Imperial RussiaImperial Russia

The Problem of ReformThe Problem of Reform

IdeologyIdeology

Westerners: believed if Russia wished Westerners: believed if Russia wished to remain a great nation it would have to remain a great nation it would have to adopt the best features of the to adopt the best features of the political & economic systems of political & economic systems of Western Europe.Western Europe.

Slavophiles: regarded western values as Slavophiles: regarded western values as corrupting – urged the nation to corrupting – urged the nation to preserve itself as ‘holy Russia’, by preserve itself as ‘holy Russia’, by glorifying its Slav culture and separate glorifying its Slav culture and separate historical tradition.historical tradition.

Local Government Local Government ReformReform

Emancipation of the Serfs in 1861 Emancipation of the Serfs in 1861 (Alexander II)(Alexander II)

Setting up of the Setting up of the zemstvoszemstvos in 1864: in 1864: Local councils elected by wealthy citizensLocal councils elected by wealthy citizens Emphasis of the Emphasis of the mir:mir: Traditional village community to which Traditional village community to which

people belonged to people belonged to Government officials saw this as a tool with Government officials saw this as a tool with

which to keep order and collect tax & which to keep order and collect tax & mortgagesmortgages

Alexander II Alexander III

Legal ReformsLegal Reforms

In the late C19th a number of legal In the late C19th a number of legal reforms were introduced to try and reforms were introduced to try and simplify the court proceduressimplify the court procedures

Alexander II relaxed the controls Alexander II relaxed the controls over the press and universityover the press and university

Greater freedom of expression Greater freedom of expression encouraged the development of an encouraged the development of an intelligentsiaintelligentsia

Limited nature of Limited nature of reformsreforms Alexander II was only supportive of reforms Alexander II was only supportive of reforms

which might lead to a lessening of opposition which might lead to a lessening of opposition to the tsarist regimeto the tsarist regime

To some extend emancipation and greater To some extend emancipation and greater freedoms of speech were met with freedoms of speech were met with enthusiasm by enthusiasm by progressivesprogressives

Alexander II was assassinated by the Alexander II was assassinated by the People’s Will in 1881 which led to an People’s Will in 1881 which led to an abandonment of reformist policies by abandonment of reformist policies by Alexander III (known as the ‘Reaction’)Alexander III (known as the ‘Reaction’)

When Nicholas II ascended the throne it was When Nicholas II ascended the throne it was obvious that he intended to continue with the obvious that he intended to continue with the repressive policies of his predecessor.repressive policies of his predecessor.

The ‘Reaction’ in detailThe ‘Reaction’ in detail Government-controlled courts were set up Government-controlled courts were set up

to run outside the existing legal systemto run outside the existing legal system Judges and officials who were Judges and officials who were

sympathetic to liberalism were removedsympathetic to liberalism were removed The powers of the Okhrana were The powers of the Okhrana were

extended and censorship of the press was extended and censorship of the press was tightenedtightened

Universities were brought under strict Universities were brought under strict government controlgovernment control

The independence of the zemstvo was The independence of the zemstvo was decreaseddecreased

The OkhranaThe Okhrana

Agents of Okhrana - Yevno Azef, Dmitry Bogrov, Father Gapon, Roman Malinovsky

The Early reign of Nicholas II, The Early reign of Nicholas II, 1894-19051894-1905

His upbringing and education made him His upbringing and education made him suspicious of changesuspicious of change

He continued the repressive policies he had He continued the repressive policies he had inherited which further angered the inherited which further angered the intelligentsiaintelligentsia

Nicholas was tutored by Konstantin Nicholas was tutored by Konstantin Pobedonostsev, who dismissed the idea of Pobedonostsev, who dismissed the idea of participatory governmentparticipatory government

The policy of Russification grew intensely The policy of Russification grew intensely under Nicholas II – the Russian Jews were under Nicholas II – the Russian Jews were particularly victimised under this ideologyparticularly victimised under this ideology

Anti-SemitismAnti-Semitism

Over 600 new measures were Over 600 new measures were introduced imposing heavy social, introduced imposing heavy social, political and economic restrictions on political and economic restrictions on the Jewish populationthe Jewish population

Pogroms increased sharply under Pogroms increased sharply under Nicholas IINicholas II

The ‘Black Hundreds’ were notorious The ‘Black Hundreds’ were notorious for carrying out anti-Semitic attacksfor carrying out anti-Semitic attacks

Most Jews lived in ghettosMost Jews lived in ghettos

Response to Nicholas’s Response to Nicholas’s policiespolicies

Despite greater police interference, Despite greater police interference, opposition became more organisedopposition became more organised

In 1897 Jews formed their own In 1897 Jews formed their own revolutionary ‘bund’ or unionrevolutionary ‘bund’ or union

Growing number of political parties Growing number of political parties formedformed

Economic Reform, 1893-Economic Reform, 1893-19141914

Sergei Witte

Peter Stolypin

BackgroundBackground In the 1890s Russian industry grew so rapidly In the 1890s Russian industry grew so rapidly

that the term the Great Spurt was used to that the term the Great Spurt was used to describe the perioddescribe the period

The acceleration was the result of private The acceleration was the result of private enterprise, sustained by deliberate enterprise, sustained by deliberate government policygovernment policy

The motives of the tsar were military rather The motives of the tsar were military rather than economicthan economic

A growing economy would produce more and A growing economy would produce more and better guns, equipment and shipsbetter guns, equipment and ships

The main individual involved was Russia’s The main individual involved was Russia’s Minister of Finance (1892-1903), Sergei WitteMinister of Finance (1892-1903), Sergei Witte

State CapitalismState Capitalism

Witte was impressed by the results of the Witte was impressed by the results of the Industrial Revolutions of the UK and USAIndustrial Revolutions of the UK and USA

He negotiated loans from abroad and He negotiated loans from abroad and raised taxes at home to raise capital for raised taxes at home to raise capital for investmentinvestment

He limited the import of foreign goods He limited the import of foreign goods and set up protective tariffsand set up protective tariffs

In 1897 Witte put Russia’s currency on In 1897 Witte put Russia’s currency on the gold standard, but this led to an the gold standard, but this led to an increase on goodsincrease on goods

The importance of The importance of railwaysrailways

Much of the foreign capital was invested in the Much of the foreign capital was invested in the railwaysrailways

In 1881 there were 13,270 miles of track & by In 1881 there were 13,270 miles of track & by 1913 there were 43,850 miles of track1913 there were 43,850 miles of track

Witte’s special project was the Trans-Siberian Witte’s special project was the Trans-Siberian Railway constructed between 1891 and 1902:Railway constructed between 1891 and 1902:

The line stretched 3,750 miles between Moscow The line stretched 3,750 miles between Moscow and Vladivostokand Vladivostok

It was supposed to encourage migrants to work It was supposed to encourage migrants to work in more remote areas where industry was in more remote areas where industry was picking uppicking up

Led to improved communication and trade linksLed to improved communication and trade links

Trans-Siberian RailwayTrans-Siberian Railway

Improvements in FiguresImprovements in Figures

Coal Pig Iron Oil Grain

1890 5.9 0.89 3.9 36

1900 16.1 2.66 10.2 56

1910 26.8 2.99 9.4 74

1913 35.4 4.1 9.1 90

1916 33.8 3.72 9.7 64

Table: The Russian economy: annual production (in millions of tons)

In real termsIn real terms Not so impressive when we consider Not so impressive when we consider

that Russia was experiencing a massive that Russia was experiencing a massive growth in populationgrowth in population

Per capita production was lower than Per capita production was lower than official figures suggestedofficial figures suggested

Witte’s problemsWitte’s problems He made Russia too dependent on foreign He made Russia too dependent on foreign

loans and investmentsloans and investments In giving priority to heavy industry he In giving priority to heavy industry he

neglected vital light engineering areas such neglected vital light engineering areas such as machine tool production, which would as machine tool production, which would have helped to modernise manufacturinghave helped to modernise manufacturing

He paid no attention to Russia’s agricultural He paid no attention to Russia’s agricultural needsneeds

But Witte had to yield to the demands of the But Witte had to yield to the demands of the military commanders who stated their military commanders who stated their transport and equipment needs should have transport and equipment needs should have prioritypriority

continuedcontinued

Witte’s freedom of action was Witte’s freedom of action was restricted by resistance to change restricted by resistance to change from the court and governmentfrom the court and government

Witte was disliked and not an easy Witte was disliked and not an easy man to get on with but in ability he man to get on with but in ability he towered above the other ministerstowered above the other ministers

In 1903 the tsar forced him to resignIn 1903 the tsar forced him to resign If his talents had been fully If his talents had been fully

recognised Russia may have been led recognised Russia may have been led to peaceful modernisationto peaceful modernisation

The end of the ‘great The end of the ‘great spurt’spurt’

By 1900 there was a serious trade recessionBy 1900 there was a serious trade recession Earlier boom led to population rise in the cities, this Earlier boom led to population rise in the cities, this

was disorganised and resulted in acute was disorganised and resulted in acute overcrowdingovercrowding

Recession led to mass unemployment in the cities Recession led to mass unemployment in the cities and a presence of thousands of disaffected workers and a presence of thousands of disaffected workers on the streets of St Petersburg and Moscowon the streets of St Petersburg and Moscow

Few workers gained from the industrial and Few workers gained from the industrial and financial expansion and trade unions were weakfinancial expansion and trade unions were weak

The rate of inflation rose by 40% between 1908 & The rate of inflation rose by 40% between 1908 & 1914 but the average industrial wage only rose from 1914 but the average industrial wage only rose from 245 to 264 roubles a month. Disaffection loomed...245 to 264 roubles a month. Disaffection loomed...