected, the researcher conducted a pilot study in the

neighboring Mwiki ward, among six water officers who were not included in the final

study population. From each of the areas where the six water officers were stationed, four

households were randomly selected for the pilot study. Therefore the pilot study

participants were 6 water officers and 24 households, giving a total of 30 cases, which is

the minimum number of cases required for conducting statistical analysis as

recommended by Mugenda & Mugenda (2003). The purpose of the pilot study was to

enable the researcher to ascertain the reliability and validity of the instruments, and to

familiarize with the administration of the questionnaires therefore improve the

instruments and procedures.

3.7.1 Reliability

Reliability is a measure of the degree to which a research instrument yields consistent

results or data after repeated trials (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003). The pilot study enabled

the researcher to assess the clarity of the questionnaire items so that those items found to

be inadequate or vague were modified to improve the quality of the research instrument

thus increasing its reliability. Split-Half technique of reliability testing was employed,

25

whereby the pilot questionnaires were divided into two equivalent halves and then a

correlation coefficient for the two halves computed using the Spearman Brown Prophesy

formula. The coefficient indicates the degree to which the two halves of the test provide

the same results and hence describe the internal consistency of the test. A reliability

coefficient of 0.68 was obtained. According to Kiess and Bloomquist (1985) a minimum

correlation coefficient of 0.65 is recommended as indicating that an instrument is reliable,

and therefore the coefficient lies within this range.

3.7.2 Validity

Validity is defined as the accuracy and meaningfulness of inferences, which are based on

the research results (Mugenda & Mugenda, 1999). Validity, according to Borg and Gall

(1989) is the degree to which a test measures what it purports to measure. All

assessments of validity are subjective opinions based on the judgment of the researcher

(Wiersma, 1995). The pilot study helped to improve face validity of the instruments.

According to Borg and Gall (1989) content validity of an instrument is improved through

expert judgment. As such, the researcher sought assistance of the supervisors, who, as

experts in, research, helped improve content validity of the instrument.

3.8 Data Analysis

The data analysis was based on the study objectives and research questions. After all data

was collected, the researcher identified incomplete or inaccurate responses, which were

corrected to clarify the quality of the responses. The responses from the questionnaires,

interview schedules and observation schedules were coded into statistical package for

social sciences (SPSS) version 17.0 for analysis. Qualitative data was analyzed using

content analysis based on analysis of meanings and implications emanating from

respondents’ information and documented data. It was summarized into meaningful

statements, which were used to supplement the quantitative data to enrich the

interpretation of the findings.

As observed by Gray (2007) qualitative data provides rich descriptions and explanations

that demonstrate the systematic flow of events as well as often leading to chance

findings. The researcher analyzed quantitative data from questionnaires using descriptive

26

statistics, whereby data collected was subjected to frequencies and percentages, because it is

easy to interpret, understand and compare frequencies. The frequencies were then

accompanied with chi-square to test if there was an association between any two variables

since the data was non-parametric. Crammer’s V test was also used to test the type of

relationship between the variable after carrying out the chi-square test. The results

obtained from chi-square were used to test the hypothesis by accepting or rejecting

depending on the nature of hypothesis. Regression analysis was used to test the predictive

effect of some factors on water supply. Simple descriptive statistics were also employed

to analyze quantitative data which involved frequency counts and percentages. The

results of data analysis were presented using frequency distribution tables, pie charts and

graphs.

27

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Demographic Data

The study sought information of the respondents including age, gender, marital status,

level of education, and main occupation. The study was carried out among the

households and among different water officers within Githurai ward (which is made up of

Kiuu and Mwihoko locations), Kiambu County, Kenya.

252 households and 120 water vendors participated in the study, together with 10 water

officers and 2 chiefs (for Kiuu and Mwihoko locations) from Githurai ward. This was

summing up to 384 respondents. Out of those, 12 respondents did not respond to any

questions making the total respondents who participated to be 372. Data was collected

using questionnaires for households and water vendors and interview schedules for the

water officers and chiefs.

Table 4.1:Respondents’ Age Data

The research study involved households above 18 years of age with most respondents

being between 26 – 33 years of age and the least being 66 and above. The age data was

presented in the table below

Age groups (years) Number Percentage

18–25 73 19.6

26 – 33 82 22.8

34 – 41 66 17.02

42 – 49 50 13.44

50 – 57 38 10.21

58 – 65 33 8.87

>66 30 8.06

Total 372 100

28

Table 4.2: Respondents Marital Status

The study involved respondents of different marital status. The highest percentage was

married, and the least was that of the widowed. The information obtained is presented in

the table below

Status Number Percentage

Married 155 42.4

Single 116 30.46

Separated 59 16.93

Widowed 42 10.21

Total 372 100

Table 4.3: Respondents’ education level

The education level of the households involved in the study was categorized as primary,

secondary, college and university level. Most of them had up to secondary education

while those not educated were the least. The information was presented in the table

below.

Level Number Percentage

None 23 6.18

Primary 88 23.66

Secondary 162 43.55

College 67 18.01

University 32 8.60

Total 372 100

According to the gender of respondents involved, 172 respondents’ were male which

comprised of 46.2% of the total respondents. The females involved were 200, which were

53.8% of the total respondents. The females involved were 7.6% more than the males.

The main occupation also varied among the respondents; 33.6% were employed, 59.4%

were business persons while 7.0% were unemployed.

29

4.2 Sources of Water

In the study, the first objective was to assess the sources of water in Githurai ward. The

first research question sought to achieve the objective by finding out the sources of water

at Githurai ward. The following water sources were identified in Githurai ward

The first objective was to analyze the sources of water in Githurai Ward After analysis,

the main sources of water for the households were ; piped water from the municipal

council or from boreholes , shallow wells and rain water harvesting during the rainy

season and storing in large water containers for later use. The water sources information

is represented in the figure below.

Figure 4.1: Sources of Water in Githurai Ward

Figure 4.1 above illustrates the proportions of the respondents who use the different

sources of water in the research area. From the figure 4.1 above, 2% get their daily water

from rainfall by harvesting and storing in large water containers, 1 % obtain the water

from shallow wells, 6% from boreholes and 91% have piped water services. The

percentage of respondents that depend on untapped water is lower compared to those that

have tapped/ piped water source despite that the water is often not available. The

respondents who obtain piped water; 91.7% indicated that is communally shared, 2.4%

get it from neighbours and 5.9% own the piped water personally. The piped water is

2%1%

6%

91%

Rain water harvesting

Shallow well

Borehole

Piped water

30

either provided by the municipal council through the Nairobi water and sewerage

company (NWSC) or is personally installed from other sources (boreholes). With 95.2%

have their water supplied by the municipal council while 4.8% get it supplied in their

systems by other providers. The respondents who relied on the municipal council for

water supply have it available in the taps for few hours per week. With 46.5% have it for

only 24 hours per week, 8.3% have it for 21 hours per week, 8.9% have it for 12 hours

per week, 5.1% have it for 20 hours per week and the rest of the respondents have less

than 10 hours per week of water availability. The analysis shows that most respondents

depend on municipal council for water supply but the water availability on the taps is

very limited. Some go even 5 days without water running from the taps. The respondents

have water available in the systems/tap on Tuesdays (7am- 5pm; 10 hours), Thursday

(7am-1pm; 6 hours) and Sunday (7am-5pm; 10 hours). This implies that they must put

adaptive measures into place to ensure they have water for consumption available.

The respondents depending on the municipal council for water supply spend considerable

amounts of money as charges for the water. Most of them pay for water monthly, 66.1%

have the charges included in the rent. With 14.8% spend 500 Ksh per month on water,

3.2% pay 700 Ksh per month, 3.2% spend 300 Ksh per month, 3.0% spend 150

shillings/month and the other 9.7% spend varied amounts. Based on their varied income,

this resulted to use of much money on water since they spent extra cost when the water is

not available in the taps by buying from water vendors and water kiosks.The income of

most respondents was very little. Employed (33.6%) lowest income was 1,000 per month

and the highest income was 6,200 per month. For the business persons (59.4) , the lowest

income was 2,200 per month and the highest income 10,500 per month which varied

according to the market trends and the health of the economy. The other 7% of the

respondents were unemployed and paying the monthly water charges as well as buying

water was very expensive for them. The respondents agreed that acquiring water was

expensive for them and was evident from the charges paid for the water.

In analyzing the sources of water, the cost of water per the most common unit ( 20 litre

jerrycan) was also investigated. The households spent varied cost of water in Ksh per 20

litre jerican depending on the water supplier. The information obtained is presented in the

figure below.

31

Figure 4.2: Cost of Water per 20 litre Jerrycan in Shillings

From the figure 4.2 above, the cost of the water was evidently high in Githurai ward.

66% of the respondents spend 10 Ksh per 20 litre of water jerrycan, 28% spend 20 Ksh

per 20 litre of water, 2.4% spend 30 Ksh per 20 litre of water, 0.3% spends 5 Ksh per 20

litre of water and 3.3% spend varied costs per 20 litre of water jerrycan. This implies that

most of the households spent much money on water depending on the members in a

household. From the research the respondents feel that proper billing systems are lacking

in the management of water and it should be improved to avoid being overcharged for the

resource due to faulty water metres and misreading of units.

From the research, illegal water collection points that some household were obtaining

water from were identified. This was a main cause of water shortage as much water was

lost due to the leakages. The figure below shows an illegal water collection point.

0.3%

66%

28%

2.4%

3.3%

5

10

20

30

varied costs/20ltrs

32

Plate 4.1. Plate indicating an illegal water point (Photograph; 31/ 08/ 2013)

In plate 4.1 a main pipe has been disconnected and water accessed from that point

reducing the chance of getting to the intended point. Due to illegal water interruptions;

there is a lot of leakage and wastage that leads to water shortages. The respondents

confirmed the high cases of illegal water connections and interference of water system

which resulted to reduced water in the system (reduced supply). This has resulted to the

households spending more on water than they should, impacting negatively on the

economic status of Githurai ward.

33

Plate 4.2 Plate showing a man fetching water at an illegal point

The plate 4.2 indicates a man fetching water from an illegal water point which has been

imposed on the main system preventing the water from getting to the intended points.

The respondents confirmed that they spend a lot of time fetching water. With 44.4% of

the respondents spending an average of 4 hours per day, 13.2% of the respondents spend

an average of 3 hours per day and 3% of them spend 5 hours per day. This translates to a

lot of time spent to access (distance covered and time spent in the queues) and fetch water

which impacts negatively on the socio economic development of the Githurai ward.

Findings show that the hypothesis “There is an association between the sources of water

and the income of the households in Githurai ward” is accepted. Chi- square (χ²) =

21.362, p =0.002 at 6 degrees of freedom, which shows there was a significant

association between the source of water and income hence accepting the hypothesis. The

strength of the association was tested by use of crammer’s V test. Crammer’s V =0.189;

34

this indicates a weak association between water sources and the income in the area. This

shows that the significant association between the sources and income was weak. From

the findings, this is mainly due to the different financial status of the respondents based

on the occupation. The percentage of employed (34%) and business persons (59%) able

to access piped water was higher than the percentage of unemployed persons (7%) able to

access piped water. This was dictated by the ability of the respondents to afford the

charges, maintenance fee related to piped water provision and buying water from vendors

or kiosks.

Figure 4.3: Distance travelled to the water source in meters

The distance travelled to the water source varied among the respondents. 52% fetch water

less than 10 metres away; 21% walk for 100- 200 metres to obtain water, 11% cover

301-400 metres to fetch water, 3% and 3% water points are 201- 300 metres and 401-

2000 metres away respectively. The rest of the respondents (10%) cover varied distances

to water points equal or greater than 2001 metres. The households being some distance

away from the water collection points means that some time is spent to collect water

52%

21%

3%

11%

3%10% < 10

100- 200201- 300301-400401- 2000≥2001

35

which could have been used to carry out other activities if the water sources were all near

the households.

Figure 4.4: Relationship between the gender and distance to water source

From the findings as indicated in the figure above, there was a significant association

between the distance travelled to water source and the gender, with 53.6% of female

response on distance being higher than for males (46.4%). Chi-square test showed a

significant relationship since, χ2 = 15.978, p=0.003 at 1 degree of freedom. The

Crammer’s V test was used to test the strength of the association. Crammer’s V = 0.211

shows that the kind of significant association between the distance to the water source

and the gender was moderate. This shows that the hypothesis “There is an association

between the water supply related problems and the socio- economic aspects in Githurai

Ward” is accepted.

From the findings the females are the most affected gender by the distance since they are

most involved in collecting water in the household. The females travel longer distances

for water since they are involved in most of the house chores of which most involve the

use of water. This finding is also consistent with findings of Tadesse (2001) and Meseret

(2008), which observed that, in most areas most household tend to travel longer to access

36

safe drinking water and the females are the most affected members in the household. The

higher the size of the household, the more the trips they make to the water sources to

cater for the higher need of water in the household.

4.3 Causes of Erratic Water Supply

The second objective of the study was to identify the causes of erratic water supply in

Githurai ward. The second research question sought to find out the causes of erratic water

supply in Githurai ward. The possible causes of erratic water supply were varied

depending on the responses by different respondents.

Figure 4.5: Causes of Erratic Water Supply

From the figure 4.5 above, 55% base the erratic supply to high population hence an

increase in demand for the scarce resource, 33.9% said it was due to low water pressure

and 5.1% argued that the erratic supply was due to reduced water levels at the sources

(water catchment points). High population was the major cause of erratic water supply

since the increase in the water demand only translates to reduced levels of the resource

and thus not always available due to rapid water drawal. From the analysis low water

pressure is a main cause of erratic water supply since the water has very little force to

move up the water table and higher distances. Due to this, at times the water force is very

minimal for the water to move up the system translating to no water in the pipes and taps

55%40%

5%

High population

Low waterpressure at source

Overexploitation atSource(rapiddrawal)

37

until the pressure is higher when the water level goes up. This may take longer especially

during the dry seasons resulting to prolonged lack of water in the system and may require

electricity to pump up the water. It is expensive to install pumps and pay for electricity.

Reduced water levels at the sources was also reported as another cause of erratic water

supply from the analysis. The water source points e.g., boreholes and wells, have been

degraded due to lack of proper management and conservation and over exploitation

leading to low levels of water available for consumption.

Pollution at the source points is also a cause of reduced water available for consumption.

From the analysis, 97% of the respondents attribute erratic water supply to

overexploitation and 3% attributes it to power rationing or frequent power cuts.

All the respondents attributed the erratic water supply to power rationing since most of

the water pumps use electricity to pump it up to the buildings using electricity. Frequent

power rationing then translate to erratic water supply since water is only pumped when

there is power.

Regression analysis was used to ascertain/ predict the causal effect of one variable upon

the other. The analysis was used to predict the effect of the water causes on the water

supply. From the results obtained above on the causes of erratic water supply, a

predictive or explanatory model was developed.

The regression model for the causes of erratic supply was of the form: 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐

R2 = 0.56 which means that the individual causes of erratic water supply are good

predictors of water supply. (R2 is the coefficient of determination).

4.4 Socio-Economic Impacts of Water Supply at Githurai Ward

The third objective of the study was to evaluate socio-economic impacts of intermittent

water supply at Githurai ward. The third research question sought to find out the socio-

economic effects of water supply in Githurai ward.

4.4.1 Waterborne Diseases in the Area

The research investigated the water related diseases in Githurai Ward. The diseases

identified were diarrhoea and cholera and their effect on the households were categorized

38

in terms of employed, business persons and the unemployed. The results obtained were

represented in the table below.

Table 4.4: Water borne diseases related to water in Githurai ward.

Occupation No disease Diarrhoea Cholera

Number % Number % Number %

Employed 122 97.6 3 2.4 - -

Business person 177 80.09 33 14.9 11 4.98

Unemployed 24 92.3 1 3.9 1 3.9

Table 4.4 above indicates that, 97.6% of the employed respondents said that there were

no cases of water borne related diseases, 2.4% of the employed said there were cases of

diarrhoea and there were no cases of cholera according to the employed respondents.

According to the business persons, 80.09% of them said there were no cases of diseases,

14.9% said they had experienced diarrhoea and 4.98% said there were cases of cholera.

Unemployed respondents had almost similar responses with 92.3% saying there were no

cases of water related diseases, 3.9% said there were cases of diarrhoea and 3.9% also

confirmed that there were cases of cholera. Due to reduced quantities of drinking water,

some respondents said that they were forced to take chances, buy and consume water

which they were not sure of the sources and at times is not fit for consumption leading to

the mentioned water borne diseases (diarrhoea and cholera). This has impacted negatively

on the health of some members of the population resulting to low output in terms of

labour. They may not perform their duties as expected hence reduced output in

production which negatively affects the economy and development of Githurai Ward.

39

The water borne diseases require treatment which requires finance. Those finances would

have been used on other activities that would generate income. From the analysis, 99.2%

of respondents said there were no cases of physical damages related to collection of

water. With 0.5% saying there were cases of spine damage due to water collection; 0.3%

said there were cases of hip damage due to water collection. The physical damages are

due to water collection methods such as carrying water containers on the back which

negatively affects the hip joints or on the head which affects the spinal cord due to the

heavy weight of water. The physical damage may also have been due to the distances

travelled when transporting water. If one was carrying water up the stairs, up a hilly road

or for long distances, it may negatively affect their health. If this happens a lot of money

could be spent to treat the patient who negatively impacts on the economy of Githurai

ward. The physical damage may also be permanent which translates to low output by the

individual which affects the economy of Githurai ward.

Waste water drainage systems are blocked by solid waste that requires lots of water to

push down the waste. The communal toilets require a lot of water to flush down the waste

but due to erratic water supply the water is not adequate enough to maintain the right

standards of hygiene. Communal washing sinks require a lot of water to be clean since

the water in Githurai ward is very erratic, it is not always available for cleaning and the

respondents depend mostly on re-used water.

Figure 4.6: Relationship between health effects of water and the occupation of

respondents.

40

From figure 4.6 above, findings show that the health effects (water related diseases) were

highly significantly associated with the occupation of the respondents. The chi-square test

for the relationship was, χ2 = 22.136, p=<0.001 at 2 degrees of freedom. This indicated a

high significant association between the water borne diseases and the occupation. This

means that the hypothesis “There is an association between the occupation and some of

the water related problems within Githurai ward” is accepted. The strength of the

association between the two variables was tested by use of Crammer’s V test. Crammer’s

V =0.244 indicating a moderate association between the waterborne diseases and the

occupation.

4.4.2 Water Related Conflicts in the Area

From the analysis, 99.1% of the respondents agreed that there were conflicts while 0.9%

said there were no conflicts related to water supply. From the analysis, there were

different causes of water related conflicts.

Figure 4.7: Causes of water related conflicts in Githurai ward

Water shortage

61%

Overcrowding at collection

points and theft of water

containers27%

Prolonged queuing time

10%

Few water1%

No conflicts1%

41

From the analysis as in the figure 4.7 above, conflicts related to water are very common

in Githurai ward due to the demand for the scarce resource. Being a basic resource, every

individual, struggles to obtain the resource leading to misunderstandings which result to

fighting at times. The erratic water supply leads to fights since the water is only provided

for few hours/week.

4.4.3 Time Spent when Queuing for Water in the Area

The reduced water sources in the area resulted to limited water collection points. This led

to queuing for water especially the few hours of the day(s) when there is running water at

the pipes. Up to 90% of the respondents said they spent much to fetch the water.

Plate 4.3: Women waiting to fetch water from a common point (Photograph; 31/8/2013)

Plate 4.3 above indicates some females waiting to fetch water from a common collection

point. Those interviewed said they spend a lot of time waiting to fetch water which has

resulted to time wastage especially when the queues are long. Females are the frequently

involved gender in water collection. In queuing for the water, they spend a lot of time

which would have been used in other development activities.

42

Figure 4.8: Relationship between queuing at the water points and the gender

Figure 4.8 indicates there was highly significant association between the queuing at the

water source and the gender, with 53.8 % of female having to queue as compared to the

males (46.2%). Chi-square χ2 = 18.235, p= <0.001 at 2 degrees of freedom was used to

show the association was. The strength of the association was tested by use of crammer’s

V test. Crammer’s V = 0.221, indicated that there was a moderate association between

the time spent in queing and the gender. From the findings, the hypothesis “There is an

association between the water supply related problems and the socio- economic aspects in

Githurai Ward” is accepted. The females who have to queue are higher compared to the

males since the females are the most affected gender in water collection in most

households.

4.4.4 Poor Sanitation

From the analysis, 96% of the respondents said there was poor sanitation and low

standards of cleanliness while 4% said that there was no effect of erratic water supply on

the sanitation of their residential areas. These results are with line with those of water

shortage by Kimani et al., (2007) that water has a major effect on the sanitation of an area

especially in the urban areas.

43

4.5 Stakeholders Adaptations to Erratic Water Supply in Githurai Ward

The fourth objective of the study was to analyze the adaptation strategies by the

stakeholders to ensure regular water availability. The forth research question sought to

find out how the stakeholders adapt to the erratic water supply to ensure continuous water

availability. The respondents have adapted to erratic water supply by buying storage

containers, regulating the amount of water used in the households, reusing water in the

homes e. g water used for laundry is reused to flush toilets. Most (97%) have adapted to

the erratic water supply by buying water containers for storage purposes. The other 3%

agreed they regulated the available water during use to prevent unnecessary wastage.

From the analysis, Githurai residents have adapted to erratic water supply fetching and

storing in water containers to ensure availability for use when required.

4.6 Environmental Factors Contributing to Intermittent Water Supply in Githurai

Ward

The fifth objective of the study was to investigate the environmental factors contributing

to intermittent water supply in Githurai ward. The fifth research question sought to find

out the environmental factors leading to erratic water supply in Githurai ward. Among the

respondents’, 83.3% attributed the intermittent supply to degradation of the catchment

areas, 16.7% said that climate change has resulted in reduced precipitation. Degradation

of the water catchment areas in Githurai ward is said to be the main environmental factor

leading to reduced water supply. Lack of protection and conservation of water source

points has resulted to reduced water levels available for use. Most of the water

catchments are located far from urban areas and their management depends on the local

area water management team at the source. The water sources (wells and boreholes)

located in Githurai ward are either well protected or poorly protected and managed. This

has resulted to pollution of the water. The clean water is limited for consumption. The

pollution of water is one of the main environmental causes of erratic water supply for

consumption since the water for consumption is not always available. Among them, 75%

agreed that reduced water supply is due to rapid water drawal at the source points,16.7%

disagreed that reduced water supply is due to rapid water drawal while 8.3% were not

sure if rapid water withdrawal would cause intermittent water supply. Regression analysis

44

was used to ascertain/ predict the causal effect of one variable upon the other. The

analysis was used to predict the effect of the environmental factors on the water supply.

The R2 =0.62, which showed that the environmental factors such as reduced precipitation

, degradation of water catchment areas, rapid water drawal due to increased population

had an effect on the water supply. The environmental factors were good predictors of

water supply.

45

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary

The study was to investigate the impacts of water shortage in Githurai Ward, Kiambu

County.

5.1.1 Sources of Water in Githurai Ward

Water sources in the area were limited as the participants indicated that there was an

inadequacy of water supply in Githurai ward as a result of poor management, high

population that has increased overwhelmingly due to rural-urban migration, degradation

of water source points and poor maintenance of the systems. The water supply problem

became seriously notable in Githurai ward 10years ago. 8.3% of the respondents said that

the erratic supply started in 2003, 58.3% said it began in 2004 and 25% said it started in

2005 and has been increasing notably. 91.4% of the respondents have the municipal

council being the supplier of water. 82% of them rated the water source as inadequate and

a high unreliable in the supply patterns. The rest of the respondents depend on other

sources of water such as shallow wells and boreholes. They also harvest rain water during

the rainy season and store in large containers. There was a significant association between

the source of water and the income of the household in the area. Water supply in most

parts of Kenya is characterized by low levels of access, particularly in urban areas as well

as poor service quality in the form of intermittent water supply. Only 9 out of 55 water

service providers in Kenya provide continuous water supply. Seasonal and regional water

shortage exacerbates the difficulty to improve water supply (Moriasi et al., 2007)

5.1.2 Causes of Erratic Water Supply in Githurai Ward

There are various causes of erratic water supply in the area:

Increased population; 61% of the respondents based the cause of erratic water supply to

be the high population which is still increasing thus the demand is high for the scarce

46

resource. The population increase in most parts of the world has greatly led to reduced

water availability since the water sources have not been increased but are rather over

extracted. This has greatly contributed to the erratic supply of water. (World Bank, 2010).

Low water pressure; 33.9% of the respondents rated low water pressure as the cause and

5.1% argue that the erratic supply is due to reduced water levels at the sources. Most

(97%) of the respondents attributed erratic water supply to over-extraction of the water at

catchment points. Groundwater extraction is growing rapidly as it is used for drinking,

agriculture and industrial needs in most parts of the world. This is a major cause of

reduced water levels, resulting to a shortage in supply (World Bank, 2001).

Power rationing; 3% of the respondents attribute the erratic water supply to power

rationing or frequent power cuts. Power fluctuations in most parts of the country make

water supply schemes sub-optimal since most water pumps use electricity as the main

source of power (GoK, 2002).

Poor maintenance of water systems; 32.3% of the respondents indicated that

maintenance of the water systems was sufficiently managed while 67.7% reported that

the maintenance of water systems was poor and should be improved and this is a major

cause of erratic water supply. Lack of operation and maintenance of water supply

schemes (a matter of management and governance) is a major important cause for

inadequate water supply globally (GoK, 2000).

Other management related causes, attributable to variations in water supply, are leakages

in the distribution network and unaccounted water cause disparity in distribution reducing

the actual quantity of drinking water supplied. In urban areas water loss through leakage

is a major factor reducing the quantity. The leakage occurs mainly due to corroded pipes

in distribution network, damages caused during road widening and repair works and also

use of poor quality pipes in majority of household connections (Ngigi & Macharia, 2006).

Regression analysis showed that causes of erratic water supply were good predictors of

water supply (R² = 0.56).

47

5.1.3 Socio-Economic Impacts of Intermittent Water Supply in Githurai Ward

There are various socio-economic impacts of intermittent water supply in the area.

Water- borne diseases: 97.6% of the employed respondents said that there were no cases

of water borne related diseases, 2.4% of the employed said there were cases of diarrhoea

and there were no cases of cholera according to the employed respondents. According to

the business persons; 80.09% of them said there were no cases of diseases, 14.9% said

they had experienced diarrhoea and 4.98% said there were cases of cholera. Unemployed

respondents had almost similar responses; 92.3% said there were no cases of water

related diseases, 3.9% said there were cases of diarrhoea and 3.9% also confirmed there

were cases of cholera. This indicates that there was higher evidence of negative impacts

of reduced supply of water in the area. Sufficient supply of water in the area would

reduce the occurrences of the mentioned water borne diseases. According to Antao et. al.,

(2007), shortage of water supply has resulted to reduced safe drinking water thus an

increase in water borne diseases in Kenya. The ingestion of water contaminated by faecal

material infects people with viruses such as hepatitis, bacteria such as cholera, typhoid

and dysentery, and parasites such as amoeba in most parts of the world (DfID et al.,

2002). This has resulted to death when the contamination is severe. For example in India

alone; nearly one million people die annually from water-borne diseases (World Bank,

2001).

Poor sanitation: 96% of the respondents said there was poor sanitation and low standards

of cleanliness while 4% said that there was no effect of erratic water supply on the

sanitation of their residential areas. Water shortage has a major effect on the sanitation of

an area especially in the urban according to Kimani et al., (2007).

Conflicts: Intermittent water supply has resulted to conflicts in the area. 71.5% of the

respondents agreed that there were conflicts due to reduced water supply while 28.5%

said there were no conflicts caused by intermittent water supply. The conflicts are due to

water shortage, overcrowding at water collection points (they are few) and theft of water

containers and prolonged queuing time. The chi-square statistical test showed that there

was no significant association between water conflicts and the gender. According to

Janakarajan (2002), water shortage is a major cause of conflicts in most areas globally

48

being a basic resource. Time: The time spent to collect water was much as per the

respondents. 44.4% of the respondents spend an average of 4 hours/day, 13.2% of the

respondents spend an average of 3 hours /day and 3% of them spend 5 hours / day. This

translates to a lot of time spent to access (distance covered and time spent in the queues)

and fetch water which impacts negatively on the socio economic development. There was

a high significant association between the queuing at the water source and the gender in

the area. The kind of association was moderate according to Crammer’s V test. In urban

areas, a larger fraction of households have access to piped water, yet many are forced to

rely on water kiosks (15% in Nairobi; 45% in Kisumu and in Mombasa) (CRC, 2009).

This situation presents a huge burden to households as fetching water is time consuming.

A typical household makes 4-6 trips daily to fetch water. Even when the water kiosk is

nearby it consumes a considerable amount of time (CRC, 2007).

Gender involved in water collection: the gender affected most by the limited water supply

is the female. This is because they are responsible for fetching water and other household

chores which limit their participation in most decision making activities in the area.

Gender differences in property rights and access to natural resources, such as water

hinder sustainable development (Quisumbing et al., 1999). At the same time, the

concentration of hygiene education on women can prolong gender inequality for women

as caretakers Women’s participation in water projects is a necessary but insufficient

condition for their empowerment (Joshi & Fawcett, 2001).

Cost of water: The cost of water was evidently high in the area. 66.6% of the respondents

spend 10 Ksh per 20 litre of water jerrycan, 28% spend 20 Ksh per 20 litre of water

jerrycan, 2.4% spend 30 Ksh per 20 litre of water and 0.3% spends 5 Ksh per 20 litre of

water jerrycan. This implies that most of the households spent much money on water

depending on the members in a household. This has negatively impacted on the economic

development, since much money is spent to acquire water and it would have been used in

other productive activities.

49

5.1.4 Adaptation Strategies to Ensure Regular Water availability

The stake holders have adapted to reduced water supply in various ways. From the

analysis, Githurai residents have adapted to erratic water supply by fetching and storing

water in large containers to ensure availability for use when required. From the analysis,

97% of the respondents have adapted to the erratic water supply by buying water

containers for storage purposes. When the water is running at the taps, they fetch and

store it in the water containers for later use. Regulation of the available water is also a

strategy that has been embraced by many stake holders. 83.7% of the respondents agreed

they regulated the available water during use to prevent unnecessary wastage. Water

harvesting during the rainy season is the other adaptation the stakeholders have taken to

ensure availability. Most of the stake holders collect water during the rainy season to deal

with the erratic supply. This ensures that water is often available (Malesu et al, 2007).

Recycling of water which has been for other purposes such as water used to clean cloths

is used to wash the house and flush the toilet, water used to clean utensils is used to water

kitchen gardens for those that have them.

5.1.5 Constraints of Water Supply in Githurai Ward

The environmental factors leading to erratic water supply are varied in the area.

Degradation of the source points (8.3%) e.g. boreholes and wells due to lack of protection

(not covered on top and thus the water is polluted and is not safe for consumption).

Reduced precipitation: while16.7% said that reduced precipitation has resulted in low

water supply. Supply capacity of surface sources like rivers and reservoirs decrease

owing to uncertainty and fluctuations in rainfall/ precipitation in most of the country. The

general neglect in conserving rainwater has resulted in waste of rainfall by way of run-off

and evaporation (GoK, 2004). An increase in evapo-transpiration and evaporation due to

higher temperatures, Kenya is expected to experience country-wide losses in the

production of key staples, such as maize (Herrero et al., 2010).

50

Rapid water extraction: 70% of the respondents agreed that reduced water supply is due

to rapid water drawal at the source points and this has resulted in overexploitation of the

available water. This is a major cause of reduced water quantity thus intermittent supply.

Surface water pollution: 5% of the respondents this to be another environmental factor

that has resulted to reduced supply of drinking water in the area. This is from effluents

discharged into the rivers and underground water making it unfit for human consumption.

The contamination of water in many areas of the world is a major factor influencing

drinking water supply. Drinking water apart from source level is also likely to get

contaminated in the distribution network when sewage or other waste materials enter

through broken or leaking pipes. In urban areas with inadequate sanitation system this

becomes a major cause. Further, improper siting of water collection points particularly in

low lying areas, unhygienic practice of collecting water by households, adversely affect

water quantity and quality (Deccan, 2001). In Kenya, severe contamination of drinking

water is due to the close distance between pit latrines and wells (Murage & Ngindu,

2007).

5.2 Conclusion

The study established that the respondents had adaptive measures to ensure that water is

available despite the limited and erratic supply. This is possible mainly by its storage,

regulating the use of the available water and water conservation techniques. Other

sources of water supply include buying from water kiosks and vendors when the water is

not available in the systems. Others depend on borehole water and shallow well which

supplement the water supplied by the municipal council of Nairobi. This ensures that the

daily activities that require water are not severely affected.

5.2.1 Sources of Water in Githurai Ward

The first objective was to assess the main sources of water. From the findings it was

noted that the sources of water were very few of which most of them were unreliable.

With 82% of them rating the water sources as inadequate and very unreliable in the

supply patterns. This showed that there was a major deficit of water and its supply levels.

The supply had greatly reduced compared to previous years.

51

5.2.2 Causes of Erratic Water Supply in Githurai Ward

The second objective was to investigate the causes of erratic water supply. The study

established that the water supply shortage became noticeable in 2004 and since then, the

supply has increasingly been unreliable. The increasing population which has led to low

water levels due to the increase in demand has majorly contributed to the erratic supply.

The increase in demand has resulted to rapid withdrawal of water thus overexploitation at

the source points. This is hardly enough for the high population. Most water systems have

not been adequately managed and maintained leading to loss of water due to frequent

leakages. The management of the water system should be improved. In the study, all

these factors have directly or indirectly contributed to the erratic water supply.

5.2.3 Socio-economic Impacts of Intermittent Water Supply in Githurai Ward

The third objective was to investigate the socio-economic impacts of intermittent water

supply. The study established that a lot of time was spent to collect water from the

sources in terms of distance travelled and queuing to fetch the water. This has negatively

affected the development in the area since time meant for other activities is spent to

acquire water. There was also water borne diseases due to reduced availability of water.

This has affected the health of the individuals and a lot of finances used on the treatment

would have been used for development. There were also conflicts related to water. This

has socially affected the members of the community. In the study, females are the most

affected members of the community in water collection activities since they are involved

in home chores. This negatively affects them since they have few chances for decision

making and involvement in other development activities.

The cost of the water for the members of the community who depend much on water

vendors and kiosks was high. They spend lots of money to get adequate water depending

on the number of people per household.

52

5.2.4 Adaptation Strategies to Erratic Water Supply in Githurai Ward

The fourth objective was to analyze the adaptation strategies by the stakeholders to

ensure regular water availability. The study established that the households have adapted

to erratic water supply to ensure water availability. In the study, most of the households

regulate the use of water available to ensure that they always have water for use. This is

to minimize or prevent unnecessary wastage of the scarce resource. The households have

also adapted to the erratic water supply by fetching and storing water in containers to

ensure availability for use when required. From the study, most of the respondents have

adapted to the erratic water supply by buying water containers for storage purposes.

5.2.5 Environmental Factors Contributing to Constraints of Water Supply

The fifth objective of the study was to assess the main environmental factors contributing

to constraints of water supply. The study established that most of the environmental

factors were responsible for intermittent water supply. From the study, most respondents

attributed the intermittent supply to illegal interference on the main water system that

results in losses of water by leakages. Change of the weather patterns that may be due to

global warming has resulted in reduced precipitation leading to minimal underground and

surface water levels, and this has a direct effect on the water supply. Rapid water

withdrawal at the source points has resulted to overexploitation of the resource. This

directly affects the underground water levels resulting to water shortage thus constraining

supply.

5.3 Recommendations

Based on the analysis of the study, the researcher wishes to make the following

recommendations;

1. Water officers (from the Nairobi water and sewerage company) should involve the

community to aid in water maintenance, development programmes and water provision

projects. Members of the community should come up with other ideas to supplement the

current water sources and make communal contribution to support that e.g. drilling more

boreholes, wells and implementing any water conservation techniques that may be

beneficial.

53

2. The government should organize more capacity building programmes for both water

officers and the households (members of the community) to equip them with adequate

skills and abilities to handle any issues that are related to water to enhance consistent

supply.

3. The water officers should come up with strategies to deal with illegal connections that

interfere with main water systems leaving them damaged and increased leakages by their

prevention and penalizing those involved.

4. The households should embrace maximum use of roof water harvesting in most

buildings so as to collect a lot of water during the rainy seasons.

The study mainly investigated the impacts of water shortage in Githurai ward. The

researcher recommends further research on:

i) The impacts of reduced water supply on other areas in the country other than Githurai

Ward.

ii) The strategies being employed by the government to cope with the challenges caused

by erratic water supply in Githurai ward and other parts of the country.

iii) A case study of an area that has sufficient water supply to identify the associated

factors.

54

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Antao, C., Bonner, J., Franco, S., Goyal, D., Iyer, M., Luengo, J., and Shani, S., (2007).

An integrated water, sanitation and health strategy for the municipality of

Ruiru, Kenya. School of International and Public Affairs (SIPA),

Columbia University, New York.

Balance, T. and S.Tremolet, (2005). Private sector participation in urban water supply in

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60

APPENDICES

Appendix i: Questionnaire for the Residents (Households)

Section1. Introduction

This research is meant for academic purpose to find out the challenges faced due to water

supply and its socio-economic impacts on development in Githurai ward. Kindly provide

answers to these questions as honestly and precisely as possible. Responses to these

questions will be treated as confidential.

Please tick [√] where appropriate or fill in the required information on the spaces

provided.

Section 2: General information Serial. No …………

1. Date………………..

2. Age (years): a) 18-25 [ ] b) 26-33 [ ] c) 34-41[ ] d) 42-49[ ] e)

50-57 [ ] f) 58-65 [ ] g) 66+ [ ]

3. Gender: a) male [ ] b) female [ ]

4. Marital status: a) married [ ] b) single [ ] c) separated [ ] d) widowed [ ]

5. Level of education: a) primary [ ] b) secondary [ ] c) college [ ]

d) University [ ] e) No education [ ]

6. Main occupation a) employed [ ] b) business person [ ] c) unemployed [ ]

Section 3: Sources of water at Githurai ward.

7. How long have you stayed in this area (years)

1-5 [ ] 6-10[ ] 11-15[ ] over 16[ ]

8. How many people are in your household? (State

number).....................................................

Among them, how many are;

61

a) Adults (above 18 years old) [ ]

b) Children (below 18 years old) [ ]

9. Which of the following type of water source do you use in your household? Tick

where appropriate.

a) Rain water harvesting [ ]

b) Shallow well (flowing stream) [ ]

c) Bore hole [ ]

d) Tap from the municipal council [ ]

e) Other sources; specify …………………………………………………………..

10) Is the above stated water source;

a) Communal source (one main source owned communally)? [ ]

b) Neighbours’ source? [ ]

c) Personal Source? [ ]

d) Municipal provided water? [ ]

e) Bought from vendors? [ ]

11. If it is tapped water, is it supplied by the municipal council? Yes [ ] No [ ]

a) If from Municipal council, how many days in a week is the water available in the tap?

............

b) For the days mentioned in 11a above, how many hours in a day is the water available

in the tap? ……..

c) Is there a meter of water put in place to measure the units of water used per house

hold?

62

Yes [ ] No [ ]

d) How much money do they charge per litre of water in Kenya shillings? ……..

e) Do you pay any charges for the water? Yes [ ] No [ ]

f) If yes, how much per month? ………………

12. How far is the source (well/borehole) from your house hold in metres? ………

13. If water is from vendors or water kiosk, what is the unit cost per 20 litres in shillings?

a) From vendors …………. b) water kiosks ………………..

a. How many times do you fetch water in a day? .............................................

b. Do you queue during the collection of water? Yes [ ] No [ ]

c. How much time do you spend in fetching water in a day (hours)?

………………………..

14. Is the water sufficient for domestic consumption? Yes [ ] No [ ]

a. If the water is not sufficient for domestic consumption, what measures have you put in

place to ensure sufficient use of the available water?

…………………………………………………………………………………….

15. Who is responsible for the management of the water source? i.e, Cleaning and repairs

in case of any break down?

a) Community? [ ]b) Water Officers from the municipal? [ ] c) others specify?

…………………………………………………………………………….

16. How is the water source managed? ........................................................................

17. What are the main roles of the water management team if any?

................................................

18. Do you pay any maintenance cost for water? Yes [ ] No [ ]

a) If you pay for the maintenance cost, how much money do you pay? ………….

63

b) If the water source is shared with other people, do they contribute towards the

maintenance costs? Yes [ ] No [ ]

c) If yes, please specify how much money each household contributes

………………………………..

19. How do you feel about the way the water source is maintained?

a) Satisfactory [ ] b) Should be improved [ ]

20. In your own opinion, what do you feel is lacking and needs to be improved in the

management of the water source?

Section 4: Causes of Erratic Water Supply

22. What are the possible causes of reduced water supply in Githurai ward?

..................................................................................................................................

23. a) Could the reduced water supply be due to the following?

i. Frequent power rationing? Yes [ ] No [ ]

ii. Low water pressure from the sources? Yes [ ] No [ ]

iii. Reduced water levels at sources due to overexploitation resulting from increased

population in the area? Yes [ ] No [ ]

b) Which are the other possible causes of reduced water supply in the area not mentioned

in (a) above?

Section5: Socio-Economic Effects of Water Supply at Githurai Ward

24. Are there reported cases of water related diseases such as?

a) Diarrhoea Yes [ ] No. [ ] b) Dysentery Yes [ ] No [ ]

c) Cholera Yes [ ] No [ ]

64

25) Have there been physical damages related to collection of water such as?

a) Spine damage? Yes [ ] No [ ] b) Hip damage? Yes [ ] No [ ]

26. Have there been conflicts cases related to water supply in this area caused by;

a) Water shortage? Yes [ ] No [ ]

b) Overcrowding at collection points leading to theft of water containers? Yes [ ] No [ ]

c) Prolonged queuing time waiting to fetch water ? Yes [ ] No [ ]

d) Other causes of conflicts not stated? Specify ………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………….

d) If no conflicts experienced? Yes [ ]

30. i) State any challenges faced and are related to water shortage in Githurai ward?

a) ……..…………................................................................................................

b) ………………………………………………………………………………….

c)..............................................................................................................................

ii) Have you presented the challenges to the water offices? Yes [ ] No [ ]

a) If yes, what steps have been taken to deal with the challenges?

...................................................................................................................................

Section 6: Adaptations to Erratic Water Supply

31. Could you have adapted to reduced water supply by any of the following methods?

i. Buying storage containers? Yes [ ] No [ ]

ii. Regulating the amount of water used? Yes [ ] No [ ]

iii. Reusing water in the homes e.g. water used for laundry used to flush toilets? Yes [ ]

No [ ]

65

32. How else have adapted to reduced water supply?

...................................................................................................................................

Section 7: Environmental Factors Contributing to Intermittent Water Supply

33. What are the possible environmental factors contributing to reduced water supply?

.......................................................................................................................

34. Could the reduced water supply be due to the following?

a) Rapid water drawal due to increased population? Yes [ ] No [ ]

b) Leakages in distribution network? Yes [ ] No [ ]

c) If yes, could be the causes of the leakages be due to?

i) Damages of pipes caused during widening and improvement of roads?

Yes [ ] No [ ]

ii. Corroded pipes? Yes [ ] No [ ]

iii. Use of poor quality pipes in connections? Yes [ ] No [ ]

35. Does the management and governance of water affect the water supply in Githurai

ward? Yes [ ] No [ ]

a) If yes, state …………………………………………………………....................

………………………………………………………………………………….......

36. Suggest possible measures that may be taken by the government to reduce the

impacts of water shortage in Githurai water ……………………………………..

…………………………………………………………………………………….

Thank you

66

Appendix ii: Interview Schedule for Water Officers in Githurai ward

This research is meant for academic purpose. It will try to find out the challenges faced

due to water supply and its socio-economic impacts on development in Githurai ward.

Responses to these questions will be treated as confidential.

Section 1: General information

1. Date of the interview…………………...

2. Name of the station…………………….

3. Gender: a) Male [ ] b) Female [ ]

4. Level of education: a) Primary [ ] b) Secondary [ ] c) College [ ]

d) University [ ] e) No education [ ]

5. Age (years): a) 18-25 [ ] b) 26-33 [ ] c) 34-41[ ] d) 42-49[ ] e)

50-57 [ ] f) 58-65 [ ] g) 66+ [ ]

Section: Sources of Water

6. What are the main sources of water in Githurai ward? …………………

………………………………………………………………………………

7. When did water availability become an alarming issue in Githurai ward?

State the year………..

8. What are the policies governing water distribution and management in Githurai ward?

...................................................................................................................................

Section3: Socio-Economic Impacts of Water Supply

9. Comment on the following aspects of water in Githurai ward;

a) Cost……………………………………………………………………

67

b) Distance to the source…………………………………………………

c) Time spent to acquire water from source by most people……………..

d) Reliability of the water sources…………………………………………

e) Quantity of water from sources…………………………………………

f) The gender commonly responsible for water collection. Please tick

i) Women [ ] ii) Men [ ]

10. Are there reported cases of water related diseases such as?

a) Diarrhoea Yes [ ] No [ ] b) Dysentery Yes [ ] No [ ]

c) Cholera Yes [ ] No [ ]

11. Have there been reported cases of water related conflicts? Yes [ ] No [ ]

a) If yes, which conflicts…………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………..

b) What could be the possible causes of the conflicts………………………..

……………………………………………………………………………...

Section 4: Adaptation Strategies to Erratic Water Supply

12. What are the adaptation strategies to ensure regular water availability by the stake

holders? ...........................................................................................................

……………………………………………………………………………………..

13. Are there strategies that have been put into place to manage the available water to

ensure sustainability for the future? ……………………………………..

……………………………………………………………………………………...

14. Who is responsible for water management of the municipal council water sources?

....................................…………………………………………………….

15. Are there challenges due to the water supply in the area? Yes [ ] No [ ]

68

a) State some of the major challenges……………………………………………

b) How should the stakeholders deal with the water shortage challenges?

…………………………………………………………………………………….

16. In your own opinion, do you think the Nairobi water and Sewerage Company has a

role to play in solving the challenges? Yes [ ] No [ ]

a) If yes, what do you suggest the government should do? .....................................

17. a) What season is the water availability (supply) so low? State the

months……………………………………………………………………………..

b) What could be the cause of the low levels in the stated months?

....................................................................................................................................

Section 5: Environmental Factors Contributing to Constraints of Water Supply in

Githurai Ward

18. What are the possible environmental factors contributing to reduced water supply?

...................................................................................................................

19. Could the reduced water supply be due to rapid water drawal leading to a decline in

water availability? ...................................................................................

20. Could the reduced water supply be due to the following?

a) Leakages in distribution network? Yes [ ] No [ ]

b) If yes, could be the causes of the leakages be due to?

i. Damages of pipes caused during widening and improvement of roads?

Yes [ ] No [

ii. Corroded pipes? Yes [ ] No [ ]

iii. Use of poor quality pipes in connections? Yes [ ] No [ ]

69

21. Does the governance of water affect the water supply in Githurai ward?

Yes [ ] No [ ]

a) If yes, state how…………………………………………………………………

22. Comment on the issue of water supply in Githurai Ward………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

Thank you